1.
Theotokos
–
Theotokos is a title of Mary, mother of Jesus, used especially in Eastern Christianity. The usual Latin translations, Dei Genetrix or Deipara, are translated as Mother of God or God-bearer, the Council of Ephesus decreed in 431 that Mary is the Theotokos because her son Jesus is both God and man, one divine person with two natures intimately and hypostatically united. Similar to this is the title of Mother of God, Mother of God is most often used in English, largely due to the lack of a satisfactory equivalent of Greek τόκος / Latin genetrix. The title has been in use since the 3rd century, in the Syriac tradition in the Liturgy of Mari and Addai, Theotokos is an adjectival compound of two the Greek words Θεός God and τόκος childbirth, parturition, offspring. A close paraphrase would be whose offspring is God or who gave birth to one who was God, the usual English translation is simply Mother of God, Latin uses Deipara or Dei Genetrix. The Church Slavonic translation is Bogoroditsa, in an abbreviated form, ΜΡ ΘΥ, it often is found on Eastern icons, where it is used to identify Mary. The Russian term is Матерь Божия, variant forms are the compounds Θεομήτωρ and Μητρόθεος, which are found in patristic and liturgical texts. The theological dispute over the term concerned the term Θεός God vs. Χριστός Christ, and not τόκος vs. μήτηρ, to make it explicit, it is sometimes translated Mother of God Incarnate. This decree created the Nestorian Schism, Cyril of Alexandria wrote, I am amazed that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called Theotokos or not. For if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is the holy Virgin who gave birth, not. But the argument of Nestorius was that divine and human natures of Christ were distinct, at issue is the interpretation of the Incarnation, and the nature of the hypostatic union of Christs human and divine natures between Christs conception and birth. Within the Orthodox doctrinal teaching on the economy of salvation, Marys identity, role, for this reason, it is formally defined as official dogma. The only other Mariological teaching so defined is that of her virginity, both of these teachings have a bearing on the identity of Jesus Christ. The term was certainly in use by the 3rd century, athanasius of Alexandria in 330, Gregory the Theologian in 370, John Chrysostom in 400, and Augustine all used theotokos. Origen is often cited as the earliest author to use theotokos for Mary, although this testimony is uncertain, the term was used c.250 by Dionysius of Alexandria, in an epistle to Paul of Samosata. The Greek version of the hymn Sub tuum praesidium contains the term, in the vocative, the oldest record of this hymn is a papyrus found in Egypt, mostly dated to after 450. But according to a suggestion by de Villiers possibly older, dating to the mid-3rd century, the use of Theotokos was formally affirmed at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. Nestorius opponents, led by Cyril of Alexandria, viewed this as dividing Jesus into two persons, the human who was Son of Mary, and the divine who was not
Theotokos
–
An 18th-century Russian icon depicting various types of the Theotokos icons
Theotokos
–
Theotokos of Kazan
Theotokos
–
A series of articles on
Theotokos
–
Theotokos of Vladimir
2.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
3.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
Philosophy
–
René Descartes
Philosophy
–
Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy
–
Jeremy Bentham
Philosophy
–
Thomas Hobbes
4.
Wisdom
–
Wisdom or sapience is the ability to think and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense, and insight. This implies a possession of knowledge, or the seeking of knowledge to apply to the given circumstance and it often requires control of ones emotional reactions so that the universal principle of reason prevails to determine ones action. In short, wisdom is a disposition to find the truth coupled with a judgement as to what actions should be taken. Charles Haddon Spurgeon defined wisdom as the use of knowledge. Robert I. Sutton and Andrew Hargadon defined the attitude of wisdom as acting with knowledge while doubting what one knows as was said by Lucy of the North. The ancient Greeks considered wisdom to be an important virtue of Petross the Great, personified as the goddesses Metis, Athena is said to have sprung from the head of Zeus. She was portrayed as strong, fair, merciful, and chaste, to Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of Wisdom. Aristotle, in his Metaphysics, defined wisdom as the understanding of causes, i. e. knowing why things are a certain way, the ancient Romans also valued wisdom. It was personified in Minerva, or Pallas and she also represents skillful knowledge and the virtues, especially chastity. Her symbol was the owl which is still a representation of wisdom. She was said to be born from Jupiters forehead, Wisdom is also important within Christianity. Jesus emphasised by Petross the wise, Paul the Apostle, in his first epistle to the Corinthians, argued that there is both secular and divine wisdom, urging Christians to pursue the latter. Prudence, which is related to wisdom, became one of the four cardinal virtues of Catholicism. The Christian philosopher Thomas Aquinas considered wisdom to be the father of all virtues, in the Inuit tradition, developing wisdom was one of the aims of teaching. An Inuit Elder said that a person became wise when they could see what needed to be done and do it successfully without being told what to do. In many cultures, the name for third molars, which are the last teeth to grow, is linked with wisdom. Public schools in the US have an approach to character education, eighteenth century philosophers such as Benjamin Franklin, referred to this as training wisdom and virtue. Traditionally, schools share the responsibility to build character and wisdom along with parents and he teaches that new knowledge and technological know-how increase our power to act which, without wisdom, may cause human suffering and death as well as human benefit
Wisdom
–
Personification of wisdom (in
Greek, Σοφία or
Sophia) at the
Celsus Library in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
Wisdom
–
Truth and Wisdom assist History in writing by
Jacob de Wit, 1754
5.
Theology
–
Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
Theology
–
Augustine of Hippo (354–430),
Latin theologian. His writing on
free will and
original sin remains influential in Western Christendom.
Theology
–
Albert the Great (1193/1206–1280),
patron saint of
Roman Catholic theologians
Theology
–
Tommaso D'aquino was the greatest Western theologist of the Middle Ages.
Theology
–
Allamah Sayyid Abul A'la Maududi was the most influential Islamic theologist of the 20th century.
6.
God
–
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
God
–
"God the Father", a representation of the theistic version of God, by
Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 –
c. 1528)
God
–
Detail of
Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by
Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of
God the Father in Western art
God
–
Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America
God
–
St. Thomas Aquinas summarized
five arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God
7.
Hellenistic civilization
–
It is often considered a period of transition, sometimes even of decadence or degeneration, compared to the enlightenment of the Greek Classical era. The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy, Alexandrian poetry, the Septuagint, Greek science was advanced by the works of the mathematician Euclid and the polymath Archimedes. The religious sphere expanded to include new gods such as the Greco-Egyptian Serapis, eastern deities such as Attis and Cybele, the Hellenistic period was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. This resulted in the export of Greek culture and language to new realms. Equally, however, these new kingdoms were influenced by the cultures, adopting local practices where beneficial, necessary. Hellenistic culture thus represents a fusion of the Ancient Greek world with that of the Near East, Middle East and this mixture gave rise to a common Attic-based Greek dialect, known as Koine Greek, which became the lingua franca through the Hellenistic world. Scholars and historians are divided as to what event signals the end of the Hellenistic era, Hellenistic is distinguished from Hellenic in that the first encompasses the entire sphere of direct ancient Greek influence, while the latter refers to Greece itself. The word originated from the German term hellenistisch, from Ancient Greek Ἑλληνιστής, from Ἑλλάς, Hellenistic is a modern word and a 19th-century concept, the idea of a Hellenistic period did not exist in Ancient Greece. Although words related in form or meaning, e. g, the major issue with the term Hellenistic lies in its convenience, as the spread of Greek culture was not the generalized phenomenon that the term implies. Some areas of the world were more affected by Greek influences than others. The Greek population and the population did not always mix, the Greeks moved and brought their own culture. While a few fragments exist, there is no surviving historical work which dates to the hundred years following Alexanders death. The works of the major Hellenistic historians Hieronymus of Cardia, Duris of Samos, the earliest and most credible surviving source for the Hellenistic period is Polybius of Megalopolis, a statesman of the Achaean League until 168 BC when he was forced to go to Rome as a hostage. His Histories eventually grew to a length of forty books, covering the years 220 to 167 BC, another important source, Plutarchs Parallel Lives though more preoccupied with issues of personal character and morality, outlines the history of important Hellenistic figures. Appian of Alexandria wrote a history of the Roman empire that includes information of some Hellenistic kingdoms, other sources include Justins epitome of Pompeius Trogus Historiae Philipicae and a summary of Arrians Events after Alexander, by Photios I of Constantinople. Lesser supplementary sources include Curtius Rufus, Pausanias, Pliny, in the field of philosophy, Diogenes Laertius Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers is the main source. Ancient Greece had traditionally been a collection of fiercely independent city-states. After the Peloponnesian War, Greece had fallen under a Spartan hegemony, in which Sparta was pre-eminent but not all-powerful
Hellenistic civilization
–
The
Nike of Samothrace is considered one of the greatest masterpieces of
Hellenistic art.
Hellenistic civilization
–
Alexander fighting the Persian king
Darius III. From the
Alexander Mosaic,
Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Hellenistic civilization
–
Alexander's empire at the time of its maximum expansion.
8.
Platonism
–
Platonism, rendered as a proper noun, is the philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it. Lower case platonists need not accept any of the doctrines of Plato, in a narrower sense, the term might indicate the doctrine of Platonic realism. The forms are described in dialogues such as the Phaedo, Symposium. In the Republic the highest form is identified as the Form of the Good, the source of all other forms, in the Sophist, a later work, the forms being, sameness and difference are listed among the primordial Great Kinds. The primary concept is the Theory of Forms, the only true being is founded upon the forms, the eternal, unchangeable, perfect types, of which particular objects of moral and responsible sense are imperfect copies. The multitude of objects of sense, being involved in perpetual change, are deprived of all genuine existence. The number of the forms is defined by the number of concepts which can be derived from the particular objects of sense. The following excerpt may be representative of Platos middle period metaphysics and epistemology, Since the beautiful is opposite of the ugly, and since they are two, each is one. And the same account is true of the just and unjust, the good and the bad, each of them is itself one, but because they manifest themselves everywhere in association with actions, bodies, and one another, each of them appears to be many. The lovers of sights and sounds like beautiful sounds, colors, shapes, and everything fashioned out of them, in fact, there are very few people who would be able to reach the beautiful itself and see it by itself. What about someone who believes in things, but doesnt believe in the beautiful itself. Dont you think he is living in a rather than a wakened state. Isnt this dreaming, whether asleep or awake, to think that a likeness is not a likeness, I certainly think that someone who does that is dreaming. Book VI of the Republic identifies the highest form as the Form of the Good, the cause of all other Ideas, conceptions derived from the impressions of sense can never give us the knowledge of true being, i. e. of the forms. It can only be obtained by the activity within itself, apart from the troubles and disturbances of sense. Dialectic, as the instrument in this process, leading us to knowledge of the forms, later Neoplatonism, beginning with Plotinus, identified the Good of the Republic with the so-called transcendent, absolute One of the first hypothesis of the Parmenides. Platonist ethics is based on the Form of the Good, virtue is knowledge, the recognition of the supreme form of the good. And, since in this cognition, the three parts of the soul, which are reason, spirit, and appetite, all have their share, we get the three virtues, Wisdom, Courage, and Moderation
Platonism
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Platonism
Platonism
–
Site of Plato's Academy in Athens
Platonism
–
Many Western churchmen, including
Augustine of Hippo, have been influenced by Platonism
9.
Gnostic Christianity
–
Gnosticism is a modern name for a variety of ancient religious ideas and systems, originating in Jewish milieus in the first and second century CE. This Divine spark could be liberated by gnosis of this Divine spark, the Gnostic ideas and systems flourished in Mediterranean in the second century CE, in conjunction with and influenced by the early Christian movements and Middle Platonism. In the Persian Empire Gnosticism spread as far as China with Manicheism, a major question in scholarly research is the qualification of Gnosticism, based on the study of its texts, as either an interreligious phenomenon or as an independent religion. The word Gnosticism is a construction, from the Greek word gnosis. Gnosis refers to knowledge based on experience or perception. In a religious context, gnosis is mystical or esoteric knowledge based on direct participation with the divine, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this knowledge of the divine. It is a knowing, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus. With gnosis comes a fuller insight, and gives an understanding of the deeper meanings of doctrines, scriptures. The usual meaning of gnostikos in Classical Greek texts is learned or intellectual, platos use of learned is fairly typical of Classical texts. By the Hellenistic period, it began to also be associated with Greco-Roman mysteries, the adjective is not used in the New Testament, but Clement of Alexandria speaks of the learned Christian in complimentary terms. The use of gnostikos in relation to heresy originates with interpreters of Irenaeus, some scholars consider that Irenaeus sometimes uses gnostikos to simply mean intellectual, whereas his mention of the intellectual sect is a specific designation. The term Gnosticism was derived from the use of the Greek adjective gnostikos by St. Irenaeus to describe the school of Valentinus as he legomene gnostike haeresis the heresy called Learned, the Syrian-Egyptian traditions postulate a remote, supreme Godhead, the Monad. From this highest divinity emanate lower divine beings, known as Aeons, the Demiurg, one of those Aeons, creates the physical world. Divine elements fall into the realm, and are locked within human beings. This divine element returns to the realm when Gnosis, esoteric or intuitive knowledge of the divine element within is obtained. Gnostic systems postulate a dualism between God and the world, varying from the radical dualist systems of Manicheanism to the dualism of classic gnostic movements. Radical dualism, or absolute dualism, posits two co-equal divine forces, while in mitigated dualism one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other, in qualified monism the second entity may be divine or semi-divine. Valentinian Gnosticism is a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner, Gnostics tended toward asceticism, especially in their sexual and dietary practice
Gnostic Christianity
–
The death of
Simon Magus.
10.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Sophia is a central idea in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Gnosticism, orthodox Christianity, Esoteric Christianity, and Christian mysticism. Sophiology is a concept regarding wisdom, as well as a theological concept regarding the wisdom of the biblical God. Sophia is honored as a goddess of wisdom by Gnostics, as well as by some Neopagan, New Age, plato, following his teacher, Socrates, understands philosophy as φιλοσοφία. This understanding of philosophia permeates Platos dialogues, especially the Republic, in that work, the leaders of the proposed utopia are to be philosopher kings, rulers who are friends of sophia or Wisdom. Sophia is one of the four cardinal virtues in Platos Protagoras, the Pythian Oracle reportedly answered the question of who is the wisest man of Greece. Socrates defends this verdict in his Apology to the effect that he, at least and this contrasted with the attitude of contemporaneous Greek Sophists, who claimed to be wise and offered to teach wisdom for pay. The Greek noun sophia is the translation of wisdom in the Greek Septuagint for Hebrew חכמות Ḥokmot, Wisdom is a central topic in the sapiential books, i. e. In Christian theology, wisdom describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God. Jesus directly mentions Wisdom in the Gospel of Matthew, The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, but wisdom is justified by her deeds. St. Paul refers to the concept, notably in 1 Corinthians, where is the disputer of this world. Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world, Paul sets worldly wisdom against a higher wisdom of God, But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom, which God ordained before the world unto our glory. The Epistle of James distinguishes between two kinds of wisdom, one is a false wisdom, which is characterized as earthly, sensual, devilish and is associated with strife and contention. In Eastern Orthodoxy humility is the highest wisdom and is to be more than any other virtue. Not only does humility cultivate the Holy Wisdom, but it is the quality that grants people salvation. The Hagia Sophia or Holy Wisdom church in Constantinople was the center of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly a thousand years. In the Divine Liturgy of the Orthodox Church, the exclamation Sophia, or in English Wisdom. will be proclaimed by the deacon or priest at certain moments, especially before the reading of scripture, to draw the congregations attention to sacred teaching. The concept of Sophia has been championed as a key part of the Godhead by some Eastern Orthodox religious thinkers and these included Vladimir Solovyov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Sergei Bulgakov whose book Sophia, The Wisdom of God is in many ways the apotheosis of Sophiology. For Bulgakov, the Sophia is co-existent with the Trinity, operating as the aspect of God in concert with the three masculine principles of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Personification of
wisdom (in
Greek, " Σοφία " or " Sophia ") at the
Celsus Library in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Ukrainian (
Kyiv) Icon, Sophia, the Holy Wisdom, 1812. Cf. Proverbs 9:1.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Exterior view of the
Hagia Sophia or the Holy Wisdom, 2004.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Artwork from a medieval
codex depicting
Hildegard of Bingen 's vision of
Ecclesia and Sophia.
11.
Bride of Christ
–
The Bride of Christ or bride, the Lambs wife is a term used in reference to a group of related verses in the Bible, in the Gospels, Revelation, the Epistles and related verses in the Old Testament. Sometimes, the Bride is implied by calling Jesus a Bridegroom, for over 1500 years, the Church was identified as the bride betrothed to Christ. However, there are instances of the interpretation of the usage of varying from church to church, most believe that it always refers to the church. In the Gospel of John, John the Baptist speaks of Jesus Christ as the bridegroom and that is the only place in the Gospels that the bride is mentioned, but because a bridegroom must have a bride, all other mentions of the bridegroom imply the bride. The Bridegroom is also mentioned in the Parable of the Ten Virgins, the Book of Revelation repeatedly mentions the appearance of the Bride. In the above passages, John, the author of the Book of Revelation, speaks of seeing the bride revealed and refers to her as the New Jerusalem, note - The Greek word for bride is νύμφη as in Revelations 21,2. This not the same as the used in Revelations 19,7 which is γυνὴ which means wife and thus numerous Bible translations have incorrectly translated it like NIV, NLT, ESV, NASB. Ephesians 5, 22-33 compares the union of husband and wife to that of Christ, the central theme of the whole Ephesians letter is reconciliation of the alienated within the unity of the church. Ephesians 5 begins by calling on Christians to imitate God and Christ, Ephesians 5, 1-21 contains a rather strong warning against foolishness and letting down ones guard against evil. Rather, the author encourages the readers to give thanks with song in their hearts because of what God has done for all in Christ. The ekklēsia is never called the bride of Christ in the New Testament. That is approached in Ephesians 5, 22-33, a major analogy is that of the body. Just as husband and wife are to be one flesh, this analogy for the writer describes the relationship of Christ, husbands were exhorted to love their wives just as Christ loved the ekklēsia and gave himself for it. When Christ nourishes and cherishes the ekklēsia, he nourishes and cherishes his own flesh, just as the husband, when he loves his wife is loving his own flesh. Members of the ekklēsia are members of his own body because it is written in Genesis 2,4, in Paul quotes the Genesis passage as what has been called a divine postscript. For I am jealous over you with godly jealousy, for I have espoused you to one husband, but I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve through his subtlety, so your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in Christ. Here, Paul seems to suggest that the Church is to be married to Jesus Christ of Nazareth, while the most commonly accepted interpretation of the bride of Christ is the Church, there are other, uncommon interpretations. The earliest Christian tradition identifies Old Testament texts as symbolic of the love of God
Bride of Christ
–
An 1880
Baxter process illustration of Revelation 22:17 by Joseph Martin Kronheim.
12.
Orthodox Church
–
The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
Orthodox Church
–
Orthodox liturgy
Orthodox Church
–
An
icon of
John the Baptist, 14th century, Macedonia
13.
Heresy
–
Heresy /hār ə sē/ is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs. A heretic is a proponent of such claims or beliefs, the term is usually used to refer to violations of important religious teachings, but is used also of views strongly opposed to any generally accepted ideas. It is used in particular in reference to Christianity, Judaism, the word heresy is usually used within a Christian, Jewish, or Islamic context, and implies slightly different meanings in each. The founder or leader of a movement is called a heresiarch. Heresiology is the study of heresy, according to Titus 3,10 a divisive person should be warned two times before separating from him. The Greek for the phrase divisive person became a term in the early Church for a type of heretic who promoted dissension. In contrast correct teaching is called not only because it builds up the faith. The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy and they saw deviations from orthodox Christianity as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. The use of the word heresy was given currency by Irenaeus in his 2nd century tract Contra Haereses to describe. He described the beliefs and doctrines as orthodox and the Gnostics teachings as heretical. He also pointed out the concept of succession to support his arguments. By Roman law the Emperor was Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the College of Pontiffs of all recognized religions in ancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated by Arius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called the ecumenical councils and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority. The first known usage of the term in a context was in AD380 by the Edict of Thessalonica of Theodosius I. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as heresy, by this edict the states authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities and this reinforcement of the Churchs authority gave church leaders the power to, in effect, pronounce the death sentence upon those whom the church considered heretical. The edict of Theodosius II provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius and those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death. For some years after the Reformation, Protestant churches were known to execute those they considered heretics
Heresy
–
The
Gospel (allegory) triumphs over Heresia and the
Serpent. Church of King
Gustaf Vasa,
Stockholm, Sweden, sculpture by
Burchard Precht.
Heresy
–
The burning of adherents of the
pantheistic Amalrician sect in 1210, in the presence of King
Philip II Augustus. In the background is the
Gibbet of Montfaucon and, anachronistically, the Grosse Tour of the
Temple. Illumination from the
Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 1255-1260.
Heresy
–
Former German
Catholic priest Martin Luther was famously excommunicated as a
heretic by
Pope Leo X in 1520.
Heresy
–
Massacre of the
Waldensians of
Mérindol in 1545.
14.
Patriarch of Moscow
–
The Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus, also known as the Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia, is the official title of the primate of the Russian Orthodox Church. It is often preceded by the honorific His Holiness, the patriarchate was established in Moscow in 1589, the first patriarch was St. Job. Abolished in 1721 by Peter the Great, the patriarchate was restored on October 28,1917, Patriarch Kirill acceded to this position on 1 February 2009. Different variations of the title Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, Patriarch of Moscow and all the great and small, the modern form, Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus, was initially used in 1589 through 1721. In the subsequent period, the Synod of Church authorities and public administration in Russia, the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church was restored by decision of the All-Russian Local Council on October 28,1917. The first patriarch elected after restoration was Saint Tikhon, Metropolitan of Moscow, between terms, Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church elects the chair from among its permanent members of the locum tenens of the Patriarchal throne. Not later than six months after the release of locum tenens of the throne. Shall convene to elect a new Patriarch of Moscow and All the Rus, the candidate for the patriarchs must be a bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church, not younger than 40 years old, have a higher theological education, the expertise of the diocesan administration. The procedure for the election of the patriarch of the charter was not detailed, Kirill I was elected on 27 January 2009 by the ROC Local Council as Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus and Primate of the Russian Orthodox Church, with 508 votes out of 700. He was enthroned on 1 February 2009, the Patriarch enters the dignity during a special ceremony of enthronement, which is held a few days after the election. List of Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow
Patriarch of Moscow
–
Incumbent
Kirill since 1 February 2009
15.
Hierarchs
–
An ordinary is an officer of a church or civic authority who by reason of office has ordinary power to execute laws. Such officers are found in hierarchically organised churches of Western Christianity which have a legal system. For example, diocesan bishops are ordinaries in the Roman Catholic church, in Eastern Christianity, a corresponding officer is called a hierarch. In canon law, the power to govern the church is divided into the power to make laws, enforce the laws, and to judge based on the law. A person exercises power to either because the person holds an office to which the law grants governing power or because someone with governing power has delegated it to the person. Ordinary power is the former, while the latter is delegated power, the office with ordinary power could possess the governing power itself or instead it could have the ordinary power of agency, the inherent power to exercise someone elses power. Thus, in the Catholic Church, the office of successor of Simon Peter, many officers possess ordinary power but, due to their lack of ordinary executive power, are not called ordinaries. The best example of this phenomenon is the office of judicial vicar, the judicial vicar only has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops power to judge cases. Though the vicar has vicarious ordinary judicial power, he is not an ordinary because he lacks ordinary executive power, a vicar general, however, has authority through his office to exercise the diocesan bishops executive power. He is therefore an ordinary because of this vicarious ordinary executive power, local ordinaries exercise ordinary power and are ordinaries in particular churches. The following clerics are local ordinaries, The Bishop of Rome is ordinary for the whole Catholic Church, in Eastern Catholic Churches, Patriarchs, major archbishops, and metropolitans have ordinary power of governance for the whole territory of their respective autonomous particular churches. Diocesan/eparchial bishops/eparchs Other prelates who head, even if only temporarily, Canon 368 of the Code of Canon Law lists five Latin-Rite jurisdictional areas that are considered equivalent to a diocese. A Military Ordinary A Personal Prelate, in charge of a group of persons without regard to geography, apart from certain limitations of nature and law, he has, on a caretaker basis, the same obligations and powers as a diocesan bishop. Occasionally an Apostolic Administrator is appointed by the Holy See to run a vacant diocese, the violation of this rule is called eispēdēsis, and is uncanonical. Ultimately, all bishops in the Church are equal, regardless of any title they may enjoy, the role of the bishop in the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and sacramental. This pattern of governance dates back to the earliest centuries of Christianity, as witnessed by the writings of Ignatius of Antioch, let no one do any of the things which concern the Church without the bishop. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the people be, just as wherever Jesus Christ is, and it is the bishops primary and distinctive task to celebrate the Eucharist, the medicine of immortality. Saint Cyprian of Carthage wrote, The episcopate is a single whole, so is the Church a single whole, though it spreads far and wide into a multitude of churches and its fertility increases
Hierarchs
–
Pope
Pius XI, depicted in this window at
Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace,
Honolulu, was ordinary of the universal Church as well as the
Diocese of Rome from 1922 to 1939. At the same time, Bishop
Stephen Alencastre,
Apostolic Vicar of the
Sandwich Islands, was the ordinary of what is now the
Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu.
16.
Sergei Bulgakov
–
Sergei Nikolaevich Bulgakov was a Russian Orthodox Christian theologian, philosopher, and economist. Sergei Nicolaevich Bulgakov was born on 16 July 1871 to the family of an Orthodox priest in the town of Livny, Oryol guberniya and he studied at Orel seminary, then at Yelets gimnasium. In 1894 he graduated from the Law School of Moscow University, during his study at the seminary Bulgakov became interested in Marxism and took part in the Legal Marxism movement. Under the influence of works of Russian religious thinkers, in the course of his meetings and he wrote a book about his evolution. Such an evolution was common for the Russian intelligentsia of the time and he was a leader of the publisher Way, where he printed many important works of contemporary Orthodox theology. In 1907 he was elected as an independent Christian Socialist to the Second Duma, in 1918, having returned to the Orthodox Church, he was ordained to the priesthood, and rose to prominence in church circles. He took part in the All-Russia Sobor of the Russian Orthodox Church that elected patriarch Tikhon of Moscow, Bulgakov rejected the October revolution and responded with On the Feast of the Gods, a book similar to the Three Talks of Vladimir Solovyov. During the Russian Civil War he was in Crimea, where he worked in the field of philosophy and he wrote books Philosophy of the Name and Tragedy of Philosophy in which he revised his views about the relation of Philosophy to Dogmatism. He concluded that the Christian views can be expressed only by dogmatic theology, thereafter his works were devoted to dogmatic theology. On 30 December 1922 the Bolshevik government expelled some 160 prominent intellectuals on the so-called Philosophers ship, Bulgakov, Nikolai Berdyaev, in May 1923 he became professor of Church Law and Theology at the school of law of the Russian Research Institute in Prague. In 1925 he helped found St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute, in Paris and he was the head of this institute and Professor of Dogmatic Theology until his death from throat cancer on 12 July 1944. His last work was devoted to the Apocalypse, Bulgakov’s teaching on sophiology is highly controversial. The attempt to understand it properly is hindered by the political controversy surrounding it in the 1930s. By 1931, there were three separate Russian Orthodox jurisdictions in Europe, the Russian Church Abroad/Sremski Karlovtsy Synod, under Met, anthony, Patriarchal Church, answering ultimately to Met. Sergius I of Moscow and had the young Vladimir Lossky as a member, Evlogy, under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople, in 1934, Met. Evlogy was privately reconciled to Met, anthony, and in 1935, he went to Karlovtsy for a special reunion conference at which time the schism between him and ROCOR was healed. Evlogy again cut his ties with ROCOR, quite possibly because of the controversy over Sophianism, in the Decree on Sophianism, an ukaz of 24 August 1935 of Met. Sergius, Bulgakov’s teaching on ‘Sophia’ was described as ‘alien’ to the Orthodox faith and this ukaz was largely based on the epistolary reports of Alexis Stavrovsky
Sergei Bulgakov
–
Mikhail Nesterov 's Philosophers (1917),
Pavel Florensky and Sergei Bulgakov (right)
Sergei Bulgakov
–
1907 caricature portraying Bulgakov as a member of the State Duma
Sergei Bulgakov
–
Father Sergey Bulgakov
17.
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
–
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology is the theology particular to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is three and one, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, one in essence. The Holy Trinity is three unconfused and distinct divine persons, who share one divine essence, uncreated, immaterial and eternal, the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. The essence of God being that which is beyond human comprehension, Orthodox Christians believe the incarnate Word of God is one person in two natures, both fully divine and fully human, perfectly God and perfectly man. Throughout the ages this has been a point of contention between schismatic Christian theological factions and the body of Christian believers. Christ had a divine will, or set of desires and spiritual incentives, and he had a human body, human mind, and human spirit able to be tempted with sin and to suffer the same way as we would. In this way God is said to have suffered and died in the flesh of Jesus, although the nature is itself impassible. He is said to have been begotten timelessly as God without a mother, Orthodox Christians believe in the betrayal, trial, execution, burial and resurrection of Jesus Christ, that he truly rose from the dead on the third day following his crucifixion. The feast of the resurrection of Christ, which is called Easter in Germanic languages, is known as Pascha in the Orthodox Church and this is the Aramaic variant of the Hebrew Pesach, meaning Passover. The resurrection of Christ is the Christian Passover, Pascha is called the Feast of Feasts and is considered the greatest feast of all the Churchs liturgical feasts, including the feasts of the Nativity and the Annunciation. Energies and essence are both inseparably God, the divine energies are the expressions of divine being in action according to Orthodox doctrine, whereas the persons of the Trinity are divine by nature. Hence, created beings are united to God through participation in the divine energies, Orthodox Christians hold that man was originally created in communion with God, but through acting in a manner contrary to his own nature, he disrupted that communion. Because of mans refusal to fulfill the image and likeness of God within him, corruption, but when Jesus came into the world He Himself was Perfect Man and Perfect God united in the divine Hypostasis of the Logos, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. Through his assumption of human nature, human existence was restored, enabling human beings, the Word of God came in His own Person, because it was He alone, the Image of the Father, Who could recreate man made after the Image. In order to effect this re-creation, however, He had first to do away with death, therefore He assumed a human body, in order that in it death might once and for all be destroyed, and that men might be renewed according to the Image. St. Athanasius, On the Incarnation Salvation, or being saved, therefore, refers to process of being saved from death and corruption. The Orthodox Church believes that its teachings and practices represent the path to participation in the gifts of God. Yet, it should be understood that the Orthodox do not believe that you must be Orthodox to participate in salvation, the Orthodox believe that there is nothing that a person can do to earn salvation
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
–
"Hospitality of Abraham" icon by
Andrei Rublev; the three angels represent the
three persons of God
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
–
Orthodox icon of the
Resurrection (14th-century
fresco,
Chora Church,
Istanbul).
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
–
Icon depicting
the Emperor Constantine (centre) and the
bishops of the
First Council of Nicaea (325) holding the
Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381.
Eastern Orthodox Christian theology
–
A page from a rare
Georgian Bible, 1030 A.D, depicting the
Raising of Lazarus.
18.
Jesus Christ
–
Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader who became the central figure of Christianity. Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, Jesus was a Galilean Jew who was baptized by John the Baptist and subsequently began his own ministry, preaching his message orally and often being referred to as rabbi. He was arrested and tried by the Jewish authorities, and was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate, Jesus debated fellow Jews on how to best follow God, performed healings, taught in parables and gathered followers. After his death, his followers believed he rose from the dead, and his birth is celebrated annually on December 25 as a holiday known as Christmas, his crucifixion is honored on Good Friday, and his resurrection is celebrated on Easter. The widely used calendar era AD, from the Latin anno Domini, most Christians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead either before or after their bodily resurrection, the great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity. A minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, in Islam, Jesus is considered one of Gods important prophets and the Messiah. Muslims believe Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin but was not the Son of God, the Quran states that Jesus himself never claimed divinity. To most Muslims, Jesus was not crucified but was raised into Heaven by God. Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill Messianic prophecies, a typical Jew in Jesus time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the fathers name or the individuals hometown. Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, the carpenters son, or Josephs son. In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth, the name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς. The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ישוע, a variant of the earlier name יהושע, the name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus. The 1st century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the etymology of Jesus name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as Yahweh is salvation. Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as Jesus Christ, the word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός, which is a translation of the Hebrew משיח, meaning the anointed and usually transliterated into English as Messiah. Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the Messiah, whose arrival is prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, in postbiblical usage, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of Jesus Christ—but originally it was a title. The term Christian has been in use since the 1st century, the four canonical gospels are the only substantial sources for the life and message of Jesus. Acts of the Apostles refers to the ministry of Jesus
Jesus Christ
–
(
stained glass at
St John's Ashfield in
Sydney, Australia)
Jesus Christ
Jesus Christ
–
A 3rd-century Greek
papyrus of the
Gospel of Luke
Jesus Christ
–
Adoration of the Shepherds by
Gerard van Honthorst, 1622.
19.
Second Council of Nicaea
–
The Second Council of Nicaea is recognized as the last of the first seven ecumenical councils by both West and East. Orthodox, Catholics, and Old Catholics unanimously recognize it, Protestant opinions on it are varied and it met in AD787 in Nicaea to restore the use and veneration of icons, which had been suppressed by imperial edict inside the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Leo III. His son, Constantine V, had held the Council of Hieria to make the suppression official, the veneration of icons had been banned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and supported by his Council of Hieria, which had described itself as the seventh ecumenical council. The emperors vigorous enforcement of the ban included persecution of those who venerated icons, Constantines iconoclastic tendencies were shared by Constantines son, Leo IV. After the latters death, his widow, Irene of Athens, as regent for her son, began its restoration, moved thereto by personal inclination. However, a council, claiming to be ecumenical, had abolished the veneration of icons, Pope Adrian I was invited to participate, and gladly accepted. However, the intended for the oriental patriarchs could not even be delivered to them. The Roman legates were an archbishop and an abbot, both named Peter, in 786, the council met in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople. However, soldiers in collusion with the opposition entered the church, as a result, the government resorted to a stratagem. Under the pretext of a campaign, the bodyguard was sent away from the capital — disarmed and disbanded. The council was summoned to meet, this time in Nicaea. The council assembled on September 24,787 at the church of Hagia Sophia and it numbered about 350 members,308 bishops or their representatives signed. Tarasius presided, and seven sessions were held in Nicaea, first Session — Three bishops, Basilius of Ancyra, Theodore of Myra and Theodosius of Amorium begged for pardon for the heresy of iconoclasm. Second Session — Papal legates read the letters of Pope Hadrian I asking for agreement with veneration of images, third Session — Other bishops having made their abjuration, were received into the council. Fourth Session — Proof of the lawfulness of the veneration of icons was drawn from Exodus 25,19 sqq, ezekiel 41,18, and Genesis 31,34, but especially from a series of passages of the Church Fathers, the authority of the latter was decisive. Fifth Session — It was claimed that the iconoclast heresy came originally from Jews, Saracens, sixth Session — The definition of the pseudo-Seventh council was read and condemned. Seventh Session — The council issued a declaration of faith concerning the veneration of holy images, and exhibited on the walls of churches, in the homes, and in all conspicuous places, by the roadside and everywhere, to be revered by all who might see them. For the more they are contemplated, the more they move to fervent memory of their prototypes, eighth Session — The last session was held in Constantinople at the Magnaura Palace
Second Council of Nicaea
–
An
icon of the Seventh Ecumenical Council (17th century,
Novodevichy Convent,
Moscow).
Second Council of Nicaea
–
Hagia Sophia of Nicaea, where the Council took place;
Iznik, Turkey.
Second Council of Nicaea
–
Hagia Sophia, İznik
20.
Icon
–
An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
Icon
–
The Ladder of Divine Ascent icon showing monks ascending to
Jesus in Heaven, top right. 12th century,
Saint Catherine's Monastery
Icon
–
Russian icon of
Holy Trinity
Icon
–
The icon of
St Nicolas carved in stone. Between the 12 and 15th cc.
Radomysl Castle, Ukraine
Icon
–
Ceramic icons are rare.
Saint Arethas, Byzantine, 10th century.
21.
Sophia (name)
–
Sophia, also spelled Sofia, is a female name derived from σοφία, the Greek word for Wisdom. The name was used to represent the personification of wisdom, sophia has been a popular name throughout the Western world. It is the most popular name for girls in the US for 2012. Sophie was the fifth most popular name for girls in Australia in 2013
Sophia (name)
–
A Russian icon depicting
Sophia, the Holy Wisdom.
Sophia (name)
–
A depiction of Saint Sophia the Martyr with her three martyred daughters Faith, Hope and Charity.
Sophia (name)
–
Personification of
wisdom (in
Greek, " Σοφία " or " Sophia ") at the
Celsus Library in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
22.
Sophia (Wisdom)
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Sophia is a central idea in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Gnosticism, orthodox Christianity, Esoteric Christianity, and Christian mysticism. Sophiology is a concept regarding wisdom, as well as a theological concept regarding the wisdom of the biblical God. Sophia is honored as a goddess of wisdom by Gnostics, as well as by some Neopagan, New Age, plato, following his teacher, Socrates, understands philosophy as φιλοσοφία. This understanding of philosophia permeates Platos dialogues, especially the Republic, in that work, the leaders of the proposed utopia are to be philosopher kings, rulers who are friends of sophia or Wisdom. Sophia is one of the four cardinal virtues in Platos Protagoras, the Pythian Oracle reportedly answered the question of who is the wisest man of Greece. Socrates defends this verdict in his Apology to the effect that he, at least and this contrasted with the attitude of contemporaneous Greek Sophists, who claimed to be wise and offered to teach wisdom for pay. The Greek noun sophia is the translation of wisdom in the Greek Septuagint for Hebrew חכמות Ḥokmot, Wisdom is a central topic in the sapiential books, i. e. In Christian theology, wisdom describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God. Jesus directly mentions Wisdom in the Gospel of Matthew, The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, but wisdom is justified by her deeds. St. Paul refers to the concept, notably in 1 Corinthians, where is the disputer of this world. Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world, Paul sets worldly wisdom against a higher wisdom of God, But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom, which God ordained before the world unto our glory. The Epistle of James distinguishes between two kinds of wisdom, one is a false wisdom, which is characterized as earthly, sensual, devilish and is associated with strife and contention. In Eastern Orthodoxy humility is the highest wisdom and is to be more than any other virtue. Not only does humility cultivate the Holy Wisdom, but it is the quality that grants people salvation. The Hagia Sophia or Holy Wisdom church in Constantinople was the center of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly a thousand years. In the Divine Liturgy of the Orthodox Church, the exclamation Sophia, or in English Wisdom. will be proclaimed by the deacon or priest at certain moments, especially before the reading of scripture, to draw the congregations attention to sacred teaching. The concept of Sophia has been championed as a key part of the Godhead by some Eastern Orthodox religious thinkers and these included Vladimir Solovyov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Sergei Bulgakov whose book Sophia, The Wisdom of God is in many ways the apotheosis of Sophiology. For Bulgakov, the Sophia is co-existent with the Trinity, operating as the aspect of God in concert with the three masculine principles of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
Sophia (Wisdom)
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Personification of
wisdom (in
Greek, " Σοφία " or " Sophia ") at the
Celsus Library in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
Sophia (Wisdom)
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Ukrainian (
Kyiv) Icon, Sophia, the Holy Wisdom, 1812. Cf. Proverbs 9:1.
Sophia (Wisdom)
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Exterior view of the
Hagia Sophia or the Holy Wisdom, 2004.
Sophia (Wisdom)
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Artwork from a medieval
codex depicting
Hildegard of Bingen 's vision of
Ecclesia and Sophia.
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Edwin Mellen Press
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The Edwin Mellen Press is a scholarly publishing house with offices in Lewiston, NY and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded in 1972 by religious scholar Herbert Richardson, Richardson originally ran the press from the basement of his home, which he shared with his wife and four children. The business was named after Edwin Mellen, Richardsons grandfather who was a lover of books, Richardsons great-grandfather was Isaac Adams, a Massachusetts State Senator and the inventor of the Adams Power Press. The Press soon expanded and began to publish dissertations by scholars outside the University of Toronto, by 1977, The Press had grown large enough to warrant its own space. In 1987, the Edwin Mellen Press founded an office in Lampeter, the Edwin Mellen Press publishes books written at the doctoral reading level, and founder Herbert Richardson has written that The Press values scholar-for-scholar research more than anything. In fact, The Press states that the criterion for publication is that the manuscript must make a contribution to scholarship. This has led to The Press often publishing very detailed research that would otherwise be rejected by larger university presses, the Press has published books on topics as varied as the health problems of migrants living on the border of Thailand and Burma to the role of parrots in fiction. Edwin Mellen books are included in library collections all over the world, including the University of London, which has 4,926 of its books, and Harvard. Since 1993, the Press has attracted publicity for taking action against critics. In 1993, The Press brought a suit against the magazine Lingua Franca. Martha Reineke, a professor of religion at the University of Northern Iowa, initiated a petition demanding The Press drop its lawsuits, on that date, The Press announced that it had discontinued the court case against McMaster and Askey, but it continued a lawsuit against Askey personally. On February 5,2015, Askey stated that The Press had settled its lawsuit against him. On March 21,2013, The Press threatened legal action against The Society for Scholarly Publishing for hosting allegedly libelous blog posts and comments on The Scholarly Kitchen, the Scholarly Kitchen removed the content in question from its website on March 29,2013. It restored the blog post, though not the specific comment alleged to be libellous, a few days later, and published a blog post explaining its actions. In April 2013, The Press threatened to take action against the interim library dean of the University of Utah. The matter was settled, without payment, in February 2015, sociologist Kenneth Westhues studied aspects of this litigation in his book The Envy of Excellence, Administrative Mobbing of High Achieving Professors, a work published by the Edwin Mellen Press. Cameron, Averil, Puttick, Elizabeth, Clarke, Bernard, Desert Mothers, Women Ascetics in Early Christian Egypt, Edwin Mellen Press Current Issues on Theology and Religion in Latin America and Africa. Lewiston, N. Y. and Lampeter, U. K. Edwin Mellen Press,280 + xv pp.2002, a Social History of the Catholic Church in Chile Vol. I, The First Period of the Pinochet Government 1973-1980
Edwin Mellen Press
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Edwin Mellen Press
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