1.
Dianne Wilkerson
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Dianne Wilkerson is a former Democratic member of the Massachusetts Senate, representing the 2nd Suffolk District from 1993 to 2008. On October 28,2008, she was arrested on corruption charges by the FBI for allegedly accepting bribes totaling $23,500. She formally resigned on November 19,2008, on June 3,2010 she pleaded guilty to eight counts of attempted extortion. Dianne Wilkerson graduated from High School of Commerce and she earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Public Administration from American International College in 1978, and a juris doctor from Boston College Law School in 1981. In 1993, she became the first African American female to serve in the Massachusetts Senate. She lost the September 2008 Democratic primary to Sonia Chang-Díaz, and on October 31,2008, announced that she was ending her campaign to seek re-election in the November 4,2008. On November 19,2008, Wilkerson formally resigned from the Massachusetts state Senate, 21st Century Black Massachusetts Conference, Convener Action for Boston Community Development, Inc. Wilkerson was sentenced to house arrest in December 1997 after pleading guilty to failing to pay $51,000 in federal taxes in the early 1990s. She was suspended from practicing law for one year in 1999 because of the conviction and did not seek reinstatement. In 2001, she was fined $1,000 by the State Ethics Commission for failing to report that a bank she lobbied for as senator was paying her more than $20,000 a year as a consultant. She agreed to pay a $10,000 fine and forego about $30,000 in debts owed her to settle the allegations, berry was convicted of voluntary manslaughter in Macks death, but the senator testified that Isaac Wilkerson made statements that implicated himself during the interview. Wilkerson also lied when she testified that the detectives repeatedly turned a tape recorder off and on during the interview, on October 28,2008, Wilkerson was arrested by the FBI on public corruption charges. Wilkerson was the subject of an 18-month-long undercover investigation conducted by the Boston Police Department, the payments, ranging in amounts from $500 to $10,000 were received from undercover law enforcement officers and a cooperating witness. The bribes were allegedly accepted in return for her help in obtaining a license for a proposed nightclub. On November 17,2008, Wilkerson filed a motion in court requesting a court-appointed lawyer to defend her against the bribery charges. She stated that she could not afford to pay for a lawyer, Stern had been defending Wilkerson in an unrelated matter. On November 18,2008, a grand jury indicted Wilkerson on eight counts of accepting bribes. On December 8,2008, Wilkerson appeared before Judge Timothy S. Hillman in the U. S. District Court in Boston to plead not guilty to eight extortion charges
2.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
3.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
4.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
5.
University of Virginia
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The University of Virginia, frequently referred to simply as Virginia, is a public research university and the flagship for the Commonwealth of Virginia. Founded in 1819 by Declaration of Independence author Thomas Jefferson, UVA is known for its foundations, student-run honor code. UNESCO designated UVA as Americas first and only collegiate World Heritage Site in 1987, the university was established in 1819, and its original governing Board of Visitors included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe. Monroe was the sitting President of the United States at the time of its foundation, former Presidents Jefferson and Madison were UVAs first two rectors and the Academical Village and Jefferson conceived and designed the original courses of study. The universitys research endeavors are highly recognized, in 2015, Science honored UVA faculty for discovering two of its top 10 annual scientific breakthroughs, from the fields of Medicine and Psychology. UVA is one of 62 institutions in the Association of American Universities and it is the only AAU member university in Virginia. UVA is classified as a Research University with Very High Research by the Carnegie Foundation, the university was the first non-founding member, and the first university of the American South, to attain AAU membership in 1904. UVAs academic strength is broad, with 121 majors across the eight undergraduate, students compete in 26 collegiate sports and UVA leads the Atlantic Coast Conference in mens NCAA team national championships with 17. UVA is second in womens NCAA titles with 7, UVA was awarded the Capital One Cup in 2015 after fielding the top overall mens athletics programs in the nation. Students come to attend the university in Charlottesville from all 50 states and 147 countries, the historic 1, 682-acre campus is internationally protected by UNESCO and considered one of the most beautiful collegiate grounds in the country. UVA additionally maintains 2,913 acres southeast of the city, the university also manages the College at Wise in Southwest Virginia, and until 1972 operated George Mason University and the University of Mary Washington in Northern Virginia. In 1817, three Presidents and Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court John Marshall joined 24 other dignitaries at a meeting held in the Mountain Top Tavern at Rockfish Gap, after some deliberation, they selected nearby Charlottesville as the site of the new University of Virginia. Farmland just outside Charlottesville was purchased from James Monroe by the Board of Visitors as Central College, the school laid its first buildings cornerstone late in that same year, and the Commonwealth of Virginia chartered the new university on January 25,1819. John Hartwell Cocke collaborated with James Madison, Monroe, and Joseph Carrington Cabell to fulfill Jeffersons dream to establish the university, Cocke and Jefferson were appointed to the building committee to supervise the construction. The universitys first classes met on March 7,1825, another innovation of the new university was that higher education would be separated from religious doctrine. Jefferson opined to philosopher Thomas Cooper that a professorship of theology should have no place in our institution, Jefferson was intimately involved in the university to the end, hosting Sunday dinners at his Monticello home for faculty and students until his death. Thus, he eschewed mention of his accomplishments, such as the Louisiana Purchase. This was a source of frustration for Jefferson, who assembled the students during the schools first year, on October 3,1825, to such behavior
6.
Teacher
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A teacher is a person who helps others to acquire knowledge, competences or values. Informally the role of teacher may be taken on by anyone, in some countries, teaching young people of school age may be carried out in an informal setting, such as within the family, rather than in a formal setting such as a school or college. Some other professions may involve a significant amount of teaching, in most countries, formal teaching is usually carried out by paid professional teachers. This article focuses on those who are employed, as their role, to teach others in a formal education context. A teachers role may vary among cultures, Teachers may provide instruction in literacy and numeracy, craftsmanship or vocational training, the arts, religion, civics, community roles, or life skills. Formal teaching tasks include preparing lessons according to agreed curricula, giving lessons, a teachers professional duties may extend beyond formal teaching. In some education systems, teachers may have responsibility for student discipline, Teaching is a highly complex activity. This is in part because teaching is a practice, that takes place in a specific context. Factors that influence what is expected of teachers include history and tradition, social views about the purpose of education, so the competences required by a teacher are affected by the different ways in which the role is understood around the world. Broadly, there seem to be four models, the teacher as manager of instruction, the teacher as caring person, the teacher as expert learner, some evidence-based international discussions have tried to reach such a common understanding. Scholarly consensus is emerging that what is required of teachers can be grouped under three headings, knowledge craft skills and dispositions and it has been found that teachers who showed enthusiasm towards the course materials and students can create a positive learning experience. These teachers do not teach by rote but attempt to find new invigoration for the materials on a daily basis. One of the challenges facing teachers is that they may have covered a curriculum until they begin to feel bored with the subject. Students who had enthusiastic teachers tend to rate them higher than teachers who didnt show much enthusiasm for the course materials, Teachers that exhibit enthusiasm can lead to students who are more likely to be engaged, interested, energetic, and curious about learning the subject matter. Recent research has found a correlation between teacher enthusiasm and students intrinsic motivation to learn and vitality in the classroom, students who experienced a very enthusiastic teacher were more likely to read lecture material outside of the classroom. There are various mechanisms by which teacher enthusiasm may facilitate higher levels of intrinsic motivation, teacher enthusiasm may contribute to a classroom atmosphere of energy and enthusiasm which feeds student interest and excitement in learning the subject matter. Enthusiastic teachers may also lead to becoming more self-determined in their own learning process. The concept of mere exposure indicates that the teachers enthusiasm may contribute to the expectations about intrinsic motivation in the context of learning
7.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
8.
Chinese people
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The Han Chinese, Han people or simply Han are an ethnic group native to East Asia. They constitute approximately 92% of the population of China, 95% of Taiwan, 76% of Singapore, 23% of Malaysia, Han Chinese are the worlds largest ethnic group with over 1.3 billion people. Similarly, the Chinese language also came to be named the Han language ever since, in the Oxford Dictionary, the Han are defined as The dominant ethnic group in China. In the Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, the Han are called the dominant population in China, as well as in Taiwan, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the Han are the Chinese peoples especially as distinguished from non-Chinese elements in the population. The name Hanzhong, in turn, was derived from the Han River, which flows through the regions plains. The river, in turn, derives its name from such as Tianhan, Yinhan, Xinghan or Yunhan, all ancient Chinese poetic nicknames for the Milky Way. This gave rise to a commonly used nowadays by overseas Chinese for ethnic identity – Huaren. The term is used in conversation and is also an element in the Cantonese word for Chinatown. The vast majority of Han Chinese – over 1.2 billion of them – live in areas under the jurisdiction of the Peoples Republic of China, where they constitute about 92% of its population. Han Chinese also constitute the majority in both of the administrative regions of the PRC—about 95% and 96% of the population of Hong Kong and Macau. There are over 22 million Han Chinese in Taiwan, they began migrating from the coastal provinces of mainland China to Taiwan during the 13th to 17th century. At first, these migrants chose to settle in locations that bore a resemblance to the areas they had left behind in mainland China, hoklo immigrants from Quanzhou settled in coastal regions, and those from Zhangzhou tended to gather on inland plains, while the Hakka inhabited hilly areas. Clashes between these groups over land, water, and cultural differences led to the relocation of some communities, of about 40 million overseas Chinese worldwide, nearly 30 million live in Southeast Asia. They are collectively called Nanyang Chinese, according to a population genetic study, Singapore is the country with the biggest proportion of Hans in Southeast Asia. Up until the past few decades, overseas Han communities originated predominantly from areas in southern China, christmas Island has a Chinese majority at 70%, large Chinese populations also live in Malaysia and Thailand. Prior to the 1965 split, Malaysia and Singapore used to have the largest overseas Chinese population in the world and this position has since been taken by Thailand. The prehistory of the Han ethnic group is closely intertwined with both records and mythology. Han Chinese trace their ancestry from a confederation of late neolithic/early bronze-age agricultural tribes that lived along the Guanzhong, the Yellow Emperor is traditionally credited to have united with the neighbouring Shennong tribes after defeating their leader, Flame Emperor, at the Battle of Banquan
9.
Costa Ricans
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Costa Ricans, also called Ticos, are from a multiethnic Spanish speaking nation in Central America called Costa Rica. Costa Ricans are predominantly mestizos, whites and castizos, but their country is considered a multiethnic society, as a result, modern-day Costa Ricans do not consider their nationality as an ethnicity but as a citizenship with various ethnicities. Costa Rica has four small minority groups, Mulattoes, Blacks, Asians, in addition to the Indigenas, whites, mestizos, blacks and mulattoes, Costa Rica is also home to thousands of Asians. Most of the Chinese and Indians now living in the country are descendants of those that arrived during the 19th century as migrant workers, according to the 2011 Census, Costa Rica has a population of 4,301,712 people. Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met, the northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors came in the 16th century. The central and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences, the Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with Jamaican immigrant workers during the 19th century. The country has received immigration from Europe, Africa, Asia, Americas, the colonial period began when Christopher Columbus reached the eastern coast of Costa Rica on his fourth voyage in 1502. Numerous subsequent Spanish expeditions followed, eventually leading to the first Spanish colony, Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719. For all these reasons Costa Rica was by and large unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown, even the Governor had to farm his own crops and tend to his own garden due to the poverty that he lived in. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, as of 2012 most Costa Ricans are of primarily Mixed or Spanish ancestry with minorities of German, Nicaraguan, Italian, Jamaican, Colombian, Central American and Greek ancestry. Mestizos, tri-racial and whites together comprise 83% of the population, European migrants used Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the USA West Coast in the late 19th century and until the 1910s. Other ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Venezuelans, Peruvian, Brazilians, Portuguese, Palestinians, Caribbeans, Turks, Armenians and Georgians. Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in 1492, the first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official anti-Semitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews, however, by the 1950s and 1960s, most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous. Costa Rica has four small minority groups, Mulattos, Blacks, about 8% of the population is of Black African descent or Mulatto who are called Afro-Costa Ricans, English-speaking descendants of 19th century black Jamaican immigrant workers. In 1873 the Atlantic Railroad imported 653 Chinese indentured laborers, hoping to duplicate the success of projects that used Chinese labor in Peru, Cuba. Asians represent less than 0. 5% of the Costa Rican population, mostly from China, there are also over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2. 4% of the population
10.
Costa Rica
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It has a population of around 4.5 million, of whom nearly a quarter live in the metropolitan area of the capital and largest city, San José. Costa Rica was sparsely inhabited by people before coming under Spanish rule in the 16th century. Since then, Costa Rica has remained among the most stable, prosperous, following a brief civil war, it permanently abolished its army in 1949, becoming one of only a few sovereign nations without a standing army. Costa Rica is a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. The country has consistently performed favourably in the Human Development Index, placing 69th in the world as of 2015 and its rapidly developing economy, once heavily dependent on agriculture, has diversified to include sectors such as finance, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism. Costa Rica is known for its environmental policies, being the only country to meet all five UNDP criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. Costa Rica officially plans to become a country by 2021. In 2012, it became the first country in the Americas to ban recreational hunting, historians have classified the indigenous people of Costa Rica as belonging to the Intermediate Area, where the peripheries of the Mesoamerican and Andean native cultures overlapped. More recently, pre-Columbian Costa Rica has also described as part of the Isthmo-Colombian Area. The oldest evidence of occupation in Costa Rica is associated with the arrival of various groups of hunter-gatherers about 10,000 to 7,000 years BCE in the Turrialba Valley. The presence of Clovis culture type spearheads and arrows from South America opens the possibility that, in this area, agriculture became evident in the populations that lived in Costa Rica about 5,000 years ago. They mainly grew tubers and roots, for the first and second millennia BCE there were already settled farming communities. These were small and scattered, although the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the livelihood in the territory is still unknown. The earliest use of pottery appears around 2,000 to 3,000 BCE, shards of pots, cylindrical vases, platters, gourds and other forms of vases decorated with grooves, prints, and some modelled after animals have been found. The impact of indigenous peoples on modern Costa Rican culture has been small compared to other nations. Costa Rica was described as the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America by a Spanish governor in 1719, for all these reasons, Costa Rica was, by and large, unappreciated and overlooked by the Spanish Crown and left to develop on its own. Costa Rica became a democracy with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil, like the rest of Central America, Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain
11.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
12.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
13.
Astronaut
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An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
14.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
15.
Newton, Massachusetts
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Newton is a suburban city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. Rather than having a city center, Newton resembles a patchwork of thirteen villages. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Newton was 85,146, Newtons proximity to Boston along with its historic homes, good public schools, and safe and quiet neighborhoods make it a desirable community for those who commute to Boston. Newton is served by three modes of transit run by the MBTA, light rail, commuter rail. Newton has been ranked as one of the best cities to live in in the country. In August 2012, Money magazine named Newton fourth best small city among places to live in America and has named the safest city in the country according to Aneki. Newton was settled in 1630 as part of the newe towne, there are several historical sites of interest in the Newton area. These include Crystal Lake, the East Parish and West Parish Burying Grounds, and the Jackson Homestead, historian and local resident Diana Muir has written about the history surrounding Bulloughs Pond, a scene from the 2008 production of The Women was also filmed there. Portions of the 2016 drama film Patriots Day, about the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing and starring Boston native Mark Wahlberg, were filmed at Lasell College in the city, Newton was settled in 1630 as part of the newe towne, which was renamed Cambridge in 1638. Newton was incorporated as a town, known as Cambridge Village, in 1688, then renamed Newtown in 1691. It became a city in 1873, Newton is known as The Garden City. Newton, according to Muir, became one of Americas earliest commuter suburbs, the Boston and Worcester, one of Americas earliest railroads, reached West Newton in 1834. Wealthy Bostonian businessmen took advantage of the new commuting opportunity offered by the railroad, building homes on erstwhile farmland of West Newton hill. Muir points out that these early commuters needed sufficient wealth to employ a groom and keep horses, one wave began with the streetcar lines that made many parts of Newton accessible for commuters in the late nineteenth century. The next wave came in the 1920s when automobiles became affordable to a upper middle class. Even then, however, Oak Hill continued to be farmed, mostly market gardening, Newton is not a typical commuter suburb since many people who live in Newton do not work in downtown Boston. Most Newtonites work in Newton and other surrounding cities and towns, the city has two symphony orchestras, the New Philharmonia Orchestra of Massachusetts and the Newton Symphony Orchestra. Each April on Patriots Day, the Boston Marathon is run through the city and it then turns right onto Route 30 for the long haul into Boston
16.
Social work
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Social work is an academic and practice-based professional discipline that seeks to facilitate the welfare of communities, individuals, families, and groups. Social work tries to promote change and grassroots empowerment of people and aids in socioeconomic development, social cohesion. A practicing professional with a degree in social work is called a social worker, the practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, the second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief – relief of paupers. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century and this approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement. This was accompanied by an easily defined movement, the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work. Because poverty was the focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work. With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a direct threat to the social order. The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and it created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the impotent poor, was in the form of a payment or items of food or clothing also known as outdoor relief. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 completely overhauled the system in Britain. This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions, the 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses. A new philosophy of scientific charity emerged, which stated charity should be secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty, the organisation claimed to use scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed. Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of social work
17.
Volunteering
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Volunteering is generally considered an altruistic activity where an individual or group provides services for no financial gain to benefit another person, group or organization. Volunteering is also renowned for skill development and is intended to promote goodness or to improve human quality of life. Volunteering may have benefits for the volunteer as well as for the person or community served. It is also intended to make contacts for possible employment, many volunteers are specifically trained in the areas they work, such as medicine, education, or emergency rescue. Others serve on a basis, such as in response to a natural disaster. The verb was first recorded in 1755 and it was derived from the noun volunteer, in C.1600, one who offers himself for military service, from the Middle French voluntaire. In the non-military sense, the word was first recorded during the 1630s, the word volunteering has more recent usage—still predominantly military—coinciding with the phrase community service. In a military context, an army is a military body whose soldiers chose to enter service. Such volunteers do not work for free and are given regular pay, during this time, America experienced the Great Awakening. People became aware of the disadvantaged and realized the cause for movement against slavery, younger people started helping the needy in their communities. In 1851, the first YMCA in the United States was started, followed seven years later by the first YWCA. During the American Civil War, women volunteered their time to sew supplies for the soldiers and the Angel of the Battlefield Clara Barton and a team of volunteers began providing aid to servicemen. Barton founded the American Red Cross in 1881 and began mobilizing volunteers for disaster relief operations, the Salvation Army is one of the oldest and largest organizations working for disadvantaged people. Though it is a charity organization, it has organized a number of volunteering programs since its inception, prior to the 19th century, few formal charitable organizations existed to assist people in need. The Great Depression saw one of the first large-scale, nationwide efforts to coordinate volunteering for a specific need, after World War II, people shifted the focus of their altruistic passions to other areas, including helping the poor and volunteering overseas. A major development was the Peace Corps in the United States in 1960, when President Lyndon B. Johnson declared a War on Poverty in 1964, volunteer opportunities started to expand and continued into the next few decades. The process for finding volunteer work became more formalized, with more volunteer centers forming and new ways to find work appearing on the World Wide Web. According to the Corporation for National and Community Service, about 64.5 million Americans, or 26.5 percent of the adult population and this calculates at about 125–150 hours per year or 3 hours per week at a rate of $22 per hour
18.
Lynn, Massachusetts
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Lynn is the largest city in Essex County, Massachusetts. Situated on the Atlantic Ocean, approximately 10 miles north of downtown Boston, an early colonial settlement and industrial center, Lynn was long colloquially referred to as the City of Sin, owing to its historic reputation for crime and vice. The city also is home to the southernmost portion of the Essex Coastal Scenic Byway, Lynn Heritage State Park, prior to European colonization, the area today known as Lynn was inhabited by the Naumkeag people. European settlement of the area was begun in 1629 by Edmund Ingalls, the English settled Lynn not long after the 1607 establishment of Jamestown, Virginia--the first successful English colony in North America--and the 1620 arrival of the Mayflower at Plymouth. The area today encompassing Lynn was originally incorporated in 1631 as Saugus, a noteworthy early Lynn colonist, Thomas Halsey, left Lynn to settle the East End of Long Island, where he founded the Town of Southampton, New York. The resulting Halsey House—the oldest extant frame house in New York State --is now open to the public, under the aegis of the Southampton Colonial Society. Further European settlement of Lynn led to several independent towns being formed, with Reading created in 1644, Lynnfield in 1782, Saugus in 1815, Swampscott in 1852, and Nahant in 1853. The City of Lynn was incorporated in 1850, taking its name from Kings Lynn, Norfolk, England, Colonial Lynn was an early center of tannery and shoe-making, which began in 1635. The boots worn by Continental Army soldiers during the Revolutionary War were made in Lynn, and this legacy is reflected in the citys seal, which features a colonial boot. In 1816, a stage coach was operating through Lynn. By 1836,23 stage coaches left the Lynn Hotel for Boston each day, the Eastern Railroad Line between Salem and East Boston opened on August 28,1838. This was later merged with the Boston and Maine Railroad and called the Eastern Division, in 1847 telegraph wires passed through Lynn, but no telegraph service station was built until 1858. During the middle of the century, estates and beach cottages were constructed along Lynns shoreline. Many of the structures built during this period are situated within the National Register-listed Diamond Historic District. Further inland, industrial activity contemporaneously expanded in Lynn, shoe manufacturers, led by Charles A. Coffin and Silas Abbott Barton, invested in the early electric industry, specifically in 1883 with Elihu Thomson and his Thomson-Houston Electric Company. That company merged with Edison Electric Company of Schenectady, New York, forming General Electric in 1892, Coffin served as the first president of General Electric. Initially the General Electric plant specialized in arc lights, electric motors, later it specialized in aircraft electrical systems and components, and aircraft engines were built in Lynn during WWII. That engine plant evolved into the current jet engine plant during WWII because of contacts at MIT in Cambridge
19.
Boston Public Schools
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Boston Public Schools is a school district serving the city of Boston, Massachusetts, United States. The district is led by a Superintendent, hired by the Boston School Committee, the School Committee sets policy for the district and approves the districts annual operating budget. This governing body replaced a 13-member elected committee after a referendum vote in 1991. The superintendent serves as a member of the mayors cabinet, from October 1995 through June 2006, Dr. Thomas W. Payzant served as superintendent. A former undersecretary in the US Department of Education, Payzant was the first superintendent selected by the appointed School Committee. Upon Dr. Payzants retirement, Chief Operating Officer Michael G. Contompasis, former headmaster of Boston Latin School, became Interim Superintendent, and was appointed superintendent in October 2006. In June 2007, the Boston School Committee voted unanimously to appoint Dr. Carol R. Johnson as the next superintendent, Dr. Johnson had served as superintendent of the Memphis City Schools since 2003. Dr. Johnsons tenure ended in summer 2013, and John McDonough served as superintendent until July 1,2015. Currently the superintendent is Dr. Tommy Chang and it is also the home of the nations first public school, Boston Latin School, founded in 1635. The Mather School opened in 1639 as the nations first public school, and English High School. In the mid-1970s, conflict raged in Bostons schools over forced busing of students, the state had enacted the Racial Imbalance Law in 1965, requiring school districts to design and implement plans to effect racial balancing in schools that were more than 50% non-white. After years of consistent failure by the Boston School Committee to comply with the law, an exodus of the citys white residents to the suburbs or private schools followed. In 2012, 13% of Boston public school students were white, in September 2006 the district won the Broad Prize for Urban Education. The national prize, sponsored by philanthropist Eli Broad, includes $500,000 in college scholarships to graduates from the winning district, in most years since the prize program began in 2002, Boston has been a finalist, earning $125,000 in scholarships each year. The district came under fire when it accepted the award and forgot to invite any teachers to the celebration, the forgotten teachers picketed the event with retirees numbering 1000. The orange Broad banner became a sign of disrespect to the teachers who put a bounty on every stolen sign. The money gathered was donated to charity, Mr. Broad was not amused and offered to replace 200 banners, but the city told him to keep his banners. The city never heard back from Mr Broad who took his money and reputation to LA, the banners now reside in Mr. Broads mansion next to his collection of right-wing paraphernalia and wild boars
20.
Jamaica Plain
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Jamaica Plain is a neighborhood of 4.4 square miles in Boston, Massachusetts, US. Founded by Boston Puritans seeking farm land to the south, it was part of the town of Roxbury. The community seceded from Roxbury as a part of the new town of West Roxbury in 1851, and became part of Boston when West Roxbury was annexed to Boston in 1874. In the 19th century, Jamaica Plain became one of the first streetcar suburbs in America and home to a significant portion of Bostons Emerald Necklace of parks, according to the 2010 Census, it had a population of 37,468. Shortly after the founding of Boston and Roxbury in 1630, William Heaths family, later, for services rendered during the Pequot War, Joseph Weld received a grant of 278 acres of land between South Street and Centre Street. His son John later built a home along South Street in what is now the Arnold Arboretum, in the late 17th century, the name Jamaica first appears for the area of Roxbury between Stony Brook and the Great Pond. There are a number of theories regarding the origin of the name Jamaica Plain, a well-known theory traces the origin to Jamaica rum, a reference to Jamaican cane sugars role in the Triangle Trade of sugar, rum, and slaves. However, a likely explanation is that Jamaica is an Anglicization of the name of Kuchamakin. On some maps, until the mid-19th century, the area was marked as Jamaica Plains, John Ruggles and Hugh Thomas donated land in 1676 for the building of the communitys first school. A gift of 75 acres of south of the Great Pond by John Eliot provided financial support for the school. During the 18th century, the farms of the Jamaica section of Roxbury transitioned from subsistence to market orientation, at the same time, wealthy men bought land and built estates in the bucolic countryside. In 1740, Benjamin Faneuil, nephew of Boston merchant Peter Faneuil, in 1752, Commodore Joshua Loring bought the old Polley farm and built a home to which he retired. At Jamaica Pond, the governor, Francis Bernard, built a summer home on 60 acres. In 1775, troops from Rhode Island and Connecticut were quartered with residents of Jamaica Plain, general Washington stationed troops on Weld Hill, todays Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum. The units protected the south to Dedham, where the American arsenal was kept. With the American Revolution, many of the Tory estate owners fled the country, in 1777, John Hancock purchased an estate near the pond. The widow Ann Doane bought the estate owned by Loyalist Joshua Loring. She soon was remarried, to attorney David S. Greenough, when Samuel Adams became governor of Massachusetts, he bought the former Peacock Tavern at todays Centre and Allandale streets, near the Faulkner Hospital
21.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
22.
Donald Berwick
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Donald M. Berwick is a former Administrator of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. Prior to his work in the administration, he was President, on July 7,2010, Barack Obama appointed Berwick to serve as the Administrator of CMS through a recess appointment. On December 2,2011, he resigned because of heavy Republican opposition to his appointment, on June 18,2013, Berwick declared his candidacy for governor of Massachusetts, but lost the Democratic Party nomination to Attorney General Martha Coakley. In March 2012 he joined the Center for American Progress as a Senior Fellow, Berwick grew up in Moodus, Connecticut. His father, Philip, worked as the family doctor. His mother, Rosalind Fine, was the caretaker of Berwick. Because of Fines efforts to promote the construction of a new school in Moodus. Berwick graduated from Nathan Hale-Ray High School and went on to obtain his B. A. from Harvard College, while at Harvard, Berwick met his future wife, Ann, in his freshman biology class, where they were lab partners. The couple have four children, Ben, Dan, Jessica, Berwick earned both an M. D. cum laude from Harvard Medical School and an M. P. P. from John F. Kennedy School of Government in 1972. He completed his residency in pediatrics at Childrens Hospital Boston. Berwick began his career as a pediatrician at Harvard Community Health Plan, in that position, Berwick investigated quality control measures in other industries such as aeronautics and manufacturing, in order to consider their application in health care settings. Based on this work, Berwick left Harvard Community Health Plan in 1989 and he is also a pediatrician, Adjunct Staff in the Department of Medicine at Childrens Hospital Boston, and a Consultant in Pediatrics at Massachusetts General Hospital. Berwick has published over 129 articles in journals on health care policy, decision analysis, technology assessment. Berwicks critics have cited his statements about the need for care to redistribute resources from the rich to the poor. They quote Berwick as saying, The decision is not whether or not we will ration care—the decision is whether we will ration with our eyes open. Berwick said that Republicans had distorted his meaning, My point is that someone, thats the way its set up. The government, unlike many private health plans, is working in the daylight. For political reasons, the Obama administration made Berwick stay evasive and avoid defending his past statements on the British health service, spending caps, excellent health care is by definition redistributional
23.
Governor of Massachusetts
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the head of the executive branch of Massachusetts state government and serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces. The current governor is Charlie Baker, the Governor of Massachusetts is the chief executive of the Commonwealth, and is supported by a number of subordinate officers. He, like most other officers, senators, and representatives, was originally elected annually. In 1918 this was changed to a term, and since 1966 the office of governor has carried a four-year term. The Governor of Massachusetts does not receive a mansion, other official residence, instead, he resides in his own private residence. The title His Excellency is a throwback to the appointed governors of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The first governor to use the title was Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont, in 1699, since he was an Earl, the title was retained until 1742, when an order from King George II forbade its further use. However, the framers of the state constitution revived it because they found it fitting to dignify the governor with this title, the governor also serves as commander-in-chief of the Commonwealths armed forces. According to the constitution, whenever the chair of the governor is vacant. The first time came into use was five years after the constitutions adoption in 1785. Most recently, Jane Swift became acting governor upon the resignation of Paul Cellucci, under this system, the lieutenant governor retains his or her position and title as lieutenant governor and becomes acting governor, not governor. The lieutenant governor, when acting as governor, is referred to as the lieutenant governor, the Massachusetts Constitution does not use the term acting governor. When the constitution was first adopted, the Governors Council was charged with acting as governor in the event that both the governorship and lieutenant governorship were vacant. This occurred in 1799 when Governor Increase Sumner died in office on June 7,1799, acting Governor Gill never received a lieutenant and died on May 20,1800, between that years election and the inauguration of Governor-elect Caleb Strong. The Governors Council served as the executive for ten days, the councils chair, the lieutenant governor does not succeed but only discharges powers and duties as acting governor. The governor has a 10-person cabinet, each of whom oversees a portion of the government under direct administration, see Government of Massachusetts for a complete listing. The tradition of the ceremonial door originated when departing Governor Benjamin Butler kicked open the front door, incoming governors usually choose at least one past governors portrait to hang in their office. The governor-elect is then escorted by the sergeant-at-arms to the House Chamber and sworn in by the president before a joint session of the House
24.
Majority minority
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In that context, the term is first used by the Supreme Court in 1977. The Court had previously used the term in employment discrimination and labor relations cases, in the United States of America majority–minority or minority–majority area is a United States state or jurisdiction whose population is composed of less than 50% non-Hispanic whites. Racial data is derived from self-identification questions on the U. S. Census, four states are majority–minority as of 2010, Hawaii, New Mexico, California, and Texas. The District of Columbia reached a majority black status during the stages of the Great Migration. Although the district is still majority–minority, blacks now make up only 48. 3% of the population, increases have been among minorities who identify as Asians, whites have also moved into the district in increasing number since the turn of the 21st century. The percentage of white residents has fallen below 60% in Maryland, Georgia, Nevada, Florida, Arizona, New York, New Jersey, Mississippi. All populated United States territories are majority–minority areas and they never had a non-Hispanic white majority. As of 2012,50 metropolitan areas in the U. S. are majority–minority, as of 2015, 12% of U. S. counties are majority–minority. The whole United States of America is projected to become majority–minority in 2043, with alternate immigration scenarios, the whole U. S. is projected to become majority–minority sometime between 2041 and 2046. Minority children will be the majority in the entire United States by 2019, minority children are the majority among children in the following ten states, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Mississippi, and Maryland. From colonial times to the early 20th century, much of the Lower South had a black majority, three Southern states had populations that were majority black, Louisiana, South Carolina and Mississippi. In the same period, Georgia, Alabama, and Florida, had populations that were nearly 50% black, while Maryland, North Carolina, Texas black population reached to 30%. The demographics of these states changed markedly from the 1890s through the 1950s, one-fifth of Floridas black population had left the state by 1940, for instance. The District of Columbia, one of the magnets for Great Migration blacks, was long the sole majority–minority federal jurisdiction in the continental U. S, in 2015 the black population represented only 48. 3% of the population—a considerable decline from 75% which in the late 1970s. At the same time, Asians and Hispanics have increased in the District, since 1965, foreign immigration has spurred increases in the number of majority–minority areas, most notably in California. Its legal resident population was 89. 5% non-Hispanic white in the 1940s, many cities in the United States became majority–minority by 2010. C. The first data for New Mexico was a 5% sample in 1940 which estimated non-Hispanic whites at 50. 9%, in U. S. censuses since 1990, self-identification has been the primary way to identify race. Presumption of race based on countries or regions given in the question is used only when a respondent has answered the ancestry question
25.
Inner city
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The inner city is the central area of a major city or metropolis. Inner city areas tend to have population densities than outer suburbs, with more of the population living inside multi-floored townhouses. Sociologists sometimes turn this euphemism into a designation, applying the term inner city to such residential areas. However, some city areas of American cities have undergone gentrification. Such connotations are less common in countries, where deprived areas may be located in outlying parts of cities. For instance, in many European and Brazilian cities, the city is the most prosperous part of the metropolis, where housing is expensive. Poverty and crime are more associated with the distant suburbs, the same is true of many American cities, like New York and San Francisco, and is becoming true of other cities as they become revitalized. The Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French and Swedish words for suburb often have a negative connotation similar to that of the English term inner city, the American sociological usage is rooted in the middle 20th century. The loss of population and affluent taxpayers caused many inner city communities to fall into urban decay, late in the century, many such areas underwent gentrification, especially in the Northeast and West coast, depriving them of the inner city label despite their unchanged location. Notable exceptions are cities built in the 20th century, usually planned with modernist concepts, such as Brasília, Goiânia, Belo Horizonte, Campo Grande and Palmas, under the personal car culture. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, thousands of walled townhouses and condos are being built in, inside the Inner City, Life Under the Cutting Edge. This book takes Hackney in London as a study of inner city urban deprivation
26.
The Boston Globe
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The Boston Globe is an American daily newspaper based in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded in 1872 by Charles H. Taylor, it was held until 1973. The company was acquired in 1993 by The New York Times Company, in 2011, a BostonGlobe. com subscription site was launched. In 2013, the newspaper and websites were purchased by John W. Henry, the Boston Globe has been awarded 26 Pulitzer Prizes since 1966, and its chief print rival is the Boston Herald. The Boston Globe was founded in 1872 by six Boston businessmen, including Charles H. Taylor and Eben Jordan, the first issue was published on March 4,1872, and cost four cents. Originally a morning daily, it began a Sunday edition in 1877, in 1878, The Boston Globe started an afternoon edition called The Boston Evening Globe, which ceased publication in 1979. By the 1890s, The Boston Globe had become a stronghold, in 1964, Tom Winship succeeded his father, Larry Winship, as editor. The younger Winship transformed The Globe from a local paper into a regional paper of national distinction. He served as editor until 1984, during which time the paper won a dozen Pulitzer Prizes, the Boston Globe was a private company until 1973 when it went public under the name Affiliated Publications. It continued to be managed by the descendants of Charles H. Taylor, in 1993, The New York Times Company purchased Affiliated Publications for US$1.1 billion, making The Boston Globe a wholly owned subsidiary of The New York Times parent. The Jordan and Taylor families received substantial New York Times Company stock, Boston. com, the online edition of The Boston Globe, was launched on the World Wide Web in 1995. Consistently ranked among the top ten websites in America, it has won numerous national awards. Under the helm of editor Martin Baron and then Brian McGrory, the Boston Globe is credited with allowing Peter Gammons to start his Notes section on baseball, which has become a mainstay in all major newspapers nationwide. In 2004, Gammons was selected as the 56th recipient of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award for outstanding baseball writing, given by the BBWAA, and was honored at the Baseball Hall of Fame on July 31,2005. In 2007, Charlie Savage, whose reports on President Bushs use of signing statements made national news, the Boston Globe has consistently been ranked in the forefront of American journalism. The Boston Globe hosts 28 blogs covering a variety of topics including Boston sports, local politics, on April 2,2009, The New York Times Company threatened to close the paper if its unions did not agree to $20,000,000 of cost savings. Some of the cost savings include reducing union employees pay by 5%, ending pension contributions, the Boston Globe eliminated the equivalent of fifty full-time jobs, among buy-outs and layoffs, it swept out most of the part-time employees in the editorial sections. The papers other three major unions had agreed to concessions on May 3,2009, after The New York Times Company threatened to give the government 60-days notice that it intended to close the paper
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Marc R. Pacheco
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Marc R. Pacheco is an American state legislator serving in the Massachusetts Senate. He represents the 1st Plymouth and Bristol district, which includes his hometown of Taunton and he is a Democrat who has served since 1993. From 1989 to 1992 he was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, prior to serving in the Massachusetts legislature he was a member of the Taunton school committee and the Chief Assistant to the Mayor of Taunton. Pacheco ran in the 9th congressional district special election held in 2001 and he finished fourth in the Democratic primary, with 13% of the vote
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Bruce Tarr
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Bruce E. Tarr is the minority leader of the Massachusetts Senate. He has been a member of the Senate since 1995, representing the 1st Essex and Middlesex District and he is a member of the United States Republican Party and a former member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In June 2009 fellow Republican state senator Scott Brown described the 5 member senate caucus as led by Senator Tarr, Tarr was born in Gloucester, Massachusetts. He is a graduate of Suffolk University, for his undergraduate, prior to being elected to the Senate in 1994, he was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1991–1995. General Court profile Personal web site
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Barbara L'Italien
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Barbara A. LItalien is an American politician from the state of Massachusetts and, as of January 2015, the State Senator from the 2nd Essex and Middlesex District. She was previously the director of government affairs for the Treasurer and Receiver-General of Massachusetts, from 2003 to January 2011 she was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives representing the 18th Essex District. LItalien was born in Passaic, New Jersey and later graduated from Andover High School in 1978 and she attended Merrimack College and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Science in 1984. She also worked with West Suburban Elder Services with the title of Supervisor of Case Management, L’Italien is the first State Representative to represent the 18th Essex district, which was created by redistricting following the 2000 census. She held office from 2003 to 2011, in the districts first campaign in 2002, L’Italien defeated Republican Kathleen Sachs and unenrolled candidate Alfred DePietro, winning by less than 1000 votes. In 2004, she defended the seat against Republican Maria Marasco, in 2006 and 2008, Republican Lawrence Brennan ran against L’Italien, but she defeated him with 56% of the vote in 2006 and 55% in 2008. In 2010 she was defeated for re-election by Andover Republican Jim Lyons, after her House term ended in January 2011, she became director of government affairs for the Treasurer and Receiver-General of Massachusetts, Steve Grossman. LItalien was elected to the Massachusetts Senate in November 2014 to succeed Barry Finegold in the 2nd Essex and Middlesex seat and she took office January 7,2015. Re-elect Barbara LItalien L’Italien Representative Page
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Eric Lesser
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Eric Philip Lesser is an American politician. He serves in the Massachusetts State Senate and is a former White House aide, Lesser is one of the originators of the White House Seder. Lesser grew up in Longmeadow, Massachusetts, and graduated from Longmeadow High School, Lesser was known as an advocate for public schools, working with students, parents, and teachers to increase school funding and improve education. He also worked for Congressman Richard Neal and Senator Ted Kennedy, Lesser was an active member of Sinai Temple, coordinating volunteer activities for high school students. He was also a volunteer with the Longmeadow Democratic Town Committee. Lesser’s father, Martin, is a doctor in Holyoke, Massachusetts. In 2010, he served a tour of duty in Iraq, lesser’s mother, Joan, is a social worker in Holyoke. After high school, Lesser received his bachelors degree from Harvard College, while in college, Lesser worked on the Deval Patrick gubernatorial campaign and led the Harvard College Democrats. Lesser also led a group on Congressional Redistricting Reform. Lesser was a student at Harvard Law School, where he was named of the “most impressive Harvard Law students” by Business Insider, after college, Lesser joined Barack Obama’s 2008 presidential campaign, helping stage events in New Hampshire. After the primary, Lesser was tapped to be the campaign’s “Ground Logistics Coordinator, ” traveling with the candidate to 47 states, six countries, during the campaign, Lesser organized an impromptu Passover Seder during a campaign stop in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. At the Passover Seder, then-Senator Obama promised “Next year in the White House. ”After the campaign, David Axelrod tapped Lesser to serve as his Special Assistant, Lesser was described as a “wunderkind” and a “West Wing mascot” during his time at the White House. Lesser also worked at the Council of Economic Advisers, the White House unit charged with offering the President objective economic advice, the seder is a reunion of the original group who met in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania during the 2008 campaign. Lesser brings handmade shmurah matzah from the Chabad-Lubavitch center in Springfield, over the years the Seder has grown in prominence. President Obama has discussed the Seder with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President Obama has spoken of the Seder in a speech before the American Israel Public Affairs Committee and in an address before the Israeli people. On February 18,2014, Lesser announced his candidacy for Massachusetts State Senate, on September 9, Lesser won the Democratic primary in the race for state senate. On November 4, Lesser defeated Republican Debra Boronski and America First candidate Mike Franco to win the State Senate seat, Lesser is a leading advocate of a high-speed rail system to ease travel between Eastern and Western Massachusetts. He believes that a high speed line between Springfield and Boston would lead to an increase in employment and an overall boost to the economy in Western Massachusetts
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Stan Rosenberg
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Rosenberg, commonly known as Stan Rosenberg, is an American politician from Amherst, Massachusetts who currently serves as President of the Massachusetts Senate. A Democrat, he has served in the Senate ever since, raised in foster care, Rosenberg is a 1967 graduate of Revere High School. He went on to graduate from the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1977 with a degree in Arts Administration, Rosenberg was a member of the University of Massachusetts Minuteman Marching Band where he played the tuba, and was a Brother of Kappa Kappa Psi. Subsequently, Rosenberg worked as an aide to then-state Senator John Olver from 1980 to 1983 and he also served as an Executive Director of the Massachusetts Democratic Party from 1983 to 1985, and as the district director for Congressman Chester G. Atkins from 1985 to 1986. He was appointed as the Senate Majority Leader by Senate President Therese Murray on January 31,2013, on January 7,2015 he was unanimously elected President of the Massachusetts Senate of the 189th General Court. During the 187th General Court, he served as the Senate Chair of the Special Joint Committee on Redistricting following the 2000 and 2010 US Census, Rosenberg was also a key architect in the battle for same-sex marriage in Massachusetts. Rosenberg is also a founder and co-chair of the Massachusetts Legislatures Foster Kid Caucus, the caucus seeks to improve the conditions and address issues related to foster and adopted children. He is also a member of both the Council of State Governments and Americans for the Arts. In Hampshire County, Northampton, Amherst, Hadley, Hatfield, Pelham, ethics & Rules Rosenberg currently resides in Amherst with his spouse, Bryon. He is one of five openly LGBT members of the Massachusetts General Court, alongside Representatives Sarah Peake, Kate Hogan, Denise Andrews and Liz Malia
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Patricia D. Jehlen
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Patricia Deats Jehlen is an American politician and teacher, who has served as a member of the Massachusetts Senate since 2005. She represents the 2nd Middlesex district, which includes the cities of Medford and Somerville, as well as portions of the city of Cambridge, Jehlen is a member of the Democratic Party. Patricia Deats was born October 14,1943 in Austin, Texas, the child of Paul Deats, a Methodist minister, and Ruth. She had two sisters, Carolyn and Fran, and an older brother, Randy. The family moved to Massachusetts in 1950, when Paul took a job at the Boston University School of Theology, Jehlen later attended Swarthmore College, receiving a B. A. in history, and Harvard University, completing a masters degree in teaching. She later received a masters degree from the University of Massachusetts Boston. She currently teaches a course in Health Politics and Public Policy at the Boston University School of Public Health, Jehlen then began work as a secondary school history teacher. In 1976, Jehlen ran and was elected to the Somerville School Committee and she served on the school committee until 1991, acting as its chair in 1980 and 1988. Among her successful legislation were bills to increase literacy for blind people, ensure the rights of people living with mental illness, a special election was soon declared to fill his seat. Jehlen, whose state house district lay within the senate district vacated by Shannon and she also serves on the committees on Housing and Judiciary. Jehlen, as chair of Elder Affairs, increased the Personal Needs Allowance for people in rest homes and she also got $6.2 million in additional funding for homecare, allowing 260 nursing home-eligible seniors to stay in their communities. Her top legislative priorities are equitable and excellent education, universal and affordable health care, jobs with decent wages and benefits, and paid family leave. In the Massachusetts gubernatorial election,2014, Jehlen endorsed Don Berwick for Governor of Massachusetts In the Democratic Party presidential primaries,2016, Jehlen endorsed Bernie Sanders
