1.
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Covering an area of 255,804 km², the SFRY was bordered with Italy to the west, Hungary to the north, Bulgaria and Romania to the east and Albania and Greece to the south. In addition, it included two autonomous provinces within Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina, the SFRY traces back to 29 June 1943 when the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia was formed during World War II. On 29 November 1945, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed after the deposal of King Peter II thus ending the monarchy. Following the death of Tito on 4 May 1980, rising ethnic nationalism in the late 1980s led to dissidence among the multiple ethnicities within the constituent republics. This led to the federation collapsing along the borders, followed by the final downfall and breakup of the federation on 27 April 1992. The term former Yugoslavia is now commonly used retrospectively, the name Yugoslavia, an Anglicised transcription of Jugoslavija, is a composite word made-up of jug and slavija. The Serbo-Croatian, Slovene and Macedonian word jug means south, while slavija denotes a land of the Slavs, thus, a translation of Jugoslavija would be South-Slavia or Land of the South Slavs. The term is intended to denote the lands occupied by the six South Slavic nations, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Slovenes, the full official name of the federation varied significantly between 1945 and 1992. Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, the name deliberately left the republic-or-kingdom question open. In 1963, amid pervasive liberal constitutional reforms, the name Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was introduced, the state is most commonly referred to by the latter name, which it held for the longest period of all. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though SFR Yugoslavia was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media. On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany, by 17 April 1941, Yugoslav resistance was soon established in two forms, the Royal Yugoslav Army and the Yugoslav Partisans. The Partisan supreme commander was Josip Broz Tito, and under his command the movement soon began establishing liberated territories which attracted the attentions of the occupying forces. The coalition of parties, factions, and prominent individuals behind the movement was the Peoples Liberation Front. The Front formed a political body, the Anti-Fascist Council for the Peoples Liberation of Yugoslavia. The AVNOJ, which met for the first time in Partisan-liberated Bihać on 26 November 1942, during 1943, the Yugoslav Partisans began attracting serious attention from the Germans. In two major operations of Fall Weiss and Fall Schwartz, the Axis attempted to stamp-out the Yugoslav resistance once, on both occasions, despite heavy casualties, the Group succeeded in evading the trap and retreating to safety. The Partisans emerged stronger than before and now occupied a significant portion of Yugoslavia
2.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
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The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state in Southeast Europe and Central Europe, that existed during the interwar period and first half of World War II. It was formed in 1918 by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification. For its first eleven years of existence, the Kingdom was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia by King Alexander I on 3 October 1929. The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903 onwards. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father. He was known as Alexander the Unifier and he renamed the kingdom Yugoslavia in 1929 and he was assassinated in Marseille by Vlado Chernozemski, a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, during his visit to France in 1934. The crown passed to his then-still under-aged son Peter and his cousin Paul ruled as Prince regent until 1941, when Peter II would come of age. The royal family flew to London the same year, prior to the country being invaded by the Axis powers, in April 1941, the country was occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. A royal government-in-exile, recognized by the United Kingdom and, later, in 1944, after pressure from the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the King recognized the government of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. This was established on 2 November following the signing of the Treaty of Vis by Ivan Šubašić, Trumbić faced initial hostility from Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, who preferred an enlarged Serbia over a unified Yugoslav state. In 1916, the Serbian Parliament in exile decided on the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, on 1 December 1918, the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karađorđević, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Serbian nationalists, for the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav people had united into a single state. For Serbian nationalists, the goal of uniting the majority of the Serb population across south-eastern Europe into one state was also achieved. Furthermore, as Serbia already had a government, military, and police force, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes participated in the Paris Peace Conference with Trumbić as the countrys representative. Almost immediately, it ran into disputes with most of its neighbours, Slovenia was difficult to determine, since it had been an integral part of Austria for 400 years. The Vojvodina region was disputed with Hungary, Macedonia with Bulgaria, a plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. Austrians had formed a majority in this region although numbers reflected that some Slovenes did vote for Carinthia to become part of Austria, the Dalmatian port city of Zadar and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy
3.
Independent State of Croatia
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The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Germany and Italy. It was established in parts of occupied Yugoslavia on 10 April 1941 and its territory consisted of most of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as some parts of modern-day Serbia and Slovenia. During its entire existence, the state was governed by the fascist Ustaše movement and its Poglavnik, the regime targeted Serbs, Jews and Roma as part of a large-scale genocide campaign, as well as anti-fascist or dissident Croats and Muslims. Between 1941–45,22 concentration camps existed inside the territory controlled by the Independent State of Croatia, the state was officially a monarchy after the signing of the Laws of the Crown of Zvonimir on 15 March 1941. He later accepted the throne due to pressure from Victor Emmanuel III and was titled Tomislav II of Croatia, but never moved from Italy to reside in Croatia. From the signing of the Treaties of Rome on 18 May 1941 until the Italian capitulation on 8 September 1943, the state was a condominium of Germany and Italy. In its judgement in the Hostages Trial, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal concluded that NDH was not a sovereign state, according to the Tribunal, Croatia was at all times here involved an occupied country. In 1942, Germany suggested Italy take military control of all of Croatia out of a desire to redirect German troops from Croatia to the Eastern Front, Italy however rejected the offer as it did not believe that it could handle the unstable situation in the Balkans alone. The NDH attempted to annex Zara, which had been a territory of Italy since 1919 but long an object of Croatian irredentism. Geographically, the NDH encompassed most of modern-day Croatia, all of Bosnia and Herzegovina, part of modern-day Serbia, and a small portion of modern-day Slovenia in the Municipality of Brežice. It bordered the Third Reich to the north-west, Kingdom of Hungary to the north-east, Serbian administration to the east, Montenegro to the south-east, the exact borders of the Independent State of Croatia were unclear when it was established. Approximately one month after its formation, significant areas of Croat-populated territory were ceded to its Axis allies, on 13 May 1941, the NDH government signed an agreement with Nazi Germany which demarcated their borders. On 19 May the Rome contracts were signed by diplomats of the NDH, on 7 June the NDH government issued a decree that demarcated its eastern border with Serbia. On 27 October the NDH and Italy reached an agreement on the Independent State of Croatias border with Montenegro. On 8 September 1943, Italy capitulated and the NDH officially considered the Rome contracts to be void, along with the Treaty of Rapallo of 1920 which had given Italy Istria, Fiume and Zara. German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop approved the NDH acquisition of the Dalmatian territories gained by Italy at the time of the Rome contracts, by now, most such territory was actually controlled by the Yugoslav Partisans, since the ceding of those areas had made them strongly anti-NDH. By 11 September 1943, NDH foreign minister Mladen Lorković received word from German consul Siegfried Kasche that the NDH should wait before moving on Istria, Germanys central government had already annexed Istria and Fiume into the Operational Zone Adriatic Coast a day earlier. Međimurje and southern Baranja were annexed by the Kingdom of Hungary, NDH disputed this and continued to lay claim to both, naming the administrative province centred in Osijek as Great Parish Baranja
4.
Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the direct legal predecessor to the modern-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 1990 parliamentary elections led to an assembly dominated by three ethnically based parties, which had formed a loose coalition to oust the communists from power. Croatia and Slovenias subsequent declarations of independence and the warfare that ensued placed Bosnia and Herzegovina, a significant split soon developed on the issue of whether to stay with the Yugoslav federation or seek independence. A declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 was followed by a referendum for independence from Yugoslavia in February and March 1992. The referendum was boycotted by the majority of Bosnian Serbs, so with a voter turnout of 64%, 99% of which voted in favor of the proposal, Bosnia. While the first casualty of the war is debated, significant Serbian offensives began in March 1992 in Eastern and Northern Bosnia, following a tense period of escalating tensions and sporadic military incidents, open warfare began in Sarajevo on 6 April. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers, by 1993, when the Croat-Bosniak conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by the Serbs. In March 1994, the signing of the Washington accords between the Bosniak and ethnic-Croatian leaders led to the creation of a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and this, along with international outrage at Serb war crimes and atrocities helped turn the tide of war. The three years of war and bloodshed had left between 95,000 and 100,000 people dead and more than 2 million displaced, in October 1992, a limited number of Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina passports were printed and available to its citizens. The document allowed the holders to enter and leave the newly formed country legally as well as other nations traveled to and it was alleged that Osama bin Laden possessed such a passport, which was issued to him through Embassy in Vienna in 1993. The Republics official documents and passports were valid until the end of 1997 when the implementation of the Dayton Agreement commenced the modern-day state of Bosnia, the R. BiH passports were replaced by Bosnia and Herzegovina passport and Bosnian-Herzegovinian identity card. During the Bosnian War, schooling continued primarily in major cities, in besieged Sarajevo, schools operated in dispersed basement classrooms in neighborhoods across the capital city, under the constant threat of enemy guns and mortar fire. Depending on the part of the country, teaching staff needed to adjust to the war circumstances, in some places, the school buildings were even turned into refugee camps, hospitals or military headquarters. In 1992-93 school year, the subjects and curriculum were closely linked to those from Socialist Republic of Bosnia, however, education in the war had many shortcomings, such as unstable infrastructure and a lack of teachers, as well as a severe lack of textbooks. The names of schools in Sarajevo were changed throughout the R BiH period. The Ideology of socialist Yugoslavia and achievements of the National Liberation Struggle altered many school names, only 3 schools from roughly sixty in the capital were changed. Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina were the forces of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war in Bosnia. ARBiH was established on 15 April 1992, and most of the structure is transferred from the former Territorial Defense of Bosnia, shortly after the dinar introduction, Deutsche Mark was preferred as the new means of payment in the Bosniak and Croat dominated RBiH
5.
Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The national flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina contains a wide medium blue vertical band on the fly side with a yellow right triangle abutting the band and the top of the flag. The remainder of the flag is blue with seven full five-pointed white stars. The three points of the stand for the three constituent peoples of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The triangle represents the shape of the territory of Bosnia. The stars, representing Europe are meant to be infinite in number, the flag features colours often associated with neutrality and peace – white, blue, and yellow. They are also traditionally associated with Bosnia. The blue background is suggestive of the flag of Europe, the present scheme is being used by both the Council of Europe which owns the flag and the European Union which adopted the Council of Europes flag in 1985. The green flag with the crescent and star pointing to the left was used by Bosniak landlords in border parts in southern and western Herzegovina. The flag was most commonly used in wars and it also accompanied the troops of the Eyalet of Bosnia during the second siege of Khotyn in Bukowina. It differs from Ottoman flag by size and direction of crescent, in the 1830s revolt by Husein Gradaščević the green flag with a yellow crescent and star was used. The revolts aim was for Bosnia to gain autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, in 1878 Bosnia existed briefly as an independent nation. Its flag was similar to the flag used by Husein Gradaščevićs revolt of 1830. It was green with a crescent and star, but had more curvature to a typical Islamic crescent moon symbol. The green/golden flag was in use for only two months. When the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina the flag was changed, the province of Bosnia used the flag that was red and yellow horizontally, but the province of Herzegovina used the same flag but with reversed colors. The coat of arms is one of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, Bosnian noble, the original medieval coat of arms had a white background and two red stripes in the top of the shield. Bosnia and Herzegovina also had a new coat of arms during the Yugoslav period and it was a symbol of industrialism in Bosnia at the time. On 6 April 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independence from Yugoslavia, the flag chosen in 1992 has a white background with the Bosnian Fleur-de-lis in the centre
6.
Coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The coat of arms of Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted in 1998, replacing the previous design that had been in use since 1992 when Bosnia and Herzegovina gained independence. It follows the design of the national flag, the three pointed shield is used to symbolize the three major ethnic groups of Bosnia, as well as allude to the shape of the country. One of the earliest, if not the earliest, coats of arms attributed to Bosnia come from the Fojnica armorial, the Fojnički arms are shown upon a gold shield, two black ragged staffs are crossed in saltire with two Moors heads surmounting the upper portion of each staff. Overall is a red inescutcheon that was charged with an eight-pointed star, in the subsequent centuries, European sources would attribute arms to Bosnia that were heavily influenced by this depiction. The crest is a plume of feathers that sit within a coronet of fleur de lys. The House of Kotromanić reigned until 1463 when the Ottomans conquered the region, the heraldic display of the kings would later be the basis for the arms adopted by the republic in 1992. After Herzegovina and Bosnia were occupied by the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in 1878, the heraldic achievement of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača served as inspiration, who was a fifteenth-century nobleman that ruled over the region as Grand Duke of Bosnia and Herzeg of St. Sava. His armorial bearings displayed both a red armoured arm brandishing a sword and a red lion rampant upon a white shield, Herzegovina would be given a red shield with a bare arm holding a broken lance for its coat of arms in this same fashion. The coat of arms of Bosnia would be gold with a red armoured arm issuing out of clouds, though both condominia fell under the crown of Hungary, only Bosnia would be included in the greater arms of the Hungarian Kings. The emblem, along with the flag, of the socialist Republic of Bosnia, the description of the emblem was similar to the other Yugoslav republics. The device had two crossing stems of wheat in front of scheme of a neighborhood with two factory chimneys out of there is smoke. Around the decorative branches and wheat, there is a red track that spirals around, at the top of the emblem is a red star with a golden frame. The red star symbolizes the socialism and communism of Yugoslavia at the time, the device represents the industry Bosnia and Herzegovina had at the time. The factory chimneys show the industry of several important Bosnian, then Yugoslav, towns, all of the Yugoslav republics had similar emblems, but Bosnia and Herzegovina was the only that did not portray nationalistic symbols, representing its multiethnic composition. This was the first emblem ever in the history of both the regions of Herzegovina and Bosnia that was specific to the modern country of Bosnia. The coat of arms of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was similar to that of the Kotromanić dynasty and it had a blue background divided by a white line. The diagonal white line is supposed to symbolize the sword of Tvrtko, the coat of arms was designed in a hurry, right at the beginning of the Bosnian War, which lasted for three years. At the end of the war, there came uproar from the Bosnian Serbs arguing that the coat of arms solely represented Bosniaks, the international community within Bosnia and Herzegovina was the instrument to solve the controversy
7.
Sarajevo
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Sarajevo is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 275,524 in its current administrative limits. The Sarajevo metropolitan area, including Sarajevo Canton and East Sarajevo is home to 688,384 inhabitants, nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans. Due to its long and rich history of religious and cultural variety and it is the only major European city to have a mosque, Catholic church, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighbourhood. Although settlement in the area back to prehistoric times, the modern city arose as an Ottoman stronghold in the 15th century. Sarajevo has attracted international attention several times throughout its history, in 1885, Sarajevo was the first city in Europe and the second city in the world to have a full-time electric tram network running through the city, following San Francisco. For nearly four years, from 1992 to 1996, the city suffered the longest siege of a city in the history of warfare during the Bosnian War. Sarajevo has been undergoing reconstruction, and is the fastest growing city in Bosnia. The travel guide series, Lonely Planet, has named Sarajevo as the 43rd best city in the world, in 2011, Sarajevo was nominated to be the European Capital of Culture in 2014 and will be hosting the European Youth Olympic Festival in 2019. The earliest known name for the large central Bosnian region of todays Sarajevo is Vrhbosna, Sarajevo is a slavicized word based on saray, the Turkish word for palace. The evo portion may come from the term saray ovası first recorded in 1455, the first mention of name Sarajevo was in 1507 letter written by Feriz Beg. The earliest is Šeher, which is the term Isa-Beg Ishaković used to describe the town he was going to build and it is a Turkish word meaning an advanced city of key importance which in turn comes from Persian, شهر shahr. As Sarajevo developed, numerous nicknames came from comparisons to other cities in the Islamic world, the most popular of these was European Jerusalem. Some argue that a correct translation of saray is government office or house. Saray is a word in Turkish for a palace or mansion. Sarajevo is located near the center of the triangular-shaped Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is situated 518 meters above sea level and lies in the Sarajevo valley, the valley itself once formed a vast expanse of greenery, but gave way to urban expansion and development in the post-World War II era. The city is surrounded by forested hills and five major mountains. The last four are known as the Olympic Mountains of Sarajevo
8.
Socialist state
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A socialist state or socialist republic refers to any state that is constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. Aside from the Communist states, a number of states have described their orientation as socialist in their constitutions. In such cases, the system and machinery of government is not specifically structured to pursue the development of socialism. The concept of a socialist state is related to state socialism. Specifically, the state would become an entity for production as opposed to a mechanism for political control. According to Friedrich Engels, Saint-Simon foreshadowed the classical Marxist notion of the development of the state in a socialist society, karl Marx understood the state to be an instrument of the class rule, dominated by the interests of the ruling class in any mode of production. This transitional stage would involve working-class interests dominating government policy, in the manner that capitalist-class interests dominate government policy under capitalism. Karl Marx described the Paris Commune as the prototype for a government of the future. Friedrich Engels noted that all officials, high or low, were only the wages received by other workers. In this way an effective barrier to place-hunting and careerism was set up, such a state would be a temporary affair, Engels argued. A new generation, he suggested, brought up in new and free social conditions, the Leninist conception of a socialist state is tied to Vladimir Lenins theory of the revolutionary party and organizational principles of democratic centralism. These ideas were adopted by Vladimir Lenin in 1917 just prior to the October Revolution in Russia and published in The State and Revolution, a central text for many Marxists. Vladimir Lenin argued that as socialism is replaced by communism, the state would wither away as strong centralized control progressively reduces as local communities gain more empowerment, as he put succinctly, So long as the state exists there is no freedom. When there is freedom, there will be no state, states run by Communist parties that adhere to Marxism–Leninism, or some variation thereof, refer to themselves as socialist states. The Soviet Union was the first to proclaim itself a socialist state in its 1936 Constitution, another well-known example is the Peoples Republic of China, which proclaims itself to be a socialist state in its 1982 Constitution of the Peoples Republic of China. In the West, such states are known as communist states. This often includes at least the commanding heights of the economy to be nationalized, usually operated according to a plan of production, at least in the major production and social spheres. These Communist states often dont claim to have achieved socialism in their countries, rather, the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea used to be a Marxist–Leninist state
9.
Legislature
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A legislature is a deliberative assembly with the authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country or city. Legislatures form important parts of most governments, in the separation of model, they are often contrasted with the executive. Laws enacted by legislatures are known as legislation, legislatures observe and steer governing actions and usually have exclusive authority to amend the budget or budgets involved in the process. The members of a legislature are called legislators, each chamber of legislature consists of a number of legislators who use some form of parliamentary procedure to debate political issues and vote on proposed legislation. There must be a number of legislators present to carry out these activities. Some of the responsibilities of a legislature, such as giving first consideration to newly proposed legislation, are delegated to committees made up of small selections of the legislators. The members of a legislature usually represent different political parties, the members from each party generally meet as a caucus to organize their internal affairs, the internal organization of a legislature is also shaped by the informal norms that are shared by its members. Legislatures vary widely in the amount of power they wield, compared to other political players such as judiciaries, militaries. In 2009, political scientists M. Steven Fish and Matthew Kroenig constructed a Parliamentary Powers Index in an attempt to quantify the different degrees of power among national legislatures, such a system renders the legislature more powerful. Legislatures will sometime delegate their legislative power to administrative or executive agencies, legislatures are made up of individual members, known as legislators, who vote on proposed laws. For example, a legislature that has 100 seats has 100 members, by extension, an electoral district that elects a single legislator can also be described as a seat, as, for, example, in the phrases safe seat and marginal seat. In parliamentary systems of government, the executive is responsible to the legislature which may remove it with a vote of no confidence, names for national legislatures include parliament, congress, diet and assembly. A legislature which operates as a unit is unicameral, one divided into two chambers is bicameral, and one divided into three chambers is tricameral. In bicameral legislatures, one chamber is considered the upper house. In federations, the upper house typically represents the component states. This is a case with the legislature of the European Union. Tricameral legislatures are rare, the Massachusetts Governors Council still exists, tetracameral legislatures no longer exist, but they were previously used in Scandinavia. Legislatures vary widely in their size, among national legislatures, Chinas National Peoples Congress is the largest with 2987 members, while Vatican Citys Pontifical Commission is the smallest with 7
10.
Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the bicameral legislative body of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of the two chambers. The House of Representatives has 42 members, elected for a four-year terms by proportional representation, the House of Peoples has 15 members, appointed by the parliaments of the entities. Its predecessors were the unicameral Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Peoples Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina
11.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
12.
Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia
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The Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia was an unrecognised geopolitical entity and proto-state in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was proclaimed on 18 November 1991 under the name Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia as a political, cultural, economic and territorial whole in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The armed forces of Herzeg-Bosnia, the Croatian Defence Council, initially fought in an alliance with the Bosniaks, the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia unconstitutional on 14 September 1992. In early 1993 the Croat–Bosniak War fully escalated in central Bosnia, on 28 August 1993 Herzeg-Bosnia was declared a republic following the proposal of the Owen-Stoltenberg Plan, envisioning Bosnia and Herzegovina as a union of three republics. Its capital city was Mostar, which was then a war zone, in March 1994 the Washington Agreement was signed that ended the conflict between Croats and Bosniaks. Under the agreement, Herzeg-Bosnia was to be joined into the Croat–Bosniak federation, the term Herzeg-Bosnia appeared in the late 19th century and was used as a synonym for Bosnia and Herzegovina without political connotations. It was often found in poems as a more poetic name for Bosnia. One of the earliest mentions of the term was by Croatian writer Ivan Zovko in his 1899 book Croatianhood in the tradition, Croatian historian Ferdo Šišić used the term in his 1908 book Herzeg-Bosnia on the occasion of annexation. In the 1st half of the 20th century the name Herzeg-Bosnia was used by such as Hamdija Kreševljaković and Dominik Mandić and Croatian politicians Vladko Maček. Its usage decreased in the 2nd half of the 20th century until 1991, since the 1990s it is used as a name for a Croat territorial unit in Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the Washington Agreement was signed in March 1994 and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was created, in 1997, that name was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and officially renamed Canton 10. In early 1991, following the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, the Serbian leadership favored a federal solution, whereas the Croatian and Slovenian leadership favored an alliance of sovereign states. Izetbegović proposed a federation on 22 February, where Slovenia and Croatia would maintain loose ties with the 4 remaining republics. Shortly after that, he changed his position and opted for a sovereign Bosnia as a prerequisite for such a federation, on 25 March 1991, Croatian president Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo, allegedly to discuss the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 6 June, Izetbegović and Macedonian president Kiro Gligorov proposed a confederation between Croatia, Slovenia and a federation of the other four republics, which was rejected by Milošević. The Croatian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party denounced the agreement, calling it an anti-Croat pact, although initially welcoming the initiative, Izetbegović also dismissed the agreement. From July 1991 to January 1992, during the Croatian War of Independence, the Croatian government helped arm the Croats and Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, expecting the war to spread there. By late 1991 about 20,000 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from the Herzegovina region, Izetbegović agreed to disarm the existing Territorial Defense forces on the demand of the JNA
13.
Republika Srpska
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Republika Srpska is one of two constitutional and legal entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The administrative centre is Banja Luka, in Serbo-Croatian, Republika Srpska means Serb Republic. The second word is an adjective derived by adding the suffix -ska to srb-. The -ps- sequence rather than -bs- is a result of voicing assimilation, in a session on 14–15 October 1991, the Peoples Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina approved the Memorandum on Sovereignty, as had already been done by Slovenia and Croatia. The Union of Reform Forces soon ceased to exist but its members remained in the assembly as the Independent Members of Parliament Caucus, on 9 January 1992, the assembly proclaimed the Republic of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina, declaring it part of Yugoslavia. The republic was part of Yugoslavia and could enter into union with political bodies representing other peoples of Bosnia, the referendum had a 64% turnout and 92. 7% or 99% voted for independence. On 6 March the Bosnian parliament promulgated the results of the referendum, the republics independence was recognized by the European Community on 6 April 1992 and by the United States on 7 April. On the same day the Serbs assembly in session in Banja Luka declared a severance of ties with Bosnia. The name Republika Srpska was adopted on 12 August 1992, the political controversy escalated into the Bosnian War, which would last until the autumn of 1995. The boundary lines between the entities were delineated in Annex 2 of the Agreement, between 1992 and 2008, the Constitution of Republika Srpska was amended 121 times. The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina resulted in changes in the country. Some two million people, about half the population, were displaced. In 1996 there were some 435,346 ethnic Serb refugees from the Federation in Republika Srpska, in 1991, 27% of the non-agricultural labor force was unemployed in Bosnia and this number increased due to the war. By 2009, the unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina was estimated at 29%, ethnic cleansing reduced the numbers of other groups. Serb police, soldiers, and irregulars attacked Bosniaks and Croats, though on the other side, Bosniaks and Croats did the same atrocities to the Serbian population in the region of Herzegovina and the villages surrounding Srebrenica. Some were killed on the spot, others were rounded up and killed elsewhere, the number of Croats was reduced by 135,386, and the number of Bosniaks by some 434,144. Some 136,000 of approximately 496,000 Bosniak refugees forced to flee the territory of what is now Republika Srpska have since returned home, in the early 2000s, discrimination against non-Serbs was alleged by NGOs and the Helsinki Commission. The International Crisis Group reported in 2002 that in parts of Republika Srpska a non-Serb returnee is ten times more likely to be the victim of violent crime than is a local Serb
14.
Bosnian independence referendum, 1992
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Independence was strongly favored by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters while Bosnian Serbs boycotted the referendum or were prevented from participating by Bosnian Serb authorities. The total turnout of voters was 63. 4%,99. 7% of whom voted for independence, on 3 March, Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Alija Izetbegović declared the independence of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the parliament ratified the action. On 6 April, the United States and the European Economic Community recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina as an independent state, in November 1990, months after Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence, the first free elections were held, putting nationalist parties into power with three parties. These were the Party of Democratic Action, led by Alija Izetbegović, the Serbian Democratic Party, led by Radovan Karadžić, Izetbegović was elected as the Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Jure Pelivan, of the HDZ, was elected as the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of Bosnia, Momčilo Krajišnik, of the SDS, was elected as the speaker of Parliament of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1990 and 1991, Serbs in Croatia and in Bosnia, as early as September or October 1990, the JNA had begun to arm Bosnian Serbs and organize them into militias. That same year the JNA disarmed the Territorial Defense Force of the Republic of Bosnia, by March 1991, the JNA had distributed an estimated 51,900 firearms to Serb paramilitaries and 23,298 firearms to the SDS. Throughout 1991 and early 1992, the SDS heavily Serbianized the police force in order to increase Serb political control, few observers could doubt that a single plan was in operation. On 24 October 1991, the SDS formed the Assembly of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in January 1992, the assembly declared the creation of the Republic of the Serb People of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its secession. The Bosnian government declared the referendum an unconstitutional and self-proclaimed entity, in late December 1991, Bosniak and Croat politicians asked the European Economic Community to recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina with Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia as sovereign nations. That month, Slobodan Milošević issued an order to transfer all JNA officers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Socialist Republic of Serbia. On 23 January, EEC Council of Ministers president João de Deus Pinheiro said that the EEC would recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina if a referendum on independence was approved. After Momčilo Krajišnik tried to adjourn the session, he was replaced by an SDA member, since the referendum intended to change the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina from a federal state of Yugoslavia to a sovereign state, it breached the Constitution of Yugoslavia. According to the Yugoslav constitution, changing the borders of Yugoslavia was impossible without the consent of all republics, the referendum was also unconstitutional in terms of the Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Amendment LXX to the established a council entrusted with exercising the right to equality of the nations and nationalities of Bosnia. Citizens of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina voted for independence in the held on 29 February and 1 March 1992. Independence was strongly favored by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters, while Bosnian Serbs largely boycotted the referendum or were prevented by Bosnian Serb authorities from participating, according to the SDS, independence would result in the Serbs becoming a national minority in an Islamic state. It blocked the delivery of ballot boxes with armed irregular units and dropped leaflets encouraging a boycott, there were bombings and shootings throughout the voting period
15.
Bosnian War
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The Bosnian War was an international armed conflict that took place in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1992 and 1995. Following a number of violent incidents in early 1992, the war is commonly viewed as having started on 6 April 1992, the war ended on 14 December 1995. The war was part of the breakup of Yugoslavia and this was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian Serbs, who had boycotted the referendum. The Croats also aimed at securing parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina as Croatian, Events such as the Siege of Sarajevo and the Srebrenica massacre later became iconic of the conflict. After the Srebrenica and Markale massacres, NATO intervened in 1995 with Operation Deliberate Force targeting the positions of the Army of the Republika Srpska, which proved key in ending the war. The war was brought to an end after the signing of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia, Peace negotiations were held in Dayton, Ohio and were finalised on 21 November 1995. According to a report compiled by the UN, and chaired by M, the report echoed conclusions published by a Central Intelligence Agency estimate in 1995. By early 2008, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia had convicted 45 Serbs,12 Croats and 4 Bosniaks of war crimes in connection with the war in Bosnia, the most recent estimates suggest that around 100,000 people were killed during the war. Over 2.2 million people were displaced, making it the most devastating conflict in Europe since the end of World War II, in addition, an estimated 12, 000–20,000 women were raped, most of them Bosniak. There is debate over the date of the Bosnian War. Mulaj reports that Misha Glenny gives a date of 22 March, Tom Gallagher gives 2 April, while Mary Kaldor and Laura Silber, philip Hammond claimed that the most common view is that the war started on 6 April 1992. The Sijekovac killings of Serbs took place on 26 March and the Bijeljina massacre on 1–2 April. Some Bosniaks consider the first casualties of the war to be Suada Dilberović and Olga Sučić, the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina came about as a result of the breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A crisis emerged in Yugoslavia as a result of the weakening of the system at the end of the Cold War. In Yugoslavia, the national communist party, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, was losing its ideological potency, meanwhile, ethnic nationalism experienced a renaissance in the 1980s, after violence broke out in Kosovo. While the goal of Serbian nationalists was the centralisation of Yugoslavia, other nationalities in Yugoslavia aspired to the federalisation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a former Ottoman province, has historically been a multi-ethnic state. According to the 1991 census, 44% of the population considered themselves Muslim,32. 5% Serb and 17% Croat, with 6% describing themselves as Yugoslav. In March 1989, the crisis in Yugoslavia deepened after the adoption of amendments to the Serbian Constitution which allowed the government of Serbia to dominate the provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina
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Independence
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Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is a dependent territory, Independence does not necessarily mean freedom. Whether the attainment of independence is different from revolution has long been contested, nation-states have been granted independence without any revolutionary acts. The Russian October Revolution, for example, was not intended to seek national independence, however, the American Revolutionary War was intended to achieve independence from the beginning. Causes for a country or province wishing to seek independence are many, the means can extend from peaceful demonstrations, like in the case of the Indian independence movement, to a violent civil war. Autonomy refers to a kind of independence which has been granted by an authority that itself still retains ultimate authority over that territory. A protectorate refers to a region that depends upon a larger government for its protection as an autonomous region. Declaring independence and attaining it however, are quite different, a well-known successful example is the U. S. Declaration of Independence issued in 1776, the dates of established independence, are typically celebrated as a national holiday known as an independence day
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Population density
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Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume, it is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans and it is a key geographical term. Population density is population divided by land area or water volume. Low densities may cause a vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it, commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or the entire world. The worlds population is around 7,000,000,000, therefore, the worldwide human population density is around 7,000,000,000 ÷510,000,000 =13.7 per km2. If only the Earths land area of 150,000,000 km2 is taken into account and this includes all continental and island land area, including Antarctica. If Antarctica is also excluded, then population density rises to over 50 people per km2, thus, this number by itself does not give any helpful measurement of human population density. Several of the most densely populated territories in the world are city-states, microstates, cities with high population densities are, by some, considered to be overpopulated, though this will depend on factors like quality of housing and infrastructure and access to resources. Most of the most densely populated cities are in Southeast Asia, though Cairo, for instance, Milwaukee has a greater population density when just the inner city is measured, and the surrounding suburbs excluded. Arithmetic density, The total number of people / area of land, physiological density, The total population / area of arable land. Agricultural density, The total rural population / area of arable land, residential density, The number of people living in an urban area / area of residential land. Urban density, The number of people inhabiting an urban area / total area of urban land, ecological optimum, The density of population that can be supported by the natural resources. S. States by population density Selected Current and Historic City, Ward & Neighborhood Density
18.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes called Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, in short, often known informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe located on the Balkan Peninsula. Sarajevo is the capital and largest city, in the central and eastern interior of the country the geography is mountainous, in the northwest it is moderately hilly, and the northeast is predominantly flatland. The inland is a larger region and has a moderate continental climate, with hot summers and cold. The southern tip of the country has a Mediterranean climate and plain topography, Bosnia and Herzegovina is a region that traces permanent human settlement back to the Neolithic age, during and after which it was populated by several Illyrian and Celtic civilizations. Culturally, politically, and socially, the country has a rich history, the Ottomans brought Islam to the region, and altered much of the cultural and social outlook of the country. This was followed by annexation into the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which lasted up until World War I. In the interwar period, Bosnia was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and after World War II, following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the country proclaimed independence in 1992, which was followed by the Bosnian War, lasting until late 1995. The country is home to three ethnic groups or, officially, constituent peoples, as specified in the constitution. Bosniaks are the largest group of the three, with Serbs second and Croats third, a native of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is identified in English as a Bosnian. The terms Herzegovinian and Bosnian are maintained as a rather than ethnic distinction. Moreover, the country was simply called Bosnia until the Austro-Hungarian occupation at the end of the 19th century, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a bicameral legislature and a three-member Presidency composed of a member of each major ethnic group. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is itself complex and consists of 10 cantons, additionally, the country has been a member of the Council of Europe since April 2002 and a founding member of the Mediterranean Union upon its establishment in July 2008. The name is believed to have derived from the hydronym of the river Bosna coursing through the Bosnian heartland. According to philologist Anton Mayer the name Bosna could be derived from Illyrian Bass-an-as which would be a diversion of the Proto-Indo-European root bos or bogh, meaning the running water. According to English medievalist William Miller the Slavic settlers in Bosnia adapted the Latin designation Basante, to their own idiom by calling the stream Bosna, the name Herzegovina originates from Bosnian magnate Stephen Vukčić Kosačas title, Herceg of Hum and the Coast. Hum, formerly Zahumlje, was a medieval principality that was conquered by the Bosnian Banate in the first half of the 14th century. Bosnia is located in the western Balkans, bordering Croatia to the north and west, Serbia to the east and it has a coastline about 20 kilometres long surrounding the city of Neum. It lies between latitudes 42° and 46° N, and longitudes 15° and 20° E, the countrys name comes from the two regions Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have a very vaguely defined border between them
19.
History of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes referred to simply as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. It has had permanent settlement since the Neolithic Age when it was peopled by Illyrians, christianity arrived in the 1st century, and by the 4th century the area became part of the Western Roman Empire. Germanic tribes invaded soon after, followed by Slavs in the 6th Century, in 1136, Béla II of Hungary invaded Bosnia and created the title Ban of Bosnia as an honorary title for his son Ladislaus II of Hungary. During this time, Bosnia became virtually autonomous, and was proclaimed a kingdom in 1377. The Ottoman Empire followed in 1463 and lasted over 400 years and they wrought great changes to the political and administrative system, introduced land reforms, and class and religious distinctions. A series of uprisings began 1831, which culminated in the Herzegovinian rebellion, the conflict eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, and Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia, three years of war began in 1992 which caused around 100,000 deaths and 2 million refugees. Bosnia has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times, in the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 1st century, following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow, by the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. More South Slavs came in a wave, and according to some scholars were invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia. Modern knowledge of Bosnia in the western Balkans during the Dark Ages is patchy and it was also around this time that the Bosnians were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process. It is only from the 9th century that Frankish and Byzantine sources begin to mention early Slavic polities in the region, however, they all too often found themselves in a tug-of-war between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire. In the year of 1137, Hungary annexes most of Bosnia, the first recorded Ban was Ban Borić, vassal to the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1167, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and eventually emplaced their own vassal as Ban – the native Ban Kulin, however, this vassalage was largely nominal, and Bosnia had for all practical purposes made itself into an independent state under Kulin
20.
Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Within the boundaries of today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, there have been many layers of prehistoric cultures whose creation and disappearance are linked to migrations of unidentified ethnic groups. The Paleolithic in Bosnia is marked by the oldest Paleolithic monument in southeastern Europe, a magnificent one is Horse attacked by arrows, preserved in fragments and dated around 14-12000 BC. During the time when Neolithic cultures were appearing in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Herzegovina was under the influence of impresso ceramics from the western Mediterranean, as seen in Green Cave near Mostar, Čairi near Stolac, Lisičići near Konjic and Peć Mlini near Grude. People then lived in caves or simple settlements on hilltops, on the upper mainstream of the Bosna river and in northeast parts of Bosnia, people lived in wooden houses built by the river. In this culture we can see influences from Adriatic cultures in the south, original expressions of this culture are ceramic pots on four legs, called riton. We can also find them in the Danilo culture on the Croatian coast, due to these objects, Kakanj culture is considered a part of the wide circle of Neolithic populations that followed a cult of life force. The Butmir culture near Sarajevo is distinctive, with glazed ceramics. Figures from Butmir are unique sculptures modeled with hand, heads are almost like portraits with emphasized parts of body, bronze age settlements in Herzegovina were built like citadels, and in Bosnia we have necropolises with stone tumuli. During this time, bronze arms, decorated plates, flat necklaces, from 8th century BC, Illyrian tribes evolved into kingdoms. The earliest recorded kingdom in Illyria was that of the Enchele in the 8th century BC, the era in which we observe other Illyrian kingdoms begins approximately at 400 BC and ends at 167 BC. The Autariatae under Pleurias were considered to have been a kingdom, the Kingdom of the Ardiaei began at 230 BC and ended at 167 BC. The most notable Illyrian kingdoms and dynasties were those of Bardyllis of the Dardani and of Agron of the Ardiaei who created the last, Agron ruled over the Ardiaei and had extended his rule to other tribes as well. From the 7th century BC, bronze was replaced by iron, after which only jewelry, Illyrian tribes, under the influence of Halstat cultures to the north, formed regional centers that were slightly different. A very important role in their life was the cult of the dead, japodian tribes had an affinity to decoration. In the 4th century BC, the first invasion of Celts is recorded and they brought the technique of the pottery wheel, new types of fibulas and different bronze and iron belts. They only passed on their way to Greece, so their influence in Bosnia, Celtic migrations displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages, in the Neretva Delta in the south, there were important Hellenistic influence of the Illyrian Daors tribe. Daors made unique bronze coins and sculptures, conflict between the Illyrians and ancient Romans started in 229 BC
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Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
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For the history of Earth before the occupation by the genus homo, including the period of early hominins, see Geology of Europe and Human evolution. The changes between these are gradual, for example, depending on interpretation, protohistory might or might not include Bronze Age Greece, Minoan, Mycenaean, Thracian and Venetic cultures. By one interpretation of the criterion, Southeastern Europe enters protohistory only with Homer. At any rate, the period ends before Herodotus in the 5th century BC, the earliest evidence of human occupation discovered in the Balkans, in Kozarnika Bulgaria, date from at least 1.4 million years ago. There is evidence of presence in the Balkans from the Lower Paleolithic onwards. According to Douglass W. Bailey, The Palaeolithic period, literally the “Old Stone Age”, is an ancient cultural level of development characterized by the use of unpolished chipped stone tools. The transition from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is directly related to the development of modernity by hominids around 40,000 years BP. To denote the significance and degree of change, this dramatic shift from Middle to Upper Palaeolithic is sometimes called the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution. In the late Pleistocene, various components of the culture and environmental features indicate continual change. The aforementioned aspects leave some doubt that the term Upper Palaeolithic Revolution is appropriate to the Balkans, in general, continual evolutionary changes are the first crucial characteristic of the transition to the Upper Palaeolithic in the Balkans. The notion of the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution that has developed for core European regions is not applicable to the Balkans. This particularly significant moment and its origins are defined and enlightened by other characteristics of the transition to upper Old Stone Age, the environment, climate, flora and fauna corroborate the implications. During the last interglacial period and the most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene, the glaciations did not affect southeastern Europe to the extent that they did in the northern and central regions. The evidence of forest and steppe indicate the influence was not so drastic, some species of flora, the Balkans today still abound in species endemic only to this part of Europe. The notion of gradual transition best defines Balkan Europe from about 50,000 BP, in this sense, the material culture and natural environment of the Balkans of the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene were distinct from other parts of Europe. Douglass W. ” Thus, in speaking about southeastern Europe, in this regard, the absence of Upper Palaeolithic cave art in the Balkans does not seem to be surprising. Civilisations develop new and distinctive characteristics as they respond to new challenges in their environment, in 2002, some of the oldest modern human remains in Europe were discovered in the Cave With Bones, near Anina, Romania. Nicknamed John of Anina, the remains are approximately 37,800 years old and these are some of Europe’s oldest remains of Homo sapiens, so they are likely to represent the first such people to have entered the continent
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Dalmatia (Roman province)
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Its name is probably derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae which lived in the central area of the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Originally this region was called Illyria or Illyricum, when it became one of the two parts of the Roman province of Illyricum it was renamed Dalmatia, its counterpart province being Pannonia. Later the province of Illyricum was dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is not clear when this happened, but plausibly it occurred during the reign of the emperor Vespasian, the region which run along the coast of the Adriatic Sea and extended inland on the Dinaric Alps was called Illyria by the Greeks. Originally the Romans also called it Illyria, the Romans fought three Illyrian Wars mainly against the kingdom of the Ardiaei in the south of the region. In 168 BC they abolished this kingdom, divided it into three republics, the area became a Roman protectorate. The central and northern area of the region engaged in piracy, in response to this, Octavian conducted a series of campaigns in Illyricum. The area became the Roman province of Illyricum probably in 27 BC, due to troubles in the northern part of the region in 16-10 BC, it became an imperial province. The administrative organisation of Illyricum was carried out late in the reign of Augustus, due to Octavian having subdued the more inland region of Pannonia, the Romans changed the name of the coastal area to Dalmatia. Illyricum was composed of Dalmatia and Pannonia, in 6-9 AD there was a large scale rebellion in the province of Illyricum, the Bellum Batonianum. The province of Illyricum was eventually dissolved and replaced by two provinces, Dalmatia and Pannonia. It is unclear when this happened, some other diplomas attest the same. This was during the reign of Nero, therefore, Šašel-Kos supports the notion that the province was dissolved during the reign of Vespasian. In 337, when Constantine the Great died, the Roman Empire was partitioned among his sons, the empire was divided into three praetorian prefectures, the Galliae, Italia, Africa et Illyricum and Oriens. The size of the provinces had been decreased and their number doubled by Diocletian, the provinces were also grouped in dioceses. Dalmatia became one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Pannonia, initially, it was under the praetorian preacture of Italy, Africa and Illyricum. Sirmium, the capital of the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum, was the birthplace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian. After he abdicated, he built Diocletians Palace in Salona, german historian Theodore Mommsen wrote that coastal Dalmatia and its islands were fully romanized and Latin-speaking by the 4th century
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Pannonia
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Pannonia was an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. Julius Pokorny believes the name Pannonia is derived from Illyrian, from the Proto-Indo-European root *pen-, swamp, water, the Ionian Danube fleet reached as far as Boio-Aria, populated until the late 8th century CE by Celts and Slavs under Aryan rulers. Pliny the Elder, in Natural History, places the eastern regions of the Hercynium jugum and he also gives us some dramaticised description of its composition, in which the close proximity of the forest trees causes competitive struggle among them. But even he—if the passage in question is not an interpolated marginal gloss—is subject to the legends of the gloomy forest and he mentions unusual birds, which have feathers that shine like fires at night. Medieval bestiaries named these birds the Ercinee, the first inhabitants of this area known to history were the Pannonii, a group of Indo-European tribes akin to Illyrians. From the 4th century BC, it was invaded by various Celtic tribes, little is heard of Pannonia until 35 BC, when its inhabitants, allies of the Dalmatians, were attacked by Augustus, who conquered and occupied Siscia. The country was not, however, definitively subdued by the Romans until 9 BC, when it was incorporated into Illyricum, the frontier of which was thus extended as far as the Danube. After the rebellion was crushed in AD9, the province of Illyricum was dissolved, the date of the division is unknown, most certainly after AD20 but before AD50. The proximity of dangerous barbarian tribes necessitated the presence of a number of troops. Some time between the years 102 and 107, between the first and second Dacian wars, Trajan divided the province into Pannonia Superior, and Pannonia Inferior. According to Ptolemy, these divisions were separated by a line drawn from Arrabona in the north to Servitium in the south, later, the whole country was sometimes called the Pannonias. Pannonia Superior was under the legate, who had formerly administered the single province. Pannonia Inferior was at first under a praetorian legate with a single legion as the garrison, after Marcus Aurelius, it was under a consular legate, the frontier on the Danube was protected by the establishment of the two colonies Aelia Mursia and Aelia Aquincum by Hadrian. In the 4th-5th century, one of the dioceses of the Roman Empire was known as the Diocese of Pannonia. It had its capital in Sirmium and included all four provinces that were formed from historical Pannonia, as well as the provinces of Dalmatia, following the Migrations Period in the middle of the 5th century, Pannonia was ceded to the Huns by Theodosius II. After the collapse of the Hunnic empire in 454, large numbers of Ostrogoths were settled by Emperor Marcian in the province as foederati, afterwards, it was again invaded by the Avars in the 560s, the Slavs, who first settled c. This language and the culture became extinct with the arrival of the Magyars. The native settlements consisted of pagi containing a number of vici, the cities and towns in Pannonia were, The country was fairly productive, especially after the great forests had been cleared by Probus and Galerius
24.
Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages
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The Kingdom of Bosnia was a medieval kingdom that evolved from the Banate of Bosnia. Bosnia enjoyed de facto independence in the 13th and 14th centuries despite being a part of the Hungarian Crown Lands and its difficult terrain and remoteness enabled the Bosnians to maneuver between their two powerful neighbors, Hungary and Serbia, usually managing to avoid subordination to either. Several capable rulers allowed Bosnia briefly to play the role of a power in the 14th century. After 1290, Bosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary and gained significant territory in Dalmatia at Serbias expense, however, feudal fragmentation remained strong in Bosnia, and after his death the country lost its importance. The Ottoman Empire annexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s, the Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising at its peak most of what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts of Dalmatia, Serbia and Montenegro. Although nominally in vassalage to the Kingdom of Hungary, Bosnia was a de facto independent state, the Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377, when it was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I. By the mid-14th century, Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I of the House of Kotromanić, by having done so, he became a ruler of the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Bosnia, a state that followed the Banate of Bosnia. At its peak the Kingdom became one of the most influential, throughout the Middle Ages, Herzegovina was made up of several smaller polities, Zahumlje, centered around the town of Blagaj, and Travunia, centered on the town of Trebinje. These statelets were in periods ruled by semi-independent princes, mostly under suzerainty of the Serbian medieval monarchy and their territories included modern Herzegovina and parts of Montenegro and southern Dalmatia. The name Herzegovina was adopted when Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, the Duke of St. Sava asserted its independence in 1435–48, the assembly of these noblemen was called stanak and was quite influential. Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I, a member of the Kotromanić dynasty, in 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire. The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain of Nikola Altomanović, after defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts of Dračevica, Konavle, and Trebinje, which were seized by Đurađ I Balšić, the Lord of Zeta. Tvrtko received parts of Zahumlje, the reaches of the Drina and Lim rivers, as well as the districts of Onogošt. This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery of Mileševa, in 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of Serbia, Bosnia, the Primorje, and this was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out with Uroš in 1371. The crown was sent to him by Hungarian king Louis of Anjou, in contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by scholars from Serbia, consider that he was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa, by the Metropolitan of Mileševa. However, after the defeat of Nikola Altomanović, Prince Lazar had emerged as the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire and he wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church saw him as most fitted to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at the time, by 1390, Tvrtko I expanded his realm to include a part of Croatia and Dalmatia, and expanded his title to King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral
25.
Zachlumia
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Zahumlje, also Hum, was a medieval principality located in the modern-day regions of Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia. Zachlumia is a derivative of Hum, from Proto-Slavic *xŭlmŭ, borrowed from a Germanic language, South Slavic Zahumlje is named after the mountain of Hum, above Bona, at the mouth of the Buna. The principality is named Zahumlje or Hum in Serbo-Croatian and it is Zachlumia in Latin, Хлъмъ in Old Church Slavonic, and Ζαχλούμων χώρα in Greek. The names Chelmania, Chulmia and terra de Chelmo appear in later Latin, the Zachloumoi that now live there are Serbs, originating from the time of the prince who fled to emperor Heraclius. The main settlements in Zachlumia were Ston, Ošlje, Dobar, the Principality sprang from Dalmatia to the northwest and Pagania to the west, to the mountain of Kalinovik and the Field of Gatak, where it bordered Travunia. Zachlumia was split on 9 zhupanates, Ston, Popovo, Dubrava, Luka, Dabar, Žapska, Gorička, Zahumlje had access to the Adriatic Sea with the Pelješac peninsula and faced Serbia northwards. In its later periods, Zahumlje was split into two Duchies, Upper Zahumlje in the west and Lower Zahumlje in the east. As the toponym Pagania disappeared by the turn of the 11th century and this territory was at the time controlled by local magnates called Radivojevići, Jurjevići or Vlatkovići. Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica, the Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes. The Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year, in 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, but ended up in Dalmatia. In 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities, some of the Slavs and Avars might have permanently settled in the occupied areas. They attacked Constantinople in 626 but were defeated by the Byzantines, around 630, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, Serbs and Croats led by their respective aristocracies entered the western Balkans from the north, which was approved by the emperor. They inhabited areas that had been devastated by the Avars, where Byzantium had generally been reduced to only nominal rule, Zahumlje was one of the regions settled by the Serbs. Much of Dalmatia was some time earlier settled by the Croats, Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western and central Europe. He brought the Frankish state face to face with the Slavs to the northeast, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was chiefly in the hands of Slavic tribes. North of Dubrovnik these came to be under Croatian Župans and eventually came to consider themselves Croatians, despite Frankish overlordship, the Franks had almost no role in Dalmatia in the period from the 820s through 840s. In 866, a major Arab raid along Dalmatia struck Budva and Kotor, the city of Dubrovnik appealed to Byzantine Emperor Basil the Macedonian, who responded by sending over one hundred ships. After this successful intervention, the Byzantine navy sailed along the coast collecting promises of loyalty to the empire from the Dalmatian cities, at this moment the local Slavic tribes, who had aided the intervention, also accepted Byzantine suzerainty
26.
Travunija
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Travunija or Travunia was a medieval principality that was part of Medieval Serbia, and later the Bosnian Kingdom. The principality became hereditary in a number of houses, often kin to the ruling dynasty. The region came under Ottoman rule in 1482 and its seat was in the city of Trebinje. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Župa of Travunia was held by the Belojević noble family, after the death of Časlav, the last dynastic member, the principality disintegrated, and the provinces were annexed by the Bulgars and Byzantines. In 1034, Stefan Vojislav incited a rebellion and renounced Byzantine rule, becoming the Prince of Serbs, ruling from the seat at Duklja. Trebinje continued under the Bosnian crown in the hands of the Pavlović family, then in 1435, it part of the Duchy of Saint Sava of the Kosača family. Vladislav Hercegović was the last office holder of the region, before it was annexed in 1482 by the Ottomans, the Slavs invaded the Balkans during the reign of Justinian I, when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica. The Western Balkans was settled with Sclaveni, the east with Antes, the Sklavenoi plunder Thrace in 545, and again the next year. In 551, the Slavs crossed Niš initially headed for Thessalonica, in 577 some 100,000 Slavs poured into Thrace and Illyricum, pillaging cities and then settling down. Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814, expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western, Dalmatia which was southeast of the Frankish empire, was in the hands of the Croats and Serbs. Radoslav of Serbia or his son was the ruler of Serbia during the uprisings of Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, in 822, Ljudevit went from his seat in Sisak to the Serbs who controlled a great part of Dalmatia. In late 870s, the Theme of Dalmatia was established, with the strategos seated at Dubrovnik. These small cities in the region did not stretch into the hinterlands, Trebinje is first attested in De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII, when describing the geography of the Serbs. Travunia was a province of the Serbian Principality under the Vlastimirović Dynasty, the first known office holder was Beloje, a count, who ruled under Prince Vlastimir. In the mid 9th century, Vlastimir marries his daughter to Krajina, the son of Beloje, the Belojević noble family is entitled the rule of Travunia, Hvalimir, and his son Čučimir continue the office under the Serbian crown. Its coastline spanned from Dubrovnik to Boka Kotorska, with the death of Časlav, Serbia disintegrated and Duklja absorbed most of Rascia along with Zahumlje and Trebinje. The Catepanate of Ras was established during the rule of John Tzimiskes, a seal of a strategos of Ras has been dated to Tzimiskes reign, making it possible for Tzimiskes predecessor Nikephoros II Phokas to have enjoyed recognition in Rascia. In the 990s, Bulgarian Tsar Samuel made client states out of most of the Balkans, including Duklja, in 998, Samuel launched a major campaign against Jovan Vladimir to prevent a Byzantine-Serbian alliance
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Banate of Bosnia
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The Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state based in what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina. Although it was a part of the Hungarian Crown Lands, the Banate of Bosnia was a de facto independent state and it was founded in the mid-12th century and existed until 1377, when it was proclaimed a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I. In 1136, Béla II of Hungary invaded Bosnia for the first time and created the title Ban of Bosnia, during the 12th century, rulers within Bosnia acted increasingly autonomously from Hungary and/or Byzantium. In reality, outside powers had control of the mountainous. Ban Borić appears as a prominent figure in 1154, as an ally of the King of Hungary and he was involved in offensives against the Byzantines, in alliance with Hungary and Serbia, reaching as far south as Braničevo. Byzantine emperor Manuel I Komnenos conquered Bosnia from the Hungarians in 1166, Bosnia secured peace, although it continued as a Hungarian vassal. Kulin had an effect on the development of early Bosnian history, under whose rule an age of peace. In 1189, Ban Kulin issued the first written Bosnian document, now known as the Charter of Ban Kulin, in Bosnian Cyrillic, regarding the trade relations with the city of Ragusa. Kulins rule also marked the start of a controversy involving the indigenous Bosnian Church, in 1203, Serbian Grand Prince Vukan Nemanjić accused Kulin of heresy and lodged an official appeal to the pope. Kulin cunningly saved Bosnia from a crusade that the pope was preparing to launch, in response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulins death in 1204, Kulins policy was poorly continued since the Bans death in 1204 by his son and heir, Stjepan Kulinić, who seems to have remained aligned with the Catholic Church. Stjepan was eventually deposed in 1232, the Bosnian Church forcibly replaced Kulinić with a nobleman called Matej Ninoslav. This caused bad relations with Serbia as the ruler was related to the Nemanjić dynasty. Around this time, a relative of Ninoslav, Prijezda I, Ninoslav quickly changed his fanatical Catholic and anti-Bosnian Church attitude and eventually became a protector of the Bosnian Church. In 1234 Hungarian king Andrew II gave the Banate of Bosnia to Duke Coloman, the Bosnian Crusade led by bishop John and Coloman lasted for five full years. The war only funnelled more support to Ninoslav, as only Sibislav took the Popes side in the Crusade. Ninoslav issued an edict to the Republic of Ragusa on 22 May 1240, the support from Ragusa was essential to support Matej Ninoslavs warfare. It was also a response due to the bad relations between Bosnia and Serbia, as Serbia sent no aid to Ninoslav contrary to the traditional alliance
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Kingdom of Bosnia
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The Kingdom of Bosnia was a medieval kingdom that evolved from the Banate of Bosnia. Bosnia enjoyed de facto independence in the 13th and 14th centuries despite being a part of the Hungarian Crown Lands and its difficult terrain and remoteness enabled the Bosnians to maneuver between their two powerful neighbors, Hungary and Serbia, usually managing to avoid subordination to either. Several capable rulers allowed Bosnia briefly to play the role of a power in the 14th century. After 1290, Bosnia enjoyed virtual independence from Hungary and gained significant territory in Dalmatia at Serbias expense, however, feudal fragmentation remained strong in Bosnia, and after his death the country lost its importance. The Ottoman Empire annexed portions of eastern Bosnia in the 1440s and 1450s, the Banate of Bosnia was a medieval state comprising at its peak most of what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as parts of Dalmatia, Serbia and Montenegro. Although nominally in vassalage to the Kingdom of Hungary, Bosnia was a de facto independent state, the Banate of Bosnia existed until 1377, when it was elevated into a kingdom with the coronation of Tvrtko I. By the mid-14th century, Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I of the House of Kotromanić, by having done so, he became a ruler of the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Bosnia, a state that followed the Banate of Bosnia. At its peak the Kingdom became one of the most influential, throughout the Middle Ages, Herzegovina was made up of several smaller polities, Zahumlje, centered around the town of Blagaj, and Travunia, centered on the town of Trebinje. These statelets were in periods ruled by semi-independent princes, mostly under suzerainty of the Serbian medieval monarchy and their territories included modern Herzegovina and parts of Montenegro and southern Dalmatia. The name Herzegovina was adopted when Stjepan Vukčić Kosača, the Duke of St. Sava asserted its independence in 1435–48, the assembly of these noblemen was called stanak and was quite influential. Bosnia reached its peak under Ban Tvrtko I, a member of the Kotromanić dynasty, in 1372, Tvrtko formed an alliance with Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, one of the regional lords in the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire. The next year, Tvrtko and Lazar attacked the domain of Nikola Altomanović, after defeating Altomanović, they divided his lands, except for his littoral districts of Dračevica, Konavle, and Trebinje, which were seized by Đurađ I Balšić, the Lord of Zeta. Tvrtko received parts of Zahumlje, the reaches of the Drina and Lim rivers, as well as the districts of Onogošt. This acquisition included the important Serbian Orthodox monastery of Mileševa, in 1377, Tvrtko took the littoral districts from Balšić. That year, on 26 October, he was crowned King of Serbia, Bosnia, the Primorje, and this was made possible by the royal Nemanjić line having died out with Uroš in 1371. The crown was sent to him by Hungarian king Louis of Anjou, in contrast, some earlier historiographers, mostly represented by scholars from Serbia, consider that he was crowned in the Orthodox Monastery of Mileševa, by the Metropolitan of Mileševa. However, after the defeat of Nikola Altomanović, Prince Lazar had emerged as the most powerful lord on the territory of the former Serbian Empire and he wanted to reunite the Serbian state, and the Serbian Orthodox Church saw him as most fitted to succeed the Nemanjić dynasty. The Church, which was the strongest cohesive force among the Serbs at the time, by 1390, Tvrtko I expanded his realm to include a part of Croatia and Dalmatia, and expanded his title to King of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia and the Littoral
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Bosnia Eyalet
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The Eyalet of Bosnia or Bosnia Beylerbeylik was an eyalet of the Ottoman Empire, mostly based on the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Prior to the Great Turkish War, it had included most of Slavonia, Lika. Its reported area in the 19th century was 20,281 square miles, after the execution of King Stephen Tomašević in 1463, the central part of the Kingdom of Bosnia was transformed into the sanjak of Bosnia. The Duchy of Herzegovina was added in 1483, in 1580, Ferhad Pasha Sokolović became the first governor of the Bosnia Eyalet, as beylerbey. The Bosnia Eyalet included the Sanjak of Bosnia, Sanjak of Herzegovina, Sanjak of Vučitrn, Sanjak of Prizren, Sanjak of Klis, Sanjak of Krka, the Ottoman wars in Europe continued throughout the period, and the province reached its territorial peak in 1683. The Great Turkish War that ended in Ottoman defeat in 1699 led to a significant decrease in the territory of the Eyalet, after the Treaty of Karlowitz, the province was down to four sanjaks and twelve captaincies. Before the Treaty of Passarowitz, another 28 military captaincies were formed and this kind of intensive military administration corresponded to the Austrian Military Frontier on the other side of the same border. In 1703 the seat of the pasha was moved from Sarajevo to Travnik, because Sarajevo had been destroyed by fire in the war, at the beginning of the 19th century, Bosnia was one of the least developed and more autonomous provinces of the Empire. In 1831, Bosnian kapudan Husein Gradaščević occupied Travnik, demanding autonomy, ultimately, exploiting the rivalries between beys and kapudans, the grand vizier succeeded in detaching the Herzegovinian forces, led by Ali-paša Rizvanbegović, from Gradaščević’s. This new entity lasted only for a few years, after Rizvanbegovićs death and it was one of the first Ottoman provinces to become a vilayet after an administrative reform in 1865, and by 1867 it had been reformed into the Bosnia Vilayet. Constitutional development of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia Vilayet
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The Bosnia Vilayet was a first-level administrative division of the Ottoman Empire, mostly comprising the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It bordered Kosovo Vilayet to the south, before the administrative reform in 1867, it was called the Bosnia Eyalet. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 17,900 square miles and this excluded Old Herzegovina, which was ceded to the Principality of Montenegro in 1878. In 1908 Austria-Hungary formally annexed it into its own territory
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Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina
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Bosnia and Herzegovina fell under Austro-Hungarian rule in 1878 when the Congress of Berlin approved the occupation of the Bosnia Vilayet, which officially remained part of the Ottoman Empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, in June and July 1878 the Congress of Berlin was organized by the Great Powers, according to article 25, The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary. To this end the governments of Austria-Hungary and Turkey reserve to themselves to come to an understanding on the details, the primary commander was Josip Filipović, the forward XVIII infantry division was under the command Stjepan Jovanović, while the rear army commander in Dalmatia was Gavrilo Rodić. The occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina started on 29 July 1878 and was over on 20 October, the Ottoman army in Bosnia and Herzegovina at the time consisted of roughly 40,000 troops with 77 cannons, that combined with local militias to around 93,000 men. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October 1878, Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. Fierce resistance from Muslims was expected as Austro-Hungarians realized their occupation meant that Bosnian Muslims would lose their status based on their religion. Tensions remained in parts of the country and a mass emigration of predominantly Muslim dissidents occurred. The Austro-Hungarian administration advocated the ideal of a pluralist and multi-confessional Bosnian nation, between 1861 and 1869, Topal Osman Pasha, an Ottoman grand vizier had striven to do the same. Croats and Serbs who opposed the policy mostly ignored Bosnian nationhood and instead sought to claim Bosnian Muslims as their own, the idea of a unified South Slavic state became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. Certain Muslim circles in Bosnia and Herzegovina published the newspaper Bošnjak and this newspaper caused fierce discussions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Serbia. The newspaper supported Kállays policy, whose goal was to strengthen Austro-Hungarian rule in occupied Bosnia, although Kállays policy was not widely accepted even amongst Muslims, Bošnjak nevertheless represented the national aspirations of some Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Kállays policy was defeated in 1896 and 1899, when Bosnian Serbs and Muslims called for religious. Kállays policy had some potential to resist Croatian and Serbian national aspirations, after the death of Kallay, the policy was abandoned. By 1905, nationalism was a factor of Bosnian politics. Soon after Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1878, the government took the religious activities. Austro-Hungarian authorities issued regulations which made Muslim clergy Austro-Hungarian state officials and this was to isolate Bosnian Muslims from the Ottoman Empire, and its clergy who were subordinate to the Sultan. The Muslims were largely unhappy with their new status, and formed Muslim political opposition and this Muslim opposition demanded, at first, Muslim religious autonomy from Austria-Hungary, but later, as it grew stronger, they demanded autonomy from the Ottoman Empire. The Muslim opposition tried to align itself with the Serbs, who were also demanding religious, but unsolved agrarian relations between the Muslim leadership and the Serbs was an obstacle to any far-reaching alliance
32.
Bosnian crisis
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In April 1909 the Treaty of Berlin was amended to reflect the fait accompli and bring the crisis to an end. The crisis permanently damaged relations between Austria-Hungary on one hand and Serbia, Italy and the Russian Empire on the other, the Italian historian Luigi Albertini regarded it as laying the grounds for World War I. Although the crisis ended with what appeared to be a total Austro-Hungarian diplomatic victory, Russia became determined not to back down again, the mid-1870s witnessed a series of violent rebellions against Ottoman rule in the Balkans, and equally violent and repressive responses from the Turks. The Russian Tsar, Alexander II, wanting to intervene against the Ottomans, sought, as compensation for this support, Russia agreed to Austria-Hungarys annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Shortly thereafter, the Russians declared war, and, after a few setbacks and this had the effect of bottling up the Russian fleet in the Black Sea, but would be worthless if Russian troops gained control of the straits by land. The treaty of San Stefano was overturned by the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, under article 29, Austria-Hungary received special rights in the Ottoman Empires provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The Sanjak of Novi Pazar separated Montenegro from Serbia and prevented the geographic, the Bosnian population was already religiously divided among Muslims, Catholics and Orthodox Christians. Austria-Hungary exercised its rights, taking control of Bosnia-Herzegovina and jointly occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar together with the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Berlin allowed for sole Austrian occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and this omission was addressed in the Three Emperors League treaty of 1881, where both Germany and Russia endorsed Austrias right to annex Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, by 1897, under the new Tsar, Nicholas II, the Russian Foreign Minister, Count Michael Muraviev, stated that an Austrian annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina would raise an extensive question requiring special scrutiny. In 1903 a coup in Serbia brought in a new pro-Russian Karađorđević dynasty and these Serbs wanted to take over the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and Bosnia-Herzegovina from the Austro-Hungarians. Relations between Serbia and Austria-Hungary gradually deteriorated, however, Russias ability to support Serbia was greatly reduced following military humiliation in the 1905 Russo-Japanese War and the ensuing internal unrest. By 1907, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Alois Aehrenthal began formulating a plan to solidify Austria-Hungarys position towards Serbia through annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and his opportunity came in the form of a letter from Russian Foreign Minister Alexander Izvolsky and a subsequent meeting at Buchlau castle in Moravia, Austria-Hungary. On 14 July Aehrenthal responded with guarded acceptance of the proposed discussions, the letter then went on to offer to discuss, as a separate matter, the Straits question, on a friendly basis. On 16 September, Izvolsky and Aehrenthal met face-to-face at Buchlovice Castle, no minutes were taken during these private meetings which lasted a total of six hours. Izvolsky accepted the responsibility to write up the conclusions of the meeting, on 21 September, Aehrenthal wrote to Izvolsky asking for this document to which Izvolsky replied two days later that the document had been sent to the Czar for approval. This document, if it existed, has never been produced. By Aehrenthal’s account given by Albertini, Izvolsky agreed that Russia would maintain a friendly, reciprocally, should Russia move to open the Straits to single ships of war, Austria-Hungary would maintain a benevolent attitude
33.
Drina Banovina
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The Drina Banovina or Drina Banate was a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. Its capital was Sarajevo and it included portions of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and it was named after the Drina River and, like all Yugoslav banovinas, was intentionally not based on ethnic boundaries. As a result of the creation of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939, according to the 1931 Constitution of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, The Drina Banovina is bounded on the west, as far as the Sava, by the boundaries. Of the Littoral and Vrbas Banovinas, then on the north by the river Sava to where it is joined by the Kolubara. In 1941, the World War II Axis Powers occupied the Drina Banovina, following World War II, the region was divided between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia within a federal Socialist Yugoslavia. Kingdom of Yugoslavia Podrinje Bosnian Podrinje Canton Šumadija and Western Serbia
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Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the six constituent federal units forming the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It was a predecessor of the modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina state, the capital city was Sarajevo, which remained the capital following independence. The Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina was, up to 20 December 1990, in the hands of the League of Communists of Bosnia, the borders of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina were almost identical to the ones Bosnia had during the period of Austro-Hungarian rule that lasted until 1918. That year Bosnia became part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and during that period the territory was divided among banovinas, during a meeting of the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Mrkonjić Grad on 25 November 1943. In April 1945 its name was formalized as the Federal State of Bosnia and Herzegovina, FS Bosnia and Herzegovina thus became known as the Peoples Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This constitutional system lasted until the 1963 Yugoslav Constitution, on 7 April 1963, Yugoslavia was reconstituted as the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and PR Bosnia and Herzegovina changed its name to the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. After independence on 1 March 1992, the country was renamed to the Republic of Bosnia, following the Dayton Agreement that was in force, it became simply a federated state known as Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1997. Because of its geographic position within the Yugoslavian federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia. However, Bosnias existence within Yugoslavia, for the part, was peaceful. Being one of the republics in the early 1950s it quickly recovered economically. Cultural ascendance of Bosnia and Herzegovina culminated with the selection of Sarajevo to host 1984 Winter Olympics, though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 50s and 60s, the 70s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Titos death in 1980, however, the republic hardly escaped the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. Following the death of Tito in 1980, rising nationalist ideas primarily noted in Serbian academia, such trials in the communist regime were quite common and a typical practice of suppressing the right to free speech. That kind of propaganda attracted many Bosnian Muslims to their way of thinking, others were interpreting the Sarajevo process as a way of removing the political amateurs who could end up disrupting the process of Bosnian independence. After the elections, they formed a coalition government, the decision of the Parliament of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on holding the referendum was taken after the majority of Bosnian Serb members had left the assembly in protest. These Bosnian Serb assembly members invited the Bosnian Serb population to boycott the referendum held on 29 February and 1 March 1992, the turnout in the referendum was 64-67% and the vote was 98% in favor of independence
35.
Breakup of Yugoslavia
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The breakup of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts during the early 1990s. After a period of crisis in the 1980s, constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart. The wars primarily affected Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, in addition, two autonomous provinces were established within Serbia, Vojvodina and Kosovo. Each of the republics had its own branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, after his death in 1980, the weakened system of federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political challenges. In the 1980s, Kosovo Albanians started to demand that their autonomous province be granted the status of a constituent republic, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolved in 1990 along federal lines. Nationalist rhetoric on all sides became increasingly heated, in 1991, one republic after another proclaimed independence, but the status of Serb minorities outside Serbia was left unsolved. Before World War II, major tensions arose from the first, monarchist Yugoslavias multi-ethnic make-up and relative political, fundamental to the tensions were the different concepts of the new state. The Croats and Slovenes envisaged a federal model where they would enjoy greater autonomy than they had as a crown land under Austria-Hungary. Under Austria-Hungary, both Slovenes and Croats enjoyed autonomy with free hands only in education, law, religion, and 45% of taxes. The Serbs tended to view the territories as a just reward for their support of the allies in World War I, the assassination and human rights abuses were subject of concern for the Human Rights League and precipitated voices of protest from intellectuals, including Albert Einstein. It was in this environment of oppression that the insurgent group. During World War II, the tensions were exploited by the occupying Axis forces which established a Croat puppet state spanning much of present-day Croatia and Bosnia. The Axis powers installed the Ustaše as the leaders of the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaše resolved that the Serbian minority were a fifth column of Serbian expansionism, and pursued a policy of persecution against the Serbs. The policy dictated that one-third of the Serbian minority were to be killed, one-third expelled, both Croats and Muslims were recruited as soldiers by the SS. At the same time, former royalist, General Milan Nedić, was installed by the Axis as head of the government and local Serbs were recruited into the Gestapo. The official Yugoslav post-war estimate of victims in Yugoslavia during World War II was 1,704,000, subsequent data gathering in the 1980s by historians Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović showed that the actual number of dead was about 1 million. Of that number,330,000 to 390,000 ethnic Serbs perished from all causes in Croatia and Bosnia, Yugoslavia was in its heyday a regional industrial power and an economic success. From 1960 to 1980, annual gross domestic product growth averaged 6.1 percent, medical care was free, literacy was 91 percent, Yugoslavia was a unique state, straddling both the East and West
36.
Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia
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The Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia was a small unrecognised state that existed in the northwest of Bosnia and Herzegovina between 1993 and 1995. It consisted of the town of Velika Kladuša and a few nearby villages and it was proclaimed as a result of secessionist politics by Fikret Abdić against the Bosnian central government during the Bosnian War. For a short time in 1995 it was known as the Republic of Western Bosnia, in 1993, according to journalist Anthony Loyd, Fikret Abdić decided to try to carve out a little state for himself and succeeded in recruiting enough followers to make his dreams a reality. Abdić was able to power over his mini-state by using cult like propaganda techniques over his followers and Serbian arms. Talking to his autonomist followers was much the same as speaking with cult converts anywhere in the world, the economy of Western Bosnia was largely reliant on the Agrokomerc company of Velika Kladuša. Fikret Abdićs role in undermining the Bosnian regime was awarded by Croatian regime as well as Serbian, Agrokomerc was granted a custom-free trade zone in the Croatian port of Rijeka, and free trade with Serbian-controlled territories. Trade between Western Bosnia and Croatia was ongoing during the Bosnian war, in 1994, Franjo Tuđman changed his policies towards Bosnia after diplomatic pressure from the United States as well as UN Security Council. The Washington Agreement was signed in March 1994, the situation became very unfavourable to the future of AP Western Bosnia as Fikret Abdić couldnt count on financial or military help by one of his protectors. It was militarily defeated during Operation Tiger in June and August 1994, however, they were expelled later that year with the significant help of the Serbs in the Operation Spider, and the Autonomous Province of Western Bosnia was re-established. The province declared itself the independent Republic of Western Bosnia on 26 July 1995, soon, in the August 1995 Operation Storm, it would serve as the last line of defense of the Republic of Serbian Krajina in Croatia. The Republic of Western Bosnia was wiped out completely during the joint Croatian and Bosnian government army action during the Operation Storm, Western Bosnias territory was incorporated into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, within present-day Una-Sana Canton. Abdić, who maintained relations with then-Croatian president Franjo Tuđman, had acquired Croatian citizenship and was able to live in Croatia for the next few years. The trial took place in Croatia where Abdić was condemned to serve 20 years in prison in 2002, on 9 March 2012, he was released after having served two thirds of his reduced sentence. History of Bosnia and Herzegovina Serb Republic Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia
37.
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
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The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the two political entities that compose Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Republika Srpska. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of 10 autonomous cantons with their own governments and it is inhabited primarily by Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats, which is why it is sometimes informally referred to as the Bosniak-Croat Federation. It is sometimes known by the shorter name Federation of B&H, the Federation was created by the 1994 Washington Agreement, which ended the part of the conflict whereby Bosnian Croats fought with Bosniaks. It established a constituent assembly that continued its work until October 1996, the Federation has a capital, government, president, parliament, customs and police departments, two postal systems and an airline. It had its own army, the Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the capital and largest city is Sarajevo with 438,443 inhabitants and the total population of 688,354 in its metropolitan area. The Serb-dominated Yugoslav Peoples Army attacked Croatia from Bosnia and Herzegovina and their first target was Croatian village Ravno that was attacked on 2 November 1991 and completely destroyed. Yugoslavia effected an economic blockade of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thus trying to keep it as part of Yugoslavia, later, Yugoslavia claimed territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina with a Serb majority and the capital Sarajevo. Serb Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was declared on 27 March 1992 with the goal to incorporate parts of Bosnia, because of superiority in armaments, support from Belgrade and an embargo on the importation of arms into Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbs achieved their goals by June 1992. The Bosniak leadership was still indecisive concerning a conflict, so the Croats were the first to participate in the war. They organized military units, Croatian Defence Forces in November 1991 and those units were partly composed of Bosniaks. The Territorial Defence of Bosnia and Herzegovina, later Army of the Republic of Bosnia, by November 1992 Serbs had conquered 70% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina and held Sarajevo in limbo by terrorizing its population by shelling and constant sniper fire. The creation of a Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia was a matter of dispute for Bosniaks, Croats accused Bosniaks of Islamization of the country and attempts to create Bosniak domination in all areas. So they withdrew the ethnic Croat representatives from Parliament, Government, due to expulsions by Bosnian Serbs, Bosniaks moved to other areas and thus disrupted the Croats area and altered their pre-war ratio. Political disputes and minor incidents in central and northern Bosnia and in northern, the Vance-Owen plan was presented in January 1993. It was planned to create 10 cantons on the territory of the whole of Bosnia and this plan increased conflict between Croats and Bosniaks. A number of crimes against civilians were committed on both sides, hostility between Croats and Bosniaks ended with mediation by the United States and the signing of the Washington Agreement on 18 March 1994. The cooperation between Croats and Bosniaks was renewed, and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a Bosniak, there was also a proposal to create a confederation of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republic of Croatia. The joint command of ARBiH, HVO and Croatian Army was established in March 1995, after the Operation Storm, the Serbian hoop around Bihać was broken and Croatian and Bosnian armies continued to liberate western Bosnia
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Serbo-Croatian language
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It is a pluricentric language with four mutually intelligible standard varieties. South Slavic dialects historically formed a continuum, the turbulent history of the area, particularly due to expansion of the Ottoman Empire, resulted in a patchwork of dialectal and religious differences. Due to population migrations, Shtokavian became the most widespread in the western Balkans, Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs differ in religion and were historically often part of different cultural circles, although a large part of the nations have lived side by side under foreign overlords. Serbo-Croatian was standardized in the mid-19th-century Vienna Literary Agreement by Croatian and Serbian writers and philologists, from the very beginning, there were slightly different literary Serbian and Croatian standards, although both were based on the same Shtokavian subdialect, Eastern Herzegovinian. In the 20th century, Serbo-Croatian served as the language of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The breakup of Yugoslavia affected language attitudes, so that social conceptions of the language separated on ethnic, since the breakup of Yugoslavia, Bosnian has likewise been established as an official standard in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and there is an ongoing movement to codify a separate Montenegrin standard. Serbo-Croatian thus generally goes by the ethnic names Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, like other South Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian has a simple phonology, with the common five-vowel system and twenty-five consonants. Its grammar evolved from Common Slavic, with inflection, preserving seven grammatical cases in nouns, pronouns. Verbs exhibit imperfective or perfective aspect, with a complex tense system. Serbo-Croatian is a language with flexible word order, subject–verb–object being the default. It can be written in Serbian Cyrillic or Gajs Latin alphabet, whose thirty letters mutually map one-to-one, throughout the history of the South Slavs, the vernacular, literary, and written languages of the various regions and ethnicities developed and diverged independently. Prior to the 19th century, they were collectively called Illyric, Slavic, at that time, Serb and Croat lands were still part of the Ottoman and Austrian Empires. Officially, the language was called variously Serbo-Croat, Croato-Serbian, Serbian and Croatian, Croatian and Serbian, Serbian or Croatian, Croatian or Serbian, today, use of the term Serbo-Croatian is controversial due to the prejudice that nation and language must match. Old Church Slavonic was adopted as the language of the liturgy and this language was gradually adapted to non-liturgical purposes and became known as the Croatian version of Old Slavonic. The two variants of the language, liturgical and non-liturgical, continued to be a part of the Glagolitic service as late as the middle of the 19th century, the earliest known Croatian Church Slavonic Glagolitic manuscripts are the Glagolita Clozianus and the Vienna Folia from the 11th century. Serbo-Croatian competed with the established literary languages of Latin and Old Slavonic in the west and Persian. Old Slavonic developed into the Serbo-Croatian variant of Church Slavonic between the 12th and 16th centuries, the Baška tablet from the late 11th century was written in Glagolitic. It is a stone tablet found in the small Church of St. Lucy
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