1.
Falmouth, Cornwall
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Falmouth is a town, civil parish and port on the River Fal on the south coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It has a resident population of 27,422. See also, Miss Susan Gays Falmouth chronology The name Falmouth is of English origin and it is claimed that an earlier Celtic name for the place was Peny-cwm-cuic which is the same as the anglicised Pennycomequick district in Plymouth. Falmouth was where Henry VIII built Pendennis Castle to defend Carrick Roads in 1540, the main town of the district was then at Penryn. Sir John Killigrew created the town of Falmouth shortly after 1613, in the late 16th century, under threat from the Spanish Armada, the defences at Pendennis were strengthened by the building of angled ramparts. During the Civil War, Pendennis Castle was the second to last fort to surrender to the Parliamentary Army. After the Civil War, Sir Peter Killigrew received royal patronage when he gave land for the building of the Church of King Charles the Martyr, dedicated to Charles I, the Martyr. The seal of Falmouth was blazoned as An eagle displayed with two heads and on each wing with a tower, the arms of the borough of Falmouth were Arg. The Falmouth Packet Service operated out of Falmouth for over 160 years between 1689 and 1851 and its purpose was to carry mail to and from Britains growing empire. As the most south-westerly good harbour in Great Britain, Falmouth was often the first port for returning Royal Navy ships, in 1805 news of Britains victory and Admiral Nelsons death at Trafalgar was landed here from the schooner Pickle and taken to London by stagecoach. On 2 October 1836 HMS Beagle anchored at Falmouth at the end of her noted survey voyage around the world and that evening, Charles Darwin left the ship and took the Mail coach to his family home at The Mount, Shrewsbury. The ship stayed a few days and Captain Robert FitzRoy visited the Fox family at nearby Penjerrick Gardens, darwins shipmate Sulivan later made his home in the nearby waterside village of Flushing, then home to many naval officers. In 1839 Falmouth was the scene of a gold dust robbery when £47,600 worth of gold dust from Brazil was stolen on arrival at the port, the Falmouth Docks were developed from 1858, and the Royal National Lifeboat Institution opened Falmouth Lifeboat Station nearby in 1867. The present building dates from 1993 and also houses Her Majestys Coastguard, the RNLI operates two lifeboats from Falmouth, Richard Cox Scott, a 17-metre Severn-class all-weather boat, and Eve Park, an Atlantic 75 inshore lifeboat. Near the town centre is Kimberley Park, the land pre-dates 1877, and is named after the Earl of Kimberley who leased the parks land to the borough of Falmouth. Today the park has exotic and ornate plants and trees, the Cornwall Railway reached Falmouth on 24 August 1863. The railway brought new prosperity to Falmouth, as it made it easy for tourists to reach the town and it also allowed the swift transport of the goods recently disembarked from the ships in the port. The town now has three railway stations, Falmouth Docks railway station is the original terminus and is close to Pendennis Castle and Gyllyngvase beach
2.
Charles de Steuben
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Baron Charles Auguste Guillaume Steuben, also Charles de Steuben, was a German-born French Romantic painter and lithographer active during the Napoleonic Era. De Steuben was born the son of the Duke of Württemberg officer Carl Hans Ernst von Steuben. At the age of twelve he moved with his father, who entered Russian service as a captain, to Saint Petersburg, where he studied drawing at the Art Academy classes as a guest student. Steuben, then fourteen years old, was a Page at the ducal court, in 1803 Steuben traveled with a letter to his friend, painter François Gérard, in Paris. Gerard took in many penniless aspiring artists and students for training, while working in a studio, the young art student first met the naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, whose brother Wilhelm von Humboldt was the founder of the University of Berlin. De Steuben in 1812 debuted at the Paris Salon with his painting of Peter the Great in the storm on Lake Ladoga, encouraged by this first success, Steuben continued with a number of historical paintings. In 1820 he married a painter named Eleanor Trollé, whom he had met during his training. At the time of their wedding, the couple already had a son, at the behest of Pierre Fontaine in 1828 de Steuben painted La Clémence de Henri IV après la Bataille dIvry, depicting a victorious Henry IV of France at the Battle of Ivry. De Steubens Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732, painted between 1834 and 1837, shows the triumphant Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, also known as the Battle of Poitiers, life in the French capital was a repeated source of internal conflict for Steuben. The allure of bohemian Paris and its military-dominated upbringing made him a wanderer between worlds, as an official commitment to his adopted country he became a French citizen in 1823. However, the irregularity of his income as a freelance artist was in contrast to his sense of duty, to secure his family financially, he took a job as an art teacher at the École Polytechnique, where he briefly trained Gustave Courbet. In 1843 Steuben went back to Russia for 11 years, in Saint Petersburg he created seven paintings for the Saint Isaacs Cathedral. After a stroke, the artist returned to Paris in 1854, a sick man, de Steuben died in 1856 at the age of 68 years in his adopted hometown of Paris. Steubens son Joseph Alexander was taught painting by his father, in 1840 he was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Salon for his highly acclaimed paintings. The love of painting was a lifelong passion of Steuben. He was a friend to Eugène Delacroix, the leader of the French Romantic school of painting. Steuben was also part of artistic movement, which replaced classicism in French painting. The painter of the Revolution, as Jacques-Louis David was called by his students, the subjects of his historical paintings supported historical change
3.
Neoclassicism
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The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, laterally competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style continued throughout the 19th, 20th, European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c.1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Baroque and Rococo styles. Each neo-classicism selects some models among the range of classics that are available to it. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of Late Antiquity, the Rococo art of ancient Palmyra came as a revelation, through engravings in Woods The Ruins of Palmyra. While the movement is described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism. The case of the main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well. The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology, the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe, Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model. In English, the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the arts, the similar movement in English literature. This, which had been dominant for decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar, in music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and Neoclassicism is used of 20th-century developments. Ingress coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann. The work of artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style. Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and his main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the success of Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of government patronage in art
4.
Genre art
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Genre art is the pictorial representation in any of various media of scenes or events from everyday life, such as markets, domestic settings, interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes. Such representations may be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, some variations of the term genre art specify the medium or type of visual work, as in genre painting, genre prints, genre photographs, and so on. Rather confusingly, the meaning of genre, covering any particular combination of an artistic medium. Painting was divided into a hierarchy of genres, with painting at the top, as the most difficult and therefore prestigious. But history paintings are a genre in painting, not genre works, the following concentrates on painting, but genre motifs were also extremely popular in many forms of the decorative arts, especially from the Rococo of the early 18th century onwards. Single figures or small groups decorated a huge variety of such as porcelain, furniture, wallpaper. Genre painting, also called genre scene or petit genre, depicts aspects of life by portraying ordinary people engaged in common activities. A work would often be considered as a genre work even if it could be shown that the artist had used a known member of his family. In this case it would depend on whether the work was likely to have intended by the artist to be perceived as a portrait—sometimes a subjective question. The depictions can be realistic, imagined, or romanticized by the artist, because of their familiar and frequently sentimental subject matter, genre paintings have often proven popular with the bourgeoisie, or middle class. Genre themes appear in all art traditions. These were part of a pattern of Mannerist inversion in Antwerp painting, giving low elements previously in the background of images prominent emphasis. The generally small scale of these paintings was appropriate for their display in the homes of middle class purchasers. Often the subject of a painting was based on a popular emblem from an Emblem book. The merry company showed a group of figures at a party, other common types of scenes showed markets or fairs, village festivities, or soldiers in camp. In Italy, a school of painting was stimulated by the arrival in Rome of the Dutch painter Pieter van Laer in 1625. He acquired the nickname Il Bamboccio and his followers were called the Bamboccianti, whose works would inspire Giacomo Ceruti, Antonio Cifrondi, jean-Baptiste Greuze and others painted detailed and rather sentimental groups or individual portraits of peasants that were to be influential on 19th-century painting. Spain had a tradition predating The Book of Good Love of social observation and commentary based on the Old Roman Latin tradition, practiced by many of its painters and illuminators
5.
Walter Anderson (English artist)
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Walter Anderson was an English artist who was a painter, lithographer, and engraver. His paintings were made of live, landscapes and genre. He lived in Cincinnati, Ohio from 1849 to 1853, when he was a lithographer and engraver. He worked first for Charles A. Jewett, a lithographer in the city and he collaborated with Sophie Gengembre, his future wife, and Thomas Faris. They worked together by 1851 when the first two lithographers of Protestant Episcopal bishops were produced and he created illustrations for Biographical and Historical Memoirs of the Early Pioneer Settlers of Ohio written by Samuel P. Hildreth, as did his future brother-in-law Henry P. Gengembre. The book was published in 1852, in 1853 the Gengembre family moved to Manchester, Pennsylvania and Anderson followed and married Sophie Gengembre. Anderson and his moved to England by 1854. He began exhibiting his works there in 1856 and they lived in Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh, in 1859. By 1863 they had returned to London and he exhibited his works at the Royal Society of British Artists and the Royal Academy of Arts. They moved to the Isle of Capri in 1871 and they moved to England in the early 1890s and lived in Falmouth. He died on 11 January 1903 in Falmouth
6.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
7.
Philip Gengembre Hubert
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Philip Gengembre Hubert, Sr. AIA, was a founder of the New York City architectural firm Hubert & Pirsson with James W. Pirsson. The firm produced many of the city’s “Gilded Age” finest buildings, including hotels, Hubert was born in Paris to Colomb Gengembre, an architect and engineer who taught him architecture. His sister was artist Sophie Gengembre Anderson, Hubert emigrated with his parents in 1849 to the United States, first settling in Cincinnati, Ohio. In Cincinnati, he taught French by writing his own textbooks, “which were published and widely used in schools of that time. ”In 1853, He took up a position at Girard College in Philadelphia as the first professor of French and history, he moved to Boston and was offered a professorship at Harvard, which he did not accept. He moved to New York in 1865 and took up architecture, upon Pirsson’s death, the firm operated under the name Hubert, Pirsson & Haddick until 1893 when Hubert retired to California. The website of the Association of Fourier Studies and the Records of Charles Fourier
8.
Portrait painting
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See Portrait for more about the general topic of portraits. Portrait painting is a genre in painting, where the intent is to depict a human subject, the term portrait painting can also describe the actual painted portrait. Portraitists may create their work by commission, for public and private persons, portraits are often important state and family records, as well as remembrances. Historically, portrait paintings have primarily memorialized the rich and powerful, over time, however, it became more common for middle-class patrons to commission portraits of their families and colleagues. Today, portrait paintings are commissioned by governments, corporations, groups, clubs. In addition to painting, portraits can also be made in other such as etching, lithography, photography, video. A well-executed portrait is expected to show the essence of the subject or a flattering representation. As Aristotle stated, The aim of Art is to present not the appearance of things. In most cases, this results in a serious, closed lip stare, or as Charles Dickens put it, there are only two styles of portrait painting, the serious and the smirk. Even given these limitations, a range of subtle emotions is possible from quiet menace to gentle contentment. However, with the mouth relatively neutral, much of the facial expression needs to be created through the eyes, as author and artist Gordon C. Aymar states, the eyes are the place one looks for the most complete, reliable, and the eyebrows can register, almost single-handedly, wonder, pity, fright, pain, cynicism, concentration, wistfulness, displeasure, and expectation, in infinite variations and combinations. Portrait painting can depict the full length, half length, head and shoulders, or ‘head’, as well as in profile, three-quarter view, or full face, with varying directions of light. Occasionally, artists have created portraits with multiple views, as with Anthony van Dycks Triple Portrait of Charles I, there are even a few portraits where the front of the subject is not visible at all. Another example of the view in portraiture, in this case photography, can be found here. Among the other variables, the subject can be clothed or nude, indoors or out, standing, seated, reclining. Portrait paintings can be of individuals, couples, parents and children, families and they can be created in various media including oils, watercolor, pen and ink, pencil, charcoal, pastel, and mixed media. Artists may employ a wide-ranging palette of colors, as with Pierre-Auguste Renoirs Mme, charpentier and her children,1878 or restrict themselves to mostly white or black, as with Gilbert Stuarts Portrait of George Washington
9.
Lark
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Larks are passerine birds of the family Alaudidae. All species occur in the Old World, and in northern and eastern Australia, only one, the horned lark, is also found in North America. Habitats vary widely, but many live in dry regions. Larks are a family, partly because of the shape of their tarsus. They were long placed at or near the beginning of the songbirds or oscines, just after the suboscines and before the swallows, some authorities, such as the British Ornithologists Union and the Handbook of the Birds of the World, adhere to that placement. However, many other classifications follow the Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy in placing the larks in a large oscine subgroup Passerida, for instance, the American Ornithologists Union places larks just after the crows, shrikes, and vireos. At a finer level of detail, some now place the larks at the beginning of a superfamily Sylvioidea with the swallows, various Old World warbler and babbler groups, and others. Like many ground birds, most lark species have long hind claws, most have streaked brown plumage, some boldly marked with black or white. Their dull appearance camouflages them on the ground, especially when on the nest and they feed on insects and seeds, though adults of most species eat seeds primarily, all species feed their young insects for at least the first week after hatching. Many species dig with their bills to uncover food, some larks have heavy bills for cracking seeds open, while others have long, down-curved bills, which are especially suitable for digging. Larks are the only passerines that lose all their feathers in their first moult, in many respects, including long tertial feathers, larks resemble other ground birds such as pipits. However, in larks the tarsus has only one set of scales on the rear surface, pipits and all other songbirds have two plates of scales on the rear surface, which meet at a protruding rear edge. They have more elaborate calls than most birds, and often extravagant songs given in display flight, with these song flights, males defend their breeding territories and attract mates. Most species build nests on the ground, usually cups of dead grass, a few desert species nest very low in bushes, perhaps so circulating air can cool the nest. Larks eggs are usually speckled, and clutch sizes range from two to six, larks incubate for 11 to 16 days. Larks, commonly consumed with bones intact, have historically been considered wholesome, delicate and they can be used in a number of dishes, for example, they can be stewed, broiled, or used as filling in a meat pie. Larks tongues were particularly highly valued, in modern times, shrinking habitats made lark meat rare and hard to come by, though it can still be found in restaurants in Italy and elsewhere in southern Europe. In Renaissance painters such as Domenico Ghirlandaio the lark symbolizes Christ, traditionally larks are kept as pets in China
10.
French Revolution of 1848
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The 1848 Revolution in France, sometimes known as the February Revolution, was one of a wave of revolutions in 1848 in Europe. In France the revolutionary events ended the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic, following the overthrow of King Louis Philippe in February 1848, the elected government of the Second Republic ruled France. In the months that followed, this government steered a course became more conservative. On 2 December 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President of the Second Republic, exactly three years later he suspended the elected assembly, establishing the Second French Empire, which lasted until 1870. Louis Napoléon would go on to become the de facto last French monarch, the February revolution established the principle of the right to work, and its newly established government created National Workshops for the unemployed. At the same time a sort of parliament was established at the Luxembourg Palace, under the presidency of Louis Blanc. These tensions between liberal Orleanist and Radical Republicans and Socialists led to the June Days Uprising, under the Charter of 1814, Louis XVIII ruled France as the head of a constitutional monarchy. He had no desire to rule as a monarch, taking various steps to strengthen his own authority as monarch. In 1830, Charles X of France, presumably instigated by one of his chief advisors Jules, Prince de Polignac and these ordinances abolished freedom of the press, reduced the electorate by 75%, and dissolved the lower house. This action provoked a reaction from the citizenry, who revolted against the monarchy during the Three Glorious Days of 26–29 July 1830. Charles was forced to abdicate the throne and to flee Paris for the United Kingdom, as a result, Louis Philippe, of the Orléanist branch, rose to power, replacing the old Charter by the Charter of 1830, and his rule became known as the July Monarchy. Nicknamed the Bourgeois Monarch, Louis Philippe sat at the head of a liberal state controlled mainly by educated elites. Supported by the Orleanists, he was opposed on his right by the Legitimists and on his left by the Republicans, Louis Philippe was an expert businessman and, by means of his businesses, he had become one of the richest men in France. Still Louis Philippe saw himself as the embodiment of a small businessman. Consequently, he and his government did not look with favour on the big business, especially, Louis Philippe did, however, support the bankers, large and small. Indeed, at the beginning of his reign in 1830, Jaques Laffitte, a banker and liberal politician who supported Louis Philippes rise to the throne, said From now on, by 1848 only about one percent of the population held the franchise. Even though France had a press and trial by jury, only landholders were permitted to vote. Louis Philippe was viewed as generally indifferent to the needs of society, early in 1848, some Orleanist liberals, such as Adolphe Thiers, had turned against him, disappointed by Louis Philippes opposition to parliamentarism
11.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
12.
Ohio
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Ohio /oʊˈhaɪ. oʊ/ is a Midwestern state in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Ohio is the 34th largest by area, the 7th most populous, the states capital and largest city is Columbus. The state takes its name from the Ohio River, the name originated from the Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning great river or large creek. Partitioned from the Northwest Territory, the state was admitted to the Union as the 17th state on March 1,1803, Ohio is historically known as the Buckeye State after its Ohio buckeye trees, and Ohioans are also known as Buckeyes. Ohio occupies 16 seats in the United States House of Representatives, Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections. Six Presidents of the United States have been elected who had Ohio as their home state, Ohios geographic location has proven to be an asset for economic growth and expansion. Because Ohio links the Northeast to the Midwest, much cargo, Ohio has the nations 10th largest highway network, and is within a one-day drive of 50% of North Americas population and 70% of North Americas manufacturing capacity. To the north, Lake Erie gives Ohio 312 miles of coastline, Ohios southern border is defined by the Ohio River, and much of the northern border is defined by Lake Erie. Ohios neighbors are Pennsylvania to the east, Michigan to the northwest, Ontario Canada, to the north, Indiana to the west, Kentucky on the south, Ohio is bounded by the Ohio River, but nearly all of the river itself belongs to Kentucky and West Virginia. Ohio has only that portion of the river between the rivers 1792 low-water mark and the present high-water mark, the border with Michigan has also changed, as a result of the Toledo War, to angle slightly northeast to the north shore of the mouth of the Maumee River. Much of Ohio features glaciated plains, with a flat area in the northwest being known as the Great Black Swamp. Most of Ohio is of low relief, but the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau features rugged hills, in 1965 the United States Congress passed the Appalachian Regional Development Act, at attempt to address the persistent poverty and growing economic despair of the Appalachian Region. This act defines 29 Ohio counties as part of Appalachia, the worst weather disaster in Ohio history occurred along the Great Miami River in 1913. Known as the Great Dayton Flood, the entire Miami River watershed flooded, as a result, the Miami Conservancy District was created as the first major flood plain engineering project in Ohio and the United States. Grand Lake St. Marys in the west central part of the state was constructed as a supply of water for canals in the era of 1820–1850. For many years this body of water, over 20 square miles, was the largest artificial lake in the world and it should be noted that Ohios canal-building projects were not the economic fiasco that similar efforts were in other states. Some cities, such as Dayton, owe their emergence to location on canals. Summers are typically hot and humid throughout the state, while winters generally range from cool to cold, precipitation in Ohio is moderate year-round
13.
Manchester, Pennsylvania
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Manchester is a borough in York County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 2,763 at the 2010 census, settled in 1814, the village of Liverpool was incorporated in 1869 in the eastern section of Manchester Township. During the Gettysburg Campaign of the American Civil War, Liverpools merchants were raided by the 17th Virginia Cavalry, Manchester is located at 40°03′39″N 76°43′11″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 0.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,350 people,1,009 households, the population density was 2,986.4 people per square mile. There were 1,058 housing units at a density of 1,344.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 97. 28% White,0. 47% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 26% Asian,0. 89% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 49% of the population. 27. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.81. In the borough the population was out with 21. 5% under the age of 18,10. 3% from 18 to 24,34. 2% from 25 to 44,21. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 35 years, for every 100 females there were 95.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $41,450, and the median income for a family was $47,845. Males had an income of $32,219 versus $22,000 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $18,700, about 2. 4% of families and 3. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 0% of those under age 18 and 4. 8% of those age 65 or over. Manchester is served by the Northeastern York School District, students may also attend one of the Commonwealths public cyber charter schools at no additional cost to the family or student. The local school district pays the Pennsylvania Department of Education set tuition fee to the charter school that the resident student chooses to attend. By law, Pennsylvania cyber charter school students have access to all extracurriculars, alternatively, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania permits parents to home school their children or they may attend a private school. Since 2012, Manchester is home to Big Fat Daddys, an east coast concession stand and catering operation owned by pitmaster Wayne Schafer, Borough of Manchester official website Borough of Manchester history, North Eastern York County History in Preservation
14.
Pennsylvania
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Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
15.
Chromolithography
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Chromolithography is a unique method for making multi-colour prints. This type of colour printing stemmed from the process of lithography, when chromolithography is used to reproduce photographs, the term photochrome is frequently used. Lithographers sought to find a way to print on flat surfaces with the use of chemicals instead of relief or intaglio printing, hand-colouring also remained important, elements of the official British Ordnance Survey maps were coloured by hand by boys until 1875. The initial technique involved the use of multiple lithographic stones, one for each colour, depending on the number of colours present, a chromolithograph could take months to produce, by very skilled workers. However much cheaper prints could be produced by simplifying both the number of used, and the refinement of the detail in the image. Cheaper images, like advertisements, relied heavily on a black print. The process is based on the rejection of grease by water, the image is applied to stone, grained zinc or aluminium surfaces, with a grease-based crayon or ink. Limestone and zinc are two commonly used materials in the production of chromolithographs, as aluminium unfortunately corrodes easily, after the image is drawn onto one of these surfaces, the image is gummed-up with a gum arabic solution and weak nitric acid to desensitize the surface. Before printing, the image is proved before finally inking up the image with oil based transfer or printing ink, the inked image under pressure is transposed onto a sheet of paper using a flat-bed press. This describes the form of printing. The offset indirect method uses a cylinder that transfers the image from printing surface to the paper. Colours may be overprinted by using stones or plates to achieve a closer reproduction of the original. Accurate registration for multi-coloured work is achieved by the use of a key outline image, ben-Day medium, uses a raised gelatin stipple image to give tone gradation. An air-brush sprays ink to give soft edges and these are just two methods used to achieve gradations of tone. The use of twelve overprinted colours would not be considered unusual, each sheet of paper will therefore pass through the printing press as many times as there are colours in the final print. In order that each colour is placed in the position, each stone or plate must be precisely ‘registered, ’ or lined up. Chromolithographs are considered to be reproductions that are smaller than double demi, autolithographs are prints where the artist draws and perhaps prints his or her own limited number of reproductions. This is the true art form
16.
Louis Prang
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Louis Prang was an American printer, lithographer, publisher, and Georgist. He is sometimes known as the father of the American Christmas card, Prang was born in Breslau in Prussian Silesia. His father Jonas Louis Prang was a manufacturer and of French Huguenot origin, his mother. Because of health problems as a boy, Prang was unable to receive much standard schooling and became an apprentice to his father, learning engraving, in the early 1840s, Prang travelled around Bohemia working in printing and textiles. However, after travel in Europe, he became involved in revolutionary activities in 1848. Pursued by the Prussian government, he went to Switzerland and in 1850 emigrated to the United States and Boston, Prangs early activities in the US publishing architectural books and making leather goods were not very successful, and he began to make wood engravings for illustrations in books. In 1851 he worked for Frank Leslie, art director for Gleasons Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion, in 1851, he married Rosa Gerber, a Swiss woman he had met in Paris in 1846. In 1856, Prang and a created a firm, Prang and Mayer. The company specialized in prints of buildings and towns in Massachusetts, in 1860, he bought the share of his partner, creating L. Prang and Company and began work in colored printing of advertising and other forms of business materials. The firm became successful, and became known for war maps, printed during the American Civil War. In 1864, Prang went to Europe to learn about cutting-edge German lithography, returning the next year, Prang began to create high quality reproductions of major art works. Prang also began creating series of popular cards, advertised to be collected into scrapbooks, showing natural scenes. At Christmas 1873, Prang began creating greeting cards for the market in England. Therefore, he is called the father of the American Christmas card. Prang is also known for his efforts to improve art education in the US, publishing instructional books, Prang was an active supporter of women artists, both commissioning and collecting artworks by women. Many of his lithographs featured works by artists, such as the botanical illustration of Ellen Thayer Fisher. In 1881, his company employed more than one hundred women, in June 1886 Prang published a series of prints under the title Prangs War Pictures, Aquarelle Facsimile Prints. These became popular and helped inspire a genre of prints, particularly the series issued by Kurz
17.
Charles Ede
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Charles Richard Montague Ede was the founder of The Folio Society. During World War II, Ede was commissioned into the Royal Tank Regiment and saw service at the Siege of Malta, Palestine, Egypt, and Italy, before transferring to the Intelligence Corps. After the War, instead of going up to Oxford University as originally intended, he registered with the London School of Printing, in 1971 Ede sold his share in The Folio Society and set up as an ancient art dealer. The Art of the Book, some record of work carried out in Europe and the U. S. A
18.
Royal Academy of Arts
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
19.
National Academy Museum and School
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
20.
British Institution
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From 1807 prizes were given to artists and surplus funds were used to buy paintings for the nation. The British Institution was founded in June 1805 by a group of subscribers who met in the Thatched House Tavern in London. The British Institution opened at the Pall Mall site on 18 January 1806, above Seguier the Institution had a Keeper, a role given to a series of engravers. When in 1832 two pictures by Richard Parkes Bonington, who had been only four years, were included in an Old Masters exhibition. They were essentially the same group who were to succeed in persuading the government to found the National Gallery in 1824, there was a total group of 125 Governors, Directors and Subscribers, paying sums between 100 guineas down to one guinea annually. The Institution had been discussed with the Royal Academy before it was established, the Prince Regent was Patron from the foundation, and loans from the Royal Collection continued throughout the life of the Institution. In 1822 the hereditary nature of the Governors was eased out, as they were becoming far too numerous, the architect was George Dance the Younger, the then clerk of the city works. The gallery had a monumental, neo-classical stone-built front, and three rooms on the first floor, with a total of more than 4,000 square feet of wall space for displaying pictures. Boydell ran up debts in producing his Shakespeare engravings, and obtained an Act of Parliament in 1804 to dispose of the gallery. The main prize winner, William Tassie, a modeller and maker of replica engraved gems, then sold the gallery property and contents at auction. When the British Institution took possession, they retained a sculptural group on the façade by Thomas Banks. The price of admission remained one shilling throughout the life of the Institution, there were some private openings in the evenings, for members and exhibitors, these being divided into two by splitting the alphabet. The number of works exhibited grew within a few years to over 500. Within a few years the number of works regularly reached over 500, the 1806 receipts for the shilling entries were £534 & 4s implying 10,684 paying visitors above the members and their guests. In 1810 the Institution announced that in its first four years a total of 424 works had sold, raising £20,900 for the artists. In 1814 the Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia were among the visitors, from 1807 a number of prizes of £100 or £50 were given to students at the school who painted the best companion pieces to works by Old Masters on display at the gallery. These were later increased and extended to artists, reaching 300,200 and 100 guineas by 1811. The Institution commissioned or bought a number of paintings which were presented to the National Gallery and it was given to the National Gallery, but later transferred along with their British collection to what is now Tate Britain
21.
Foundling Museum
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The Foundling Museum in London tells the story of the Foundling Hospital, Britains first home for abandoned children. The museum houses the nationally important Foundling Hospital Art Collection as well as the Gerald Coke Handel Collection, after a major building refurbishment it reopened to the public in June 2004. The museum examines the work of the Foundling Hospitals founder Thomas Coram, as well as the artist William Hogarth and it also illustrates how the Foundling Hospitals charity work for children still carries on today through the child care organisation Coram. It is a member of The London Museums of Health & Medicine group, in 1926, the hospital’s building in Bloomsbury was sold off, and the children moved to modern premises outside London. The Thomas Coram Foundation built a new headquarters in Brunswick Square, the museums building was refurbished in 2004. The Foundling Museum was set up as a charitable organisation in 1998. Coram owns more than 100 paintings, probably more than £30 million. To safeguard the collection, a deal was agreed in 2002 under which Coram lent the pictures to the museum, in 2012, it had 48,000 visitors. These paintings and sculptures, often donated by the themselves, were given in order to support this Britains first home for abandoned children. These works effectively made the Foundling Hospital the nations first art gallery available to the public, the museum also lets the visitor see furniture, photographs and other items from the days when the Foundling Hospital still accepted abandoned children to be reared and educated within its walls. Foundling tokens were given by mothers leaving their babies, allowing the Foundling Hospital to match a mother with her child should she ever come back to claim it. Sadly, the majority of the children never saw their mothers again. The Committee Room, one of the original interiors, is the room where mothers intending to leave their babies would be interviewed for suitability. The Picture Gallery is another original interior room, on the walls are paintings of governors and hospital officials through the ages. These portraits include Allan Ramsay’s portrait of Dr Richard Mead, Reynolds’s portrait of the Earl of Dartmouth, the Court Room is where the Foundling Hospital’s Court of Governors used to meet. The room is an ensemble of paintings, furniture and interior architecture. The ceiling is a work by William Wilton and paintings include Hogarth’s Moses before Pharaoh’s Daughter. The uppermost floor of the Foundling Museum houses the Gerald Coke Handel Collection, an exhibition room presents Handel’s life and visitors can learn about his connection to the Foundling Hospital and see the testament he left behind
22.
Capri
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Capri, Italian pronunciation, ) is an island located in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side of the Gulf of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. The main town Capri that is located on the shares the name. It has been a resort since the time of the Roman Republic, Capri is part of the region of Campania, Province of Naples. The town of Capri is the main population centre. The island has two harbours, Marina Piccola and Marina Grande, the separate comune of Anacapri is located high on the hills to the west. The etymology of the name Capri is unclear, it might either be traced back to the Ancient Greeks, but it could also derive from Latin capreae. Fossils of wild boars have been discovered, lending credence to the etymology, on the other hand. Finally, there is also the possibility that the name derives from an Etruscan word for rocky, Capri is a large, limestone and sandstone rock. The sides of the island are perpendicular cliffs and the surface of the island is composed of more cliffs, Edwin Cerio was mayor of Capri from 1920 to 1923. Although he was three years in office, his vision and policies had far-reaching impact on the nature and role of the government on the island. Italy is a Republic, thus Capri, as part of Italy, has adopted those same principles too, the voters of the island elect representatives for the two villages on the island. The chosen representatives then choose two mayors to govern with them, the city has been inhabited since early times. The emperor ordered these to be displayed in the garden of his main residence, modern excavations have shown that human presence on the island can be dated to the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Augustus developed Capri, he built temples, villas, aqueducts, in his Aeneid, Virgil states that the island had been populated by the Greek people of Teleboi, coming from the Ionian Islands. Strabo says that in ancient times in Capri there were two towns, later reduced to one, tacitus records that there were twelve Imperial villas in Capri. Ruins of one at Tragara could still be seen in the 19th century, augustus successor Tiberius built a series of villas at Capri, the most famous of which is the Villa Jovis, one of the best-preserved Roman villas in Italy. In 27 AD, Tiberius permanently moved to Capri, running the Empire from there until his death in 37 AD, in 182 AD, Emperor Commodus banished his sister Lucilla to Capri. After the end of the Western Roman Empire, Capri returned to the status of a dominion of Naples, in 866 Emperor Louis II gave the island to Amalfi
23.
Frederic Leighton
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Frederic Leighton, 1st Baron Leighton PRA, known as Sir Frederic Leighton between 1878 and 1896, was an English painter and sculptor. His works depicted historical, biblical, and classical subject matter, Leighton was bearer of the shortest-lived peerage in history, after only one day his hereditary peerage ended with his death. Leighton was born in Scarborough to a family in the import and export business and he was educated at University College School, London. He then received his training on the European continent, first from Eduard von Steinle. When he was 24 he was in Florence, he studied at the Accademia di Belle Arti, from 1855 to 1859 he lived in Paris, where he met Ingres, Delacroix, Corot and Millet. In 1860, he moved to London, where he associated with the Pre-Raphaelites and he designed Elizabeth Barrett Brownings tomb for Robert Browning in the English Cemetery, Florence in 1861. In 1864 he became an associate of the Royal Academy and in 1878 he became its President and his 1877 sculpture, Athlete Wrestling with a Python, was considered at its time to inaugurate a renaissance in contemporary British sculpture, referred to as the New Sculpture. American art critic Earl Shinn claimed at the time that Except Leighton and his paintings represented Britain at the great 1900 Paris Exhibition. Leighton was knighted at Windsor in 1878, and was created a baronet, of Holland Park Road in the Parish of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, in the County of Middlesex, eight years later. He was the first painter to be given a peerage, in the New Year Honours List of 1896, the patent creating him Baron Leighton, of Stretton in the County of Shropshire, was issued on 24 January 1896, Leighton died the next day of angina pectoris. Leighton remained a bachelor and rumours of his having a child with one of his models in addition to the supposition that Leighton may have been homosexual continue to be debated today. He certainly enjoyed an intense and romantically tinged relationship with the poet Henry William Greville whom he met in Florence in 1856, the older man showered Leighton in letters, but the romantic affection seems not to have been reciprocated. Enquiry is furthermore hindered by the fact that Leighton left no diaries, after his death his Barony was extinguished after existing for only a day, this is a record in the Peerage. His house in Holland Park, London has been turned into a museum, the house also features many of Leightons inspirations, including his collection of Iznik tiles. Its centrepiece is the magnificent Arab Hall, the Hall is featured in issue ten of Cornucopia. A blue plaque commemorates Leighton at Leighton House Museum, Leighton was an enthusiastic volunteer soldier, enrolling with the first group to join the 38th Middlesex Rifle volunteers on 5 October 1860. His qualities of leadership were identified, and he was promoted to command A Company within a few months. On 6 January 1869 Captain Leighton was elected to command The Artists Rifles by a meeting of the corps
24.
Walter McLaren
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Walter Stowe Bright McLaren was a British Liberal Party politician who was Member of Parliament for the Crewe division of Cheshire for a total of 11 years between 1886 and 1912. He was the youngest child of the Liberal MP Duncan McLaren and his third wife Priscilla Bright, two of his brothers, Charles McLaren, 1st Baron Aberconway and John also became Liberal Members of Parliament. Walter Mclaren was married in April 1883 to Eva Muller and they became a powerful pair of womens rights advocates with Eva calling herself Mrs Eva McLaren and not the expected Mrs Walter McLaren. Eva stood successfully for public office as far as it was permitted at the time, Walter introduced a clause to the 1894 Local Government Act which extended the voting rights of married women. McLaren first stood for election to the House of Commons at the 1885 general election and he had been nominated by the Free Church Constitutional Party, and polled strongly against the official Liberal Party candidate, taking 47. 5% of the votes. At the 1886 general election he was elected in Crewe, where the sitting Liberal MP George Latham had not sought re-election, McLaren was re-elected in 1892, but lost his seat at the 1895 general election. He held the seat until his own death in 1912, aged 59, Walter is buried with his parents in St Cuthberts Churchyard in Edinburgh. Although the monument, lying on the east wall of the first south section under Edinburgh Castle, is huge, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Walter McLaren
25.
John Singer Sargent
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John Singer Sargent was an American artist, considered the leading portrait painter of his generation for his evocations of Edwardian era luxury. During his career, he created roughly 900 oil paintings and more than 2,000 watercolors, as well as countless sketches and his oeuvre documents worldwide travel, from Venice to the Tyrol, Corfu, the Middle East, Montana, Maine, and Florida. His parents were American, but he was trained in Paris prior to moving to London and his commissioned works were consistent with the grand manner of portraiture, while his informal studies and landscape paintings displayed a familiarity with Impressionism. In later life Sargent expressed ambivalence about the restrictions of formal portrait work and he lived most of his life in Europe. Art historians generally ignored the society such as Sargent until the late 20th century. Before Sargents birth, his father, FitzWilliam, was an eye surgeon at the Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia 1844–1854, after Johns older sister died at the age of two, his mother, Mary, suffered a breakdown, and the couple decided to go abroad to recover. They remained nomadic expatriates for the rest of their lives, although based in Paris, Sargents parents moved regularly with the seasons to the sea and the mountain resorts in France, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland. While Mary was pregnant, they stopped in Florence, Tuscany, Sargent was born there in 1856. A year later, his sister Mary was born, after her birth, FitzWilliam reluctantly resigned his post in Philadelphia and accepted his wifes entreaties to remain abroad. They lived modestly on an inheritance and savings, living a quiet life with their children. They generally avoided society and other Americans except for friends in the art world, four more children were born abroad, of whom only two lived past childhood. Although his father was a patient teacher of basic subjects, young Sargent was a rambunctious child, as his father wrote home, He is quite a close observer of animated nature. His mother was convinced that traveling around Europe, and visiting museums and churches. Several attempts to have him formally schooled failed, owing mostly to their itinerant life, Sargents mother was a fine amateur artist and his father was a skilled medical illustrator. Early on, she gave him sketchbooks and encouraged drawing excursions, young Sargent worked with care on his drawings, and he enthusiastically copied images from The Illustrated London News of ships and made detailed sketches of landscapes. FitzWilliam had hoped that his sons interest in ships and the sea might lead him toward a naval career, at thirteen, his mother reported that John sketches quite nicely, & has a remarkably quick and correct eye. If we could afford to give him really good lessons, he would soon be quite a little artist, at the age of thirteen, he received some watercolor lessons from Carl Welsch, a German landscape painter. Although his education was far from complete, Sargent grew up to be a literate and cosmopolitan young man, accomplished in art, music
26.
Jean Benner
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Jean Benner was a French artist, and twin to fellow artist, Emmanuel Benner. Twins Jean and Emmanuel Benner were born in March 1836 in Mulhouse, the Benner brothers were first designers at Mulhouse mills and factories. By 30 years of age, he was able to study art with Léon Bonnat, Eck and Jean-Jacques Henner, in 1881 he won his first medal there for this painting Le Repos. He painted still-life, portrait and genre paintings, including After a Storm at Capri, Trappist in Prayer, Petite Falle de Capri, Flowers and Fruits, and Reverie. A house in Capri,1881, Fine Arts Museum, Pau Briseis weeping over the body of Patroclus,1878, château-musée, Nemours Ecstasy, c
27.
Grosvenor Gallery
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The Grosvenor Gallery was an art gallery in London founded in 1877 by Sir Coutts Lindsay and his wife Blanche. Its first directors were J. Comyns Carr and Charles Hallé, the gallery was founded in Bond Street, London, in 1877 by Sir Coutts Lindsay and his wife Blanche. They engaged J. Comyns Carr and Charles Hallé as co-directors, Lindsay and his wife were well-born and well-connected, and both were amateur artists. Blanche was born a Rothschild, and it was her money made the whole enterprise possible. The Grosvenor displayed work by artists from outside the British mainstream, including Edward Burne-Jones, Walter Crane, in 1877 John Ruskin visited the gallery to see work by Burne-Jones. An exhibition of paintings by James McNeill Whistler was also on display, ruskins savage review of Whistlers work led to a famous libel case, brought by the artist against the critic. Whistler won a farthing in damages, the case made the gallery famous as the home of the Aesthetic movement, which was satirised in Gilbert and Sullivans Patience, which includes the line, greenery-yallery, Grosvenor Gallery. In 1888, after a disagreement with Lindsay, Comyns Carr and Hallé resigned from the gallery to found the rival New Gallery, capturing Burne-Jones and many of the Grosvenor Gallerys other artists. The break-up of his marriage, financial constraints and personal conflicts forced Lindsay out of the gallery, upon returning from the Paris Exhibition of 1882, the Earl of Crawford recommended that Lindsay install electric lighting in the gallery. In 1883, two Marshall engines, each belted to a Siemens alternator, were installed in a yard behind the gallery, the installation was a success, and neighbours began requesting a supply. Lindsay, Crawford and Lord Wantage then set up the Sir Coutts Lindsay Co. Ltd. and this was constructed under the gallery and had a capacity of 1,000 kilowatts. The station supplied an area reaching as far north as Regents Park, the River Thames to the south, Knightsbridge to the west, the station was made a substation with the opening of Deptford Power Station. At the Temple of Art, the Grosvenor Gallery, 1877–1890, madison, NJ, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. Electricity Before Nationalisation, A Study in the Development of the Electricity Supply Industry in Britain to 1948, London & Basingstoke, Macmillan Publishers for the Electricity Council. Design & The Decorative Arts, Britain 1500–1900
28.
Sotheby's
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Sothebys /ˈsʌðəbiz/ is a British multinational corporation headquartered in New York City. One of the worlds largest brokers of fine and decorative art, jewelry, real estate, the company’s services range from corporate art services to private sales. Sothebys is the fourth oldest auction house in continuous operation. As of December 2011, the company had 1,446 employees worldwide and it is the worlds largest art business with global sales in 2011 totalling $5.8 billion. Sothebys was established on 11 March 1744 in London, the American holding company was initially incorporated in August 1983 in Michigan. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys, in July 2016, Chinese insurance giant Taikang Life became Sothebys largest shareholder. Three Swedish auction houses are older and Sothebys great rival in London and then New York. The current business dates back to 1804, when two of the partners of the business left to set up their own book dealership. After Baker’s death in 1778, his estate was divided between Leigh and John Sotheby, George Leigh died unmarried in 1816, but not before endeavouring to secure his succession by recruiting Samuel E Leigh into the business. Under the Sotheby family, the house extended its activities to auctioning prints, medals. John Wilkinson, Sothebys Senior Accountant, became the company’s new CEO, the business did not seek to auction fine arts in general until much later, their first major success in this field being the sale of a Frans Hals painting for nine thousand guineas as late as 1913. In 1917, Sothebys relocated from 13 Wellington Street to 34-35 New Bond Street and they soon came to rival Christies as leaders of the London auction market, which had become the most important for art. In 1955, Sothebys opened an office at Bowling Green, New York City, in 1964, Sothebys purchased Parke-Bernet, then the largest auctioneer of fine art in the United States. In the following year, Sothebys moved to 980 Madison Avenue, Sothebys became a U. K. public company in 1977. The auction house closed its Madison Avenue galleries at East 76th Street, the Los Angeles galleries were sold and auctions of West Coast material moved to New York. In the following year, a group of investors purchased and privatized Sothebys, Sothebys was initially incorporated as Sothebys Holdings, Inc. in Michigan in August 1983. Taubman took Sothebys public in 1988, listing the shares on the New York Stock Exchange. In June 2006, Sothebys Holdings, Inc. reincorporated in the State of Delaware and was renamed Sothebys shortly after, with private transactions constituting an essential and increasingly profitable business segment, through the years Sothebys has bought art galleries and helped dealers finance purchases
29.
New Walk Museum
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The New Walk Museum and Art Gallery is a museum on New Walk in Leicester, England, not far from the city centre. It opened in 1849 as one of the first public museums in the United Kingdom, New Walk contains displays of both science and art, international and local. The original building was designed by Joseph Hansom, designer of the hansom cab and it has been expanded several times, most recently in 2011. Permanent exhibits include dinosaurs, an Egyptian area, minerals of Leicestershire, the first Charnia fossil identified nearby, New Walk Museum has a significant collection of extinct lifeforms. Two dinosaur skeletons are permanently on display — a cetiosaur found in Rutland, the Rutland Dinosaur, affectionately nicknamed George, is a specimen of Cetiosaurus oxoniensis. The fifteen-meter dinosaur, which is among the most complete skeletons in the world, was discovered in June 1968, in the Williamson Cliffe quarry near Little Casterton. The skeletal remains have been in the museum since 1975, the majority of the bones in the display are replicas of the originals, the Rutland Dinosaur featured on an episode of Blue Peter, and was opened by Blue Peters Janet Ellis in 1985. The Barrow Kipper, named after the fish, is a skeleton of an unidentified plesiosaur discovered in Barrow upon Soar in 1851. Originally classified as Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, it was reclassified as Rhomaleosaurus megacephalus. However, according to Adam Smith and Gareth Dyke, the fossil is actually of another, in September 2011, the museum expanded its Dinosaur Gallery, reorganizing fossils, adding a new room, and modifying the gallery itself. The new Dinosaur Gallery, which predominantly features extinct marine reptiles, was opened by David Attenborough, the star attractions of the new gallery include the aforementioned Rutland cetiosaur, Charnia and plesiosaur fossils, as well as a Leedsichthys fossil and a piece of the Barwell Meteorite. The museum holds a specimen of international importance, the Charnia fossil and it is the first fossil that was ever described that came from undoubted Precambrian rocks, which until this point had been thought to be too early for large forms of life. The object in the museum – Leicesters fossil celebrity – is a holotype, that is, Charnia masoni was named after Roger Mason, who discovered it at Charnwood Forest in 1957, when he was a schoolboy, and who went on to a career as an academic geologist. He acknowledges, and the museums Charnia display explains, that the fossil had been discovered a year earlier by a schoolgirl, Tina Negus, the museum holds four Egyptian mummies, named Pa-nesit-tawy, Pe-iuy, Bes-en-Mut and Ta-Bes. It also has a polar bear, Peppy, the mascot of Foxs Glacier Mints. These paintings, including works by George Baselitz, Kandinsky and Klee, were smuggled out of Germany before World War II, hitler was not a fan of these painters – see the 1937 Degenerate Art Exhibition. On the first floor of the museum is an area that changes periodically
30.
Russell-Cotes Art Gallery & Museum
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The Russell-Cotes Museum is an art gallery and museum in Bournemouth, England. A Grade II* listed building known as East Cliff Hall, it is located on the top of the East Cliff. In 1897, the architect John Frederick Fogerty was commissioned by Merton Russell-Cotes, then the owner of the Royal Bath Hotel, originally called East Cliff Hall, it was built in the northeast section of his hotels garden. Built in the Art Nouveau style with interiors by John Thomas and it was completed in its first form in 1901. In 1907, Annie Russell-Cotes donated East Cliff Hall and its contents as a museum to the town of Bournemouth, in return they were made honorary freemen of the town. They continued living in part of the house and over the ten years they paid for an extension to be built. It was formally opened by Princess Beatrice in 1919, after their deaths the Borough of Bournemouth took over the running of East Cliff Hall and re-opened it as the Russell-Cotes Art Gallery and Museum on 10 March 1922. After Sir Mertons death, it was extended into his part of the house, the house and the new annexe display various items collected in the course of Sir Mertons foreign travels, especially to Japan, and paintings from his personal art collection. One room is the Sir Henry Irving Museum, Irving, a friend of the Russell-Cotes, had stayed in that room, when Irving died in 1905, this room was devoted to his memory. Items purchased at the sale of Irvings effects formed the basis of the Irving Museum and were displayed with memorabilia associated with his contemporaries such as Ellen Terry and Sarah Bernhardt. Twice-yearly exhibitions of contemporary art works from the main collection. The new annexe also has a restaurant and an area for young children. The art gallery in the old annexe displays a wide and frequently changing collection of pictures and statues, older children are invited to complete a detective sheet, for example finding where there are pictures of a bat, a kingfisher and other animals and birds. Official website The Joy of Shards Mosaics Resource information
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Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
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Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. An internationally important botanical research and education institution, it employs 750 staff and its chief executive is the current Director, Richard Deverell. Its board of trustees is chaired by Marcus Agius, a chairman of Barclays PLC. The Seed Bank is also the site of research projects. Seed stored at the bank fulfils two functions, it provides an ex situ conservation resource and also facilitates research around the globe by acting as a repository for seed scientists, Kew jointly with the Forestry Commission, founded Bedgebury Pinetum in Kent, specialising in growing conifers. The organisation has an average of 1 million paying visitors per year, the 326 acre site has 40 historically important buildings and collections of over 40,000 species of plants. Kew Gardens became a United Nations World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003, Kew is governed by a Board of Trustees which comprises a chairman and 11 members. Ten members and the chairman are appointed by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and her Majesty the Queen appoints her own trustee on the recommendation of the Secretary of State. The Director of Science is University of Oxford Professor Kathy Willis and her deputy is Professor Monique Simmonds. Professor Mark Chase is Senior Research Professor, the IPNI includes information from the Index Kewensis, a project which began in the 19th century to provide an Index to the Names and Authorities of all known flowering plants and their countries. Kew also cooperates with the Missouri Botanical Garden in a project called The Plant List. The Plant List is an Internet encyclopedia project which was launched in 2010 to compile a comprehensive list of botanical nomenclature, the Plant List has 1,040,426 scientific plant names of species rank of which 298,900 are accepted species names. In addition, the list has 620 plant families and 16,167 plant genera
32.
Walker Art Gallery
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The Walker Art Gallery is an art gallery in Liverpool, which houses one of the largest art collections in England, outside London. In 1843, the Royal Institution’s collection was displayed in a gallery next to the Institution’s main premises. In 1850 negotiations by an association of citizens to take over the Institution’s collection, for display in an art gallery, library and museum. The competition between the Academy and Society eventually led to both collapsing, the success of the exhibition enabled the Library, Museum and Arts Committee to purchase works for the council’s permanent collection, buying around 150 works between 1871 and 1910. Works acquired included WF Yeames’ And when did you last see your father, designed by local architects Cornelius Sherlock and H. H. Vale, the Walker Art Gallery was opened on 6 September 1877 by Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby. In 1893, the Liverpool Royal Institution placed its collection on loan to the gallery and in 1948 presented William Roscoes collection. This occurred during post-war reconstruction when the gallery was closed, re-opening in 1951, during the Second World War the gallery was taken over by the Ministry of Food and the collection was dispersed for safety. Extensions to the gallery were opened in 1884 and 1933 when the gallery re-opened with an exhibition including Picasso, in 2002 the gallery re-opened following a major refurbishment. In 1986, the gallery achieved national status, as part of the National Museums, the select collection of minor or decorative arts covers a wide range, from Gothic ivories to British ceramics up to the present day. The first John Moores Contemporary Painting Prize exhibition was held in 1957, sponsored by Sir John Moores, founder of Littlewoods, the competition has been held every two years ever since and is the biggest painting prize in the UK. There is a programme of temporary exhibitions which in 2009-10 has included Aubrey Williams, Bridget Riley, Sickert. In 2004, the gallery staged The Stuckists Punk Victorian, the first national exhibition of the Stuckist art movement. The Gallery also takes part in the Liverpool Biennial, the gallery is located on William Brown Street in a neo-Classical building. The neighbouring area includes the William Brown Library, World Museum Liverpool, St. Georges Hall, Wellingtons Column, Lime Street Station, the other major art gallery in Liverpool is Tate Liverpool, at the Albert Dock, which houses modern art. On 17 December 2011, the Walker Art Gallery got a new addition to its collection - a statue of a priest vandalised by Banksy, the renowned graffiti artist has sawn off the face of an 18th-century replica stone bust and glued on a selection of bathroom tiles. The resulting pixellated portrait is entitled Cardinal Sin and is believed to be a comment on the scandal in the Church. This piece of art is displayed in Room three, which is one of the 17th-century Old Master galleries, architecture of Liverpool Liverpool Biennial The Stuckists Punk Victorian Collection Website for The Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool
33.
Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery
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Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery is a museum and art gallery in Birmingham, England. It has a collection of international importance covering fine art, ceramics, metalwork, jewellery, natural history, archaeology, ethnography, local history and industrial history. The museum/gallery is run by Birmingham Museums Trust, the largest independent museums trust in the United Kingdom, entrance to the Museum and Art Gallery is free, but some major exhibitions in the Gas Hall incur an entrance fee. In 2015,936,839 visitors came to the making it the 16th most visited museum nationally. The Museums Act 1845 boroughs with a population of 10,000 or more to raise a 1/2d for the establishment of museums, joseph Nettlefold bequeathed twenty-five pictures by David Cox to Birmingham Art Gallery on the condition it opened on Sundays. Jesse Collings, Mayor of Birmingham 1878–79, was responsible for libraries in Birmingham and was the original proponent of the Birmingham Art Gallery. The Museum and Art Gallery occupied a part of the Council House above the new offices of the municipal Gas Department. The building was designed by Yeoville Thomason, until 1946, when property taxes were voted towards acquisitions, the museum relied on the generosity of private individuals. John Feeney provided £50,000 to provide a further gallery, seven galleries had to be rebuilt after being bombed in 1940. Immediately after World War II Mighty Mary Mary Woodall was appointed keeper of art under director, Woodall and Cox, through their links to the London art world, were able to attract exhibitions, much publicity and donations to the gallery. In 1956, Woodall replaced Cox when the latter became Director of the Victoria, in 1951, the Museum of Science and Industry, Birmingham was incorporated into BM&AG. The main entrance is located in Chamberlain Square below the tower known locally as Big Brum. The entrance hall memorial reads By the gains of Industry we promote Art, the Extension Block has entrances via the Gas Hall and Great Charles Street. Waterhall has its own entrance on Edmund Street, in October 2010, the Waterhall closed as a BM&AG gallery as a result of a £1. 5m cut to Birmingham Museums and Art Gallerys budget in 2010–11. The last BM&AG exhibition that place in the Waterhall at that time was the Steve McCurry Retrospective that ran from 26 to 17 June October 2010. The Waterhall and the Gas Hall have reopened for exhibitions throughout the year, BM&AG, formerly managed by Birmingham City Council, is now, with Thinktank, part of Birmingham Museums Trust. They include works by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the largest collection of works by Edward Burne-Jones in the world, the collection of antiquities includes coins from ancient times through to the Middle Ages, artefacts from Ancient India and Central Asia, Ancient Cyprus and Ancient Egypt. There is material from Classical Greece, the Roman Empire and Latin America, there is also mediaeval material, much of which is now on display in The Birmingham History Galleries, a permanent exhibition on the third floor of the museum
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Walsall Museum
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Walsall Museum was a small, local history museum located in the centre of Walsall in the West Midlands. The holdings of Walsall Museum range from seventeenth-century firemarks to twenty-first century posters, there is also a large collection of costume and textiles, notably The Hodson Shop Collection, a unique collection of unsold shop stock of working-class clothing dating from the 1920s to the 1960s. The museum closed permanently in March 2015, the collections were placed in secure storage and remain under the care of Walsall Councils Museum Service. Walsall Museum’s collection includes products of local industries, particularly those of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as well as curios, a very large collection of lorinery, locally-made locks, brass wares and chains. Innovative stainless steel homewares made by Old Hall of Bloxwich, and Gaydon, objects from the First World War and Second World War, including gas masks and soldiers equipment. The collection also includes a bridle, a preserved crocodile. The arm was discovered in 1870 and thought to be a hand of glory and it is known that a doctor was residing at the White Hart, but not how he came by the arm
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Wolverhampton Art Gallery
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Wolverhampton Art Gallery is located in the City of Wolverhampton, in the West Midlands, United Kingdom. The building was funded and constructed by local contractor Philip Horsman, Virtual Tour of Wolverhampton Art Gallery The two-storey building of Wolverhampton Art Gallery was designed by prominent Birmingham architect Julius Chatwin. It was built of Bath stone, an Oolitic Limestone from Bath, Somerset and it is a Grade II* listed building. In 2006–07 the building was refurbished by Purcell, partly modernized and extended to create additional exhibition spaces, commissioned and paid for by the Antwerp Guild of Old Crossbowmen, it was a pendant to the Rubens’s Crowning of the Victor. In the 1800s, the guilds were broken up and their treasures dispersed. Janssen’s picture eventually found its way to a Mrs Thornley of Birmingham, in 1885, she sold it to Wolverhampton Art Gallery. This is the painting by Janssens in British public collections. Apart from the Janssens painting, the collection of Old Masters is relatively small and it includes a version of A Spinners Grace by Gerard Dou, Bouquet of Flowers by Jan van Huysum. There is a collection of Old Master drawings, which includes work by Wenceslas Hollar. A significant part of the Gallery collection was formed from bequests and gifts given by local benefactors and these include those from the tin-toy manufacturer Sidney Cartwright, Philip Horsman and hardware manufacturer Paul Lutz. They mainly collected contemporary and early 19th-century British art and today the holdings of the Gallery are still strong in artworks from the Victorian period. In the 1920s-1950s, a number of artworks by Frank Brangwyn were given to the gallery by the artist himself. In 1924, a significant collection of Eastern weapons was secured, the Gallery has substantial collection of japanned ware and Bilston enamels. These collections represent trades and manufactures for which Wolverhampton was famous in the 18th and 19th centuries, the purposeful collecting policy of the 1970s brought to the Gallery a number of high quality artworks by leading British artists of the 18th-century Georgian period. The gallery has strong holdings of artworks by artists, such as John Fullwood, Joseph Vickers de Ville, George Phoenix. In 1990s, following the re-structure of museum services across the area and they brought to the Gallery artworks by Edwin Butler Bayliss, another local painter of the industrial landscape of the Black Country. Since the late 1960s, Wolverhampton Art Gallery has been collecting Pop Art, a special feature of the Gallery is the collection of artworks which document and analyse the time of Troubles in Northern Ireland. Dr John Frasers collection of specimens has also been preserved at the gallery
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Scheherazade
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Scheherazade /ʃəˌhɛrəˈzɑːd, -də/, or Shahrazad, is a character and the storyteller in One Thousand and One Nights. This book includes the tales of Aladdin, Ali Baba and many more, the story goes that Shahryar found out one day that his first wife was unfaithful to him. Therefore, he resolved to marry a new virgin each day as well as behead the previous days wife and he had killed 1,000 such women by the time he was introduced to Scheherazade, the viziers daughter. Against her fathers wishes, Scheherazade volunteered to spend one night with the king, the king lay awake and listened with awe as Scheherazade told her first story. The night passed by, and Scheherazade stopped in the middle of the story, the king asked her to finish, but Scheherazade said there was no time, as dawn was breaking. So, the king spared her life for one day to finish the story the next night, the next night, Scheherazade finished the story and then began a second, even more exciting tale, which she again stopped halfway through at dawn. Again, the king spared her life for one day so she could finish the second story. And so the king kept Scheherazade alive day by day, as he anticipated the finishing of the previous nights story. At the end of 1,001 nights, and 1,000 stories, during these 1,001 nights, the king had fallen in love with Scheherazade. He spared her life, and made her his queen, the earliest forms of Scheherazades name include Shirazad in Masudi, and Shahrazad in Ibn al-Nadim, the latter meaning the person whose realm/dominion is free. It is shortened as Shahrzad in Persian, in explaining his spelling choice for the name, Burton says, Shahrázád = City-freer, in the older version Scheherazade. The Bres Edit corrupts the former to Sháhrzád or Sháhrazád, I have ventured to restore the name as it should be. Having introduced the name, Burton does not continue to use the diacritics on the name, Scheherazade in popular culture The Arabian Nights Entertainments — Project Gutenberg
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Charles Fourier
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François Marie Charles Fourier was a French philosopher and an influential early socialist thinker later associated with utopian socialism. Some of Fouriers social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society, Fourier is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. Fouriers social views and proposals inspired a movement of intentional communities. Later Fourier inspired an array of revolutionary thinkers and writers. Fourier was born in Besançon, France on April 7,1772, the son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his fathers trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time, when his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his fathers estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure, in 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fouriers travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months, from 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited, he complained of serving the knavery of merchants and he took up writing, and his first book was published in 1808. Fourier died in Paris in 1837, Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution, Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called phalanxes, based around structures called Phalanstères or grand hotels. These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments, wealth was determined by ones job, jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives, jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay, Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the source of all evil and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. Fourier characterized poverty as the cause of disorder in society. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the idea in Fouriers giant socialist utopia. He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, one day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world omniarch, or a World Congress of Phalanxes
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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History of feminism
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The history of feminism is the chronological narrative of the movements and ideologies aimed at equal rights for women. Other historians limit the term to the modern feminist movement and its progeny, modern Western feminist history is split into three time periods, or waves, each with slightly different aims based on prior progress. First-wave feminism of the 19th and early 20th centuries focuses on overturning legal inequalities, second-wave feminism broadened debate to include cultural inequalities, gender norms, and the role of women in society. Third-wave feminism refers to diverse strains of feminist activity, seen as both a continuation of the wave and a response to its perceived failures. People and activists who discuss or advance womens equality prior to the existence of the feminist movement are sometimes labeled as protofeminist, some scholars, however, criticize this terms usage. Around 24 centuries ago, Plato, according to Elaine Hoffman Baruch, for the political and sexual equality of women. One of the most important 17th-century feminist writers in the English language was Margaret Cavendish, the Age of Enlightenment was characterized by secular intellectual reasoning and a flowering of philosophical writing. Many Enlightenment philosophers defended the rights of women, including Jeremy Bentham, Marquis de Condorcet, other important writers of the time that expressed feminist views included Abigail Adams, Catharine Macaulay, and Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht. Bentham spoke for complete equality between sexes including the rights to vote and to participate in government and he opposed the asymmetrical sexual moral standards between men and women. In his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham strongly condemned many countries common practice to deny womens rights due to allegedly inferior minds, Bentham gave many examples of able female regents. Nicolas de Condorcet was a mathematician, classical liberal politician, leading French Revolutionary, republican and he was also a fierce defender of human rights, including the equality of women and the abolition of slavery, unusual for the 1780s. He advocated for suffrage in the new government in 1790 with De ladmission des femmes au droit de cité. This was another plea for the French Revolutionary government to recognize the natural and political rights of women. De Gouges wrote the Declaration in the prose of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, perhaps the most cited feminist writer of the time was Mary Wollstonecraft, often characterized as the first feminist philosopher. Wollstonecraft identified the education and upbringing of women as creating their limited expectations based on a self-image dictated by the male perspective. Despite her perceived inconsistencies reflective of problems that had no easy answers, Wollstonecraft believed that both genders contributed to inequality. She took womens considerable power over men for granted, and determined that both would require education to ensure the necessary changes in social attitudes, given her humble origins and scant education, her personal achievements speak to her own determination. Wollstonecraft attracted the mockery of Samuel Johnson, who described her and her ilk as Amazons of the pen, based on his relationship with Hester Thrale, he complained of womens encroachment onto a male territory of writing, and not their intelligence or education
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First-wave feminism
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First-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought, that occurred within the time period of the 19th and early 20th century throughout the world. It focused on issues, primarily on gaining womens suffrage. Feminism has its source in the 18th century, specifically in the Enlightenment, in this cultural and philosophical movement there was a controversy over equality and gender differences. At the time appeared a new critical discourse that used the universal categories of political philosophy. Enlightenment movement therefore was not feminist at its roots, the political origins of feminism came from The French Revolution. Rousseaus political theory designed the exclusion of women from the field of property, so in the French Revolution the voice of women began to express themselves collectively. The term first-wave was coined in March 1968 by Martha Lear writing in The New York Times Magazine, at that time, the womens movement was focused on de facto inequalities, which it wished to distinguish from the objectives of the earlier feminists. According to Miriam Schneir, Simone de Beauvoir wrote that the first woman to take up her pen in defense of her sex was Christine de Pizan in the 15th century, heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and Modesta di Pozzo di Forzi worked in the 16th century. Marie Le Jars de Gournay, Anne Bradstreet and François Poullain de la Barre wrote in the 17th, Mary Wollstonecrafts most famous work, which is called Vindication, was created in 1792. Its previous feminist work was Poullain de la Barres Equality of sexes and this period was affected by Rousseaus philosophy, the Illustration. The father of the Illustration defined an ideal democratic society that was based on the equality of men, Mary Wollstonecraft based her work on the ideas of Rousseau. Although at first it seems to be contradictory, Wollstonecrafts idea was to expand Rousseaus democratic society and her later unfinished novel, Maria, or the Wrongs of Woman, earned her considerable criticism as she discussed womens sexual desires. She died young, and her widower, the philosopher William Godwin, quickly wrote a memoir of her that, contrary to his intentions, early Feminism was directly correlated with the abolitionist movements and as a result many famous feminists and activists began to have their voices heard. Some of these early activists include, Sojourner Truth, Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell, Jane Addams, and Dorothy Day. The first wave of feminism was led by white women in the middle class. The term Feminism was created like a political illustrated ideology at that period, Feminism emerged by the speech about the reform and correction of democracy based on equalitarian conditions. With Wollstonecrafts work, the illustrated feminist polemic was displayed, and as a result, Wollstonecraft is regarded as the grandmother of British feminism and her ideas shaped the thinking of the suffragettes, who campaigned for the womens vote. After generations of work, this was eventually achieved, in 1882, Rose Scott, a womens rights activist, began to hold a weekly salon meetings in her Sydney home, left to her by her late mother
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Women's history
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Womens history is the study of the role that women have played in history and the methods required to do so. The main centers of scholarship have been the United States and Britain, History was written mainly by men and about mens activities in the public sphere—war, politics, diplomacy and administration. Women are usually excluded and, when mentioned, are portrayed in sex-stereotypical roles such as wives, mothers, daughters. The study of history is value-laden in regard to what is considered historically worthy, other aspects of this area of study is the differences in womens lives caused by race, economic status, social status, and various other aspects of society. Changes came in the 19th and 20th centuries, for example, Women traditionally ran the household, bore and reared the children, were nurses, mothers, wives, neighbors, friends, and teachers. During periods of war, women were drafted into the market to undertake work that had been traditionally restricted to men. Following the wars, they invariably lost their jobs in industry and had to return to domestic, the history of Scottish women in the late 19th century and early 20th century was not fully developed as a field of study until the 1980s. In addition, most work on women before 1700 has been published since 1980, scholars are also uncovering womens voices in their letters, memoirs, poetry, and court records. In Ireland studies of women, and gender relationships more generally, had been rare before 1990, they now are commonplace with some 3000 books and articles in print. But approaches used by academics in the research of broadly based social histories has been applied to the field of womens history as well. The high level of research and publication in womens and gender history is due to the high interest within French society, in the Ancien Régime in France, few women held any formal power, some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the Enlightenment, the writings of philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau provided a program for reform of the ancien régime. Rousseaus conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology, Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a modern society. Salic law prohibited women from rule, however, the laws for the case of a regency, the queen could ensure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty. Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalised in order to supply the church, girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many local schools where working-class children - both boys and girls - learned to read, the better to know, love. The Enlightenment challenged this model, but no alternative was presented for female education
