1.
Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act
–
The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act is a federal statute that was signed into law by U. S. President George W. Bush on July 27,2006. Tier 2 offenders must update their whereabouts every six months with 25 years of registration, failure to register and update information is a felony under the law. States are required to disclose information of Tier 2 and Tier 3 offenders. It also contains civil commitment provisions for sexually dangerous people, the Act also creates a national sex offender registry and instructs each state and territory to apply identical criteria for posting offender data on the internet. The Act was named after Adam Walsh, an American boy who was abducted from a Florida shopping mall, as of April 2014, the Justice Department reports that 17 states, three territories and 63 tribes had substantially implemented requirements of the Adam Walsh Act. The Adam Walsh Act emerged from Congress following the passage of bills in the House. The Act is also known as the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, the act seeks to close gaps in the prior system, provide more information on a wider range of offenders, and make the information more readily available to the public and law enforcement officials. The Act also establishes a civil commitment scheme. Under this provision, even prisoners who have never been charged with or convicted of a sex crime may be civilly committed after completing their entire prison sentence. Prior to Supreme Court Review, the federal Circuit courts were split on the question of whether Congress had the authority to enact this provision. On May 17,2010, the Supreme Court upheld the law, at the time of passage, at least 100,000 of more than a half million sex offenders in the United States and the District of Columbia were missing and unregistered as required by law. The act allocated federal funding was to assist states in maintaining and improving these programs so a system for tracking sex offenders. The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act was signed on the 25th anniversary of the abduction of Adam Walsh from a mall in Florida. Adam Walshs father is John Walsh, host of the television series Americas Most Wanted, John Walsh, also founder of the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, was joined by other childrens advocates to mount an aggressive campaign to get the bill passed into law. As part of the campaign, Walsh was joined by Congressman Sensenbrenner, representatives from the NCMEC, a hearing is available to the involuntarily committed individual every six months to reconsider their commitment status if requested by counsel or the person in the federal treatment program. Establishes a national database which will incorporate the use of DNA evidence collection and DNA registry, the law defines and requires a three-tier classification system for sex offenders, based on offense committed, replacing the older system based on risk of re-offence. Tier 1 sex offenders are required to register for 10–15 years, tier 2 for 25 years, allows courts to expand definition of sex crimes requiring registration through broad residual clause. Increases the penalties for sex trafficking of children and child prostitution, widens federal funding to assist local law enforcement in tracking sexual exploitation of minors on the internet
Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act
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Ottis Toole; evidence indicated he killed Adam Walsh, and he confessed but then recanted.
2.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Persian language
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Old Persian
Persian language
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Ferdowsi 's
Shahnameh
Persian language
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Kalilah va Dimna, an influential work in Persian literature.
3.
Double reed
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A double reed is a type of reed used to produce sound in various wind instruments. The term double reed comes from the fact there are two pieces of cane vibrating against each other. A single reed consists of one piece of cane which vibrates against a mouthpiece made of metal, hardened rubber, resin, the term double reeds can also refer collectively to the class of instruments which use double reeds. There are several differences, the most obvious being size, between various types of reeds, for example between that for a bassoon and that for an oboe or a cor anglais. Typically, Arundo donax cane is used for the making of double reeds, for bassoon reeds, tubes of this cane are first split lengthwise then gouged to a certain thickness. The chosen piece of cane is cut to shape and the centre portion is thinned. The cane is folded end to end to form the two blades of the reed, the unprofiled end of the cane is shaped into a tube with the aid of a mandrel and bound with three strategically placed wires. A turban made out of thread is added on the third wire and it provides a hand hold for the reed that isnt a sharp wire. The folded tip is cut off to allow the blades to vibrate and final adjustments to the interior of the using a reamer. The reed is then ready to fit to the bocal of the bassoon, note that there are many schools of thought and processes for making reeds. However, because the oboe does not have a bocal, the cane must be fastened to a metal tube, the staple is then inserted into the farrow at the upper end of the oboe. There are many different methods of making reeds and many variations of design have been developed, players can buy reeds either ready-made, or in various stages of formation, such as part-scraped, reed blanks, or buy the staples and cane separately. Cane is sold in forms, as tubes, gouged, gouged and shaped. Bassoon cane has the option of being profiled before purchase. Cane from several different regions is used in reed making, traditionally from southern France, there are also many options with regard to staples, shaping equipment, and so forth, which all have a subtle effect on the tone quality a reed will produce. While cane is by far the most common material for double reeds, reeds made out of synthetic materials may be used, these reeds often last longer and are less sensitive to temperature and humidity flucutations. Most reeds produced from synthetic materials have a quality that is dissimilar to that of a cane reed and are not favored by musicians. However, some recent manufacturers produce synthetic reeds that are used in a professional setting, oboe double reeds are about 7 mm in width
Double reed
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Bassoon reeds
Double reed
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A bassoon reed
Double reed
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An oboe reed
4.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
Musical instrument
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Anne Vallayer-Coster, Attributes of Music, 1770. This
still life painting depicts a variety of French Baroque musical instruments, such as a
natural horn,
transverse flute,
musette,
violin, and
lute.
Musical instrument
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Found in
Slovenia, the
Divje Babe Flute is considered the world's
oldest known musical instrument
Musical instrument
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Two
Aztec slit drums, called teponaztli. The characteristic " H " slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground.
Musical instrument
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Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players,
18th Dynasty (c. 1350 BC)
5.
Shawm
–
The shawm is a conical bore, double-reed woodwind instrument made in Europe from the 12th century to the present day. It achieved its peak of popularity during the medieval and Renaissance periods and it is likely to have come to Western Europe from the Eastern Mediterranean around the time of the Crusades. Double reed instruments similar to the shawm were long present in Southern Europe and the East, for instance the Ancient Greek, and later Byzantine, aulos, the Persian sorna, and the Armenian duduk. The body of the shawm is usually turned from a piece of wood. Beginning in the 16th century, shawms were made in sizes, from sopranino to great bass. All later shawms have at least one key allowing an extension of the compass. The pirouette, a small wooden attachment with a cavity in the center resembling a thimble, surrounds the lower part of the reed—this provides support for the lips and embouchure. Since only a portion of the reed protrudes past the pirouette, the player has only limited contact with the reed. In English the name only first appears in the 14th century, the early plural forms were often mistaken for a singular, and new plurals were formed from them. The later reduction in the 15th and 16th centuries to a syllable in forms such as schalme, shaume, shawme. In Portugal there is an instrument called charamela, and the name of the Italian shawm is ciaramella, Instruments resembling the medieval shawm can still be heard in many countries today, played by street musicians or military bands. The latter use would have been familiar to crusaders, who often had to face massed bands of Saracen shawms and nakers and it must have had a profound effect, as the shawm was quickly adopted by Europeans, for dancing as well as for military purposes. The standard outdoor dance band in the century consisted of a slide trumpet playing popular melodies. In many Asian countries, shawm technique includes circular breathing allowing continuous playing without pauses for air, by the early 16th century, the shawm had undergone considerable development. The harsh tonality of the shawm had been modulated somewhat by a narrowing of the bore. This also extended the range, enabling the performer to play the notes in the second octave. Larger sizes of shawm were built, down to the bass in Bb, two octaves and a major third below the soprano in D. However, the larger sizes were unwieldy. The shawm became standard equipment for bands, or waits
Shawm
–
Shawm
Shawm
6.
Rhaita
–
The rhaita or ghaita is a double reed instrument from North Africa. It is nearly identical in construction to the Arabic mizmar and the Turkish zurna, the distinctive name owes to a medieval Gothic-Iberian influence. In southern Iberia, various sorts of instruments, including the related shawm, are known as gaitas. The rhaita was featured in The Lord of the Rings soundtracks by Howard Shore, in 1981 while composing the soundtrack to Altered States Corigliano again called for oboists to mimic the rhaita sound during Three Hallucinations
Rhaita
7.
Suona
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The suona, also called laba or haidi, is a Chinese sorna. It has a loud and high-pitched sound, and is used frequently in Chinese traditional music ensembles. It is an important instrument in the music of northern China, particularly the provinces of Shandong and Henan. It is still used, in combination with sheng mouth organs, gongs, drums, such wind and percussion ensembles are called chuida or guchui. Stephen Jones has written extensively on its use in music of Shanxi province. It is also common in the music of Southeast China. In Taiwan, it forms an element of ritual music that accompanies Daoist performances of both auspicious and inauspicious rites, i. e. those for both the living and the dead. The double-reed gives the instrument a sound similar to that of the modern oboe, the instrument is made in several sizes. There is now a family of instruments, including the zhongyin suona, cizhongyin suona. It has been used in modern music arrangements as well, including in the works of Chinese rock musician Cui Jian, the highest varieties are not normally keyed. Other sources state the origins of the suona to be Arabia, the European Shawm is also derived from this ancient instrument. It was not mentioned in Chinese literature until the Ming Dynasty, in Korea, a similar instrument is called taepyeongso, and in Vietnam similar oboes are called kèn. In Japan, an instrument is called charumera. This instruments name is derived from charamela, the Portuguese word for shawm and its sound is well known throughout Japan, as it is often used by street vendors selling ramen. A similar instrument, the zurna, is played during occasions and folk music in the Balkans, India, Iran. The suona is also used as an instrument in Cuba. It is known there as trompeta china and is used in forms of son. The American jazz saxophonist Dewey Redman often played the suona in his performances, bassist and saxophonist, the late Mick Karn used the instrument crediting it as a dida
Suona
–
Suona
8.
Sopila
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The sopile is an ancient traditional woodwind instrument of Croatia, similar to the oboe or shawm. It is used in the regions of Kvarner, Kastav, Vinodol, Island Krk, Sopile are always played in pairs so there are great and small or thin and fat sopila. Sopile are musical instrument of sound very interesting possibilities and very piercing special sound and this is replicated in more modern examples of Kvarner music through use of modified double reed clarinet or soprano Dulzaina. Sopile are, by mih and šurle, today very popular in folk tradition of Istria, Kvarner, Roženice are ancient traditional musical instruments which continue to be used today in the region of Istria. Roženice are very similar to sopile from Island Krk, Roženice are always played in pairs so there are great and small or thin and fat rozenica. Roženice have a very piercing special sound, and have the possibility of producing a variety of sounds, Roženice are, by mih and šurle, today very popular in folk tradition of Istra. The sopila is a wooden horn originating from Istria and some of the islands along the Adriatic Coast of Croatia. Like oboes, sopilas have double reeds, but are played in pairs. Both have six finger holes, being equally spaced on the smaller one, often used to accompany dancing, the voice of the sopila is that of the Istrian scale. Rhaita Suona Shawm Zurna Roženice Sopile Sopile
Sopila
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Sopila
Sopila
–
Sopilas
9.
Shehnai
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The shehnai, shenoy, sanai, shahnai, shenai, shanai or mangal vadya is a musical instrument similar to the oboe, common in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. It is made out of wood, with a double reed at one end, the shehnai is similar to South Indias nadaswaram. This tubular instrument gradually broadens towards the lower end and it usually has between six and nine holes. It employs one set of reeds, making it a quadruple reed woodwind. By controlling the breath, various tunes can be played on it, the shehnai has a range of two octaves, from the A below middle C to the A one line above the treble clef. The shehnai is thought to have developed by improving upon the pungi. Another theory of the origin of the shehnai is that the name is a modification of the word sur-nal, the word nal/nali/nad is used in many Indian languages to mean pipe or reed. The word sur means tone or tune—musical note or simply music—and is used as a prefix to the names of many Indian instruments. The sur-nal is said to have given its name to the surna/zurna which is the name by which the reed-pipe is known throughout the Middle East, shehnai is usually played at traditional North Indian weddings and is associated with the bride leaving her parental house for her husbands house. Sometimes, two shehnais can be tied together, making it a double shawm similar to the ancient Greek aulos, whereas the counterparts played in West Indian and Coastal Karnataka are indigenous to the territory. Shenai players were/are an integral part of Goan/Konkani and temples along the western coast, Music contexts, a concise dictionary of Hindustani Music
Shehnai
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Shehnai
Shehnai
–
Percussion
10.
Zampogna
–
The tradition is now mostly associated with Christmas, and the most famous Italian carol, Tu scendi dalle stelle is derived from traditional zampogna music. However, there is a resurgence of the instrument in secular use seen with the increasing number of folk music festivals. All chanters and drones are fixed into a single stock that the bag is attached to. Each chanter is tuned differently, according to the tradition it represents, the single reed versions consist of the surdullina types of the Province of Cosenza and Catanzaro, and the ciaramella or ciaramedda of Messina and Catania in Sicily, as well as in Southern Calabria. The traditional reeds are made from stalks of the Giant Reed Arundo donax, the double reed versions may also be made from plastic. The single reeds are made from a section of the cane. The typical round stock into which both chanters and drones are fixed goes into the neck of the skin, the hair is left on, and is contained in the inside of the bag. Today, however, some pipers are substituting the traditional goat and this practice of using the synthetic bag is particularly popular among the pipers from Scapoli in the Molise region, and those of Atina in Latium. This double reed tradition would include the Ciociaria, that of southern Basilicata and nearby areas of Calabria, single reed versions are played solo in the Calabrian tradition of the surdullina, and a version with a plugged chanter called the surdullina Albanese, and the Sicilian ciaramedda or ciaramèddha. The chanters and drones vary, according to the tradition, from a few inches long to nearly two meters in length, such as used in the cathedral of Monreale and nearly every size in between. The pipes are related to the Sardinian launeddas, a single reed triple clarinet comprising two chanters and a drone and played in the mouth by circular breathing. The word zampogna is etymologically related to the Greek sumfōnia, meaning concord or unison of sound and it cognates to tsampouna, the word for the Greek island bagpipe, itself a reborrowing of zampogna. Its Romanian counterpart is cimpoi, which means symphony or many sounds played together, there is a bagpipe museum, the Museo della Zampogna in Scapoli, Molise. suonidellaterra. com http, //web. archive. org/web/20090116183633/http, //www. zampognari. org, 80/ Zampogna page
Zampogna
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Zampogna
Zampogna
11.
Mey (instrument)
–
The Mey is a double-reed aerophone used in Turkish folk music. Cylindrical in shape and made of wood, the part has 7 finger holes on its front side. Meys main part is built from the wood of harder trees such as plum, walnut, beech. It has a range of about one octave. There are three types of mey, Cura Mey, Orta Mey and Ana Mey, a double reed essentially a large and almost flattened cylinder on the mouth side, and conical-round where it is attached to the main part, gives this instrument its characteristic deep sound. A tuning-bridle called Kıskaç mounted to the end of the reed and pushed up and down on the reed until a position is decided serves to tune the Mey and to prevent alterations in pitch of the sound. A wooden piece similar to kıskaç which is called the covers the part of the reeds mouth. The size and nature of the reed is dependent on the size and nature of the instrument, there are many instruments similar to the Mey in Asia. These are called Balaban, in Azerbaijan and Iran, Yasti Balaban in Dagestan, Duduki in Georgia, Duduk in Armenia, Hichiriki in Japan, Piri in Korea, Guanzi in China, and Kamis Sirnay in Kyrgyzstan. Musicologists like Farmer and Picken have suggested that ancient Mait, Monaulos, and Auloi present major resemblances with the Mey and the other similar instruments. In Hellenistic Egypt, there was an instrument called Mait or Monaulos which was similar to the Mey and there was one in Anatolia which was called Auloi
Mey (instrument)
–
Mey
Mey (instrument)
–
String
instruments
12.
Middle-Persian
–
Middle Persian is classified as a Western Iranian language. It descends from Old Persian and is the ancestor of Modern Persian. Middle Persian consisted of dialects and variants. One of these variants was called Pahlavīk which stands for Parthian, another variant of Middle Persian, known locally as Pārsik, was the official language of the Sasanian Empire. Most scholars refer to the variant when using the term Middle Persian. The native name for Middle Persian was Pārsīk translating to language of Pārs and it consists of Pārs + adjective suffix -īk. The word is consequently the origin of the name for the Modern Persian language—Parsi or Fārsī. Manichaean Middle Persian texts were written in the Manichaean alphabet, which derives from Aramaic. The ISO639 language code for Middle Persian is pal, which reflects the post-Sasanian era use of the term Pahlavi to refer to the language, many tenses began to be formed from a composite form The modern-day descendant of Middle Persian is New Persian. The changes between late Middle and Early New Persian were very gradual, and in the 10th-11th centuries, the earliest texts in Zoroastrian Middle Persian were probably written down in late Sasanian times, although they represent the codification of earlier oral tradition. The surviving manuscripts are usually 14th-century copies, below is transcription and translation of the first page of the facsimile known as Book of Arda Viraf, originally written in a Pahlavi script. ōy petyārag ī wad-baxt ī ahlomōγ ī druwand ī anāg-kardār *aleksandar hrōmāyīg mu/zrāyīg-mānišn abar āwurd ud be sōxt, in the name of God Thus they have said that once the righteous Zoroaster accepted a religion, he established it in the world. After/Within the period of 300 years religion remained in holiness and the people were in peace and that wretched, ill-fated, heretic, evil/sinful Alexander, The Roman, who was dwelling in Egypt, and he burned them up. Shapur, the king of kings, son of Hormizd, induced all countrymen to orient themselves to god by disputation, and put forth all oral traditions for consideration and examination. There are a number of affixes in Middle Persian that did not survive into Modern Persian, the long vowels of Middle Persian did not survive in many present-day dialects. Also, initial consonant clusters were very common in Middle Persian, however, New Persian does not allow initial consonant clusters, whereas final consonant clusters are common. 1 Since many long vowels of Middle Persian did not survive, for example, šir and šer, meaning milk and lion, respectively, are now both pronounced šir. In this case, the pronunciation has been preserved in Kurdish
Middle-Persian
–
Geography
13.
Ney
–
The ney, is an end-blown flute that figures prominently in Middle Eastern music. In some of musical traditions, it is the only wind instrument used. The ney has been played continuously for 4, 500–5,000 years, the Persian ney consists of a hollow cylinder with finger-holes. Sometimes a brass, horn, or plastic mouthpiece is placed at the top to protect the wood from damage, the ney consists of a piece of hollow cane or giant reed with five or six finger holes and one thumb hole. Modern neys may be instead of metal or plastic tubing. The pitch of the ney varies depending on the region and the finger arrangement, in Romanian, the word nai is also applied to a curved pan flute while an end-blown flute resembling the Arab ney is referred to as caval. The typical Persian ney has 6 holes, one of which is on the back, Arabic and Turkish neys normally have 7 holes,6 in front and one thumb-hole in the back. The interval between the holes is a semitone, although microtones are achieved via partial hole-covering, changes of embouchure, microtonal inflection is common and crucial to various traditions of taqsim. Neys are constructed in various keys, advanced players will typically own a set of several neys in various keys, although it is possible to play fully chromatically on any instrument. Gargy-tuyduk this is a reed flute whose origin, according to legend, is connected with Alexander of Macedonia. The sound of the gargy-tuyduk has much in common with the two-voiced kargyra, during the playing of the gargy-tuyduk the melody is clearly heard, while the lower droning sound is barely audible. The allay epic songs have been described by the Turkologist N. Baskakov who divides them into three types, a) Kutilep kayla, in which the second sound is a light drone. B) Sygyrtzip kayla, with a whistling sound like the sound of a flute. C) Kargyrlap kayla, in which the sound can be defined as hissing. The sound of the Turkmen gargy-tuyduk is most like the Altay Kargyrkip kayla, the garg-tuyduk can have six finger holes and a length of 780 mm or five finger holes and a length of 550 mm. The range of the garg-tuyduk includes three registers, 1) The lowest register – non-working – is not used during the playing of a melody, 2) The same as on the non-working register but an octave higher. 3) High register from mi of the octave to ti. The Pamiri nay is a flute made of wood or, in Eastern Badakhshan
Ney
–
Turkish ney (with its başpare), kız ney version
Ney
–
Woman playing the Ney in a painting from the
Hasht Behesht Palace in
Isfahan, Iran, 1669.
14.
Centum-Satem isogloss
–
Languages of the Indo-European family are classified as either centum languages or satem languages according to how the dorsal consonants of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language developed. An example of the different developments is provided by the words for hundred found in the early attested Indo-European languages, in centum languages, they typically began with a /k/ sound, but in satem languages, they often began with /s/. In centum languages, the palatovelars, which included the initial consonant of the hundred root, in satem languages, they remained distinct, and the labiovelars merged with the plain velars. The centum–satem division forms an isogloss in synchronic descriptions of Indo-European languages and it is not thought that the Proto-Indo-European language split first into centum and satem branches from which all the centum and all the satem languages, respectively, would have derived. Each of the ten branches of the Indo-European family independently developed its status as a centum or satem language, the canonical centum languages of the Indo-European family are the western branches, Hellenic, Celtic, Italic and Germanic. They merged Proto-Indo-European palatovelars and plain velars, yielding plain velars only, the Anatolian branch likely falls outside the centum–satem dichotomy, for instance, Luwian indicates that all three dorsal consonant rows survived separately in Proto-Anatolian. The centumisation observed in Hittite is therefore assumed to have occurred only after the breakup of Proto-Anatolian, while Tocharian is generally regarded as a centum language, it is a special case, as it has merged all three of the PIE dorsal series into a single phoneme, *k. According to some scholars, that complicates the classification of Tocharian within the centum–satem model, in the centum languages, PIE roots reconstructed with palatovelars developed into forms with plain velars. For example, in the PIE root *ḱm̥tóm, hundred, the initial palatovelar *ḱ became a plain velar /k/, as in Latin centum, Greek katon, Welsh cant, Tocharian B kante. In the Germanic languages, the /k/ developed regularly by Grimms law to become /h/, centum languages also retained the distinction between the PIE labiovelar row and the plain velars. Labiovelars as single phonemes as opposed to biphonemes are attested in Greek, the boukólos rule, however, states that a labiovelar reduces to a plain velar when it occurs next to *u or *w. The centum–satem division refers to the development of the series at the time of the earliest separation of Proto-Indo-European into the proto-languages of its individual daughter branches. It does not apply to any later analogous developments within any individual branch, the satem languages belong to the eastern sub-families, especially Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic. It lost the element of Proto-Indo-European labiovelars and merged them with plain velars. That set of developments, particularly the assibilation of palatovelars, is referred to as satemisation and it is also asserted that in Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonant consonants become /iR/ after plain velars but /uR/ after labiovelars. In the satem languages, the reflexes of the presumed PIE palatovelars are typically fricative or affricate consonants, another example is the Slavic prefix sъ-, which appears in Latin, a centum language, as co-, conjoin is cognate with Russian soyuz. An is found for PIE *ḱ in such languages as Latvian, Avestan, Russian and Armenian, for more reflexes, see the phonetic correspondences section below, note also the effect of the ruki sound law. Assibilation of velars in certain phonetic environments is a phenomenon in language development
Centum-Satem isogloss
–
Diachronic map showing the approximate extent of the centum (blue) and satem (red)
areals. The origin of satemization according to von Bradke's hypothesis is shown in darker red (marked as the range of the
Sintashta /
Abashevo /
Srubna archaeological cultures).
15.
Achaemenid Dynasty
–
The Achaemenid Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great. The empires successes inspired similar systems in later empires and it is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was built in a Hellenistic style in the empire as well. By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis. From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes, Lydia, Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, conquered the empire in its entirety by 330 BC. Upon his death, most of the former territory came under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire. The Persian population of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire, the historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange. The impact of Cyruss edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, the empire also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Iran. Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Due to the duration of their reigns, Smerdis, Xerxes II. The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here, the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished, they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians. The Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian peoples had established the short lived Median Empire. The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region of what is today Iran c.1000 BC and had for a number of centuries fallen under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia. However, the Medes and Persians, Cimmerians, Persians and Chaldeans played a role in the overthrow of the Assyrian empire. The term Achaemenid means of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes, despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria. At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus rose in rebellion against the Medes, eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire
Achaemenid Dynasty
–
Standard of Cyrus the Great
Achaemenid Dynasty
–
Relief of
Cyrus the Great.
Achaemenid Dynasty
–
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus one of the
Seven wonders of the ancient world was built by Persian satrap of
Caria,
Mausolus (Scale model.)
16.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
England
–
Stonehenge, a
Neolithic monument
England
–
Flag
England
–
Boudica led an uprising against the
Roman Empire
England
–
Replica of a 7th-century ceremonial
helmet from the
Kingdom of East Anglia, found at
Sutton Hoo
17.
Iran
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Iran
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Iran
–
Flag
Iran
–
A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Iran
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
18.
Rumi
–
His poems have been widely translated into many of the worlds languages and transposed into various formats. Rumi has been described as the most popular poet and the best selling poet in the United States, Rumis works are written mostly in Persian, but occasionally he also used Turkish, Arabic, and Greek, in his verse. His Masnavi, composed in Konya, is considered one of the greatest poems of the Persian language and his works are widely read today in their original language across Greater Iran and the Persian-speaking world. Translations of his works are popular, most notably in Turkey, Azerbaijan, the United States. He is most commonly called Rumi in English and his full name is Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Balkhī or Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī. The words Jalal ad-Din mean Glory of the Faith in the Arabic language, Balkhī and Rūmī are his nisbas, meaning from Balkh and from Rûm, respectively. He is widely known by the sobriquet Mawlānā/Molānā in Iran and popularly known as Mevlânâ in Turkey, Mawlānā is a term of Arabic origin, meaning our master. The term مولوی Mawlawī/Mowlavi and Mevlevi, also of Arabic origin, Rumi was born to native Persian-speaking parents, originally from the Balkh, in present-day Afghanistan. He was born either in Wakhsh, a located on the Vakhsh River in the greater Balkh region in present-day Tajikistan, or in the city of Balkh. Greater Balkh was at time a major centre of Persian culture. The most important influences upon Rumi, besides his father, were the Persian poets Attar and his father was also connected to the spiritual lineage of Najm al-Din Kubra. He lived most of his life under the Persianate Seljuq Sultanate of Rum and he was buried in Konya and his shrine became a place of pilgrimage. Following his death, his followers and his son Sultan Walad founded the Mevlevi Order, also known as the Order of the Whirling Dervishes and he was laid to rest beside his father, and over his remains a splendid shrine was erected. A hagiographical account of him is described in Shams ud-Din Ahmad Aflākis Manāqib ul-Ārifīn and this hagiographical account of his biography needs to be treated with care as it contains both legends and facts about Rumi. For example, Professor Franklin Lewis, University of Chicago, in the most complete biography on Rumi has a section for the hagiographical biography on Rumi. Rumis father was Bahā ud-Dīn Walad, a theologian, jurist and a mystic from Balkh, the popular hagiographer assertions that have claimed the familys descent from the Caliph Abu Bakr does not hold on closer examination and is rejected by modern scholars. The most complete genealogy offered for the family back to six or seven generations to famous Hanafi Jurists. We do not learn the name of Baha al-Dins mother in the sources, but only that he referred to her as Māmi and that she was a simple woman, the mother of Rumi was Mumina Khātūn
Rumi
–
Artistic depiction of Rumi, 1980
Rumi
–
Jalal ad-Din Rumi gathers
Sufi mystics.
Rumi
–
Double-page illuminated frontispiece, 1st book (daftar) of the Collection of poems (Masnavi-i ma'navi), 1461 manuscript
Rumi
–
Bowl of Reflections with Rumi's poetry, early 13th century.
Brooklyn Museum.
19.
Oboe
–
Oboes /ˈoʊboʊ/ OH-boh are a family of double reed woodwind musical instruments. The most common oboe plays in the treble or soprano range, oboes are usually made of wood, but there are also oboes made of synthetic materials. A soprano oboe measures roughly 65 cm long, with keys, a conical bore. Sound is produced by blowing into the reed and vibrating a column of air, the distinctive oboe tone is versatile, and has been described as bright. When the term oboe is used alone, it is taken to mean the standard treble instrument rather than other instruments of the family. In English, prior to 1770, the instrument was called a hautbois, hoboy. The spelling of oboe was adopted into English c.1770 from the Italian oboè, a musician who plays the oboe is called an oboist or simply an oboe player. In comparison to other woodwind instruments, the treble oboe is sometimes referred to as having a clear. The Sprightly Companion, a book published by Henry Playford in 1695, describes the oboe as Majestical and Stately. Humorously, the sound of the oboe is described in the play Angels in America as like that of a if the duck were a songbird. The rich timbre of the oboe is derived from its conical bore, as a result, oboes are readily audible over other instruments in large ensembles. The highest note of the oboe is a lower than the nominally highest note of the B♭ clarinet. Since the clarinet has a range of notes, the lowest note of the B♭ clarinet is significantly deeper than the lowest note of the oboe. Music for the oboe is written in concert pitch. Orchestras normally tune to a concert A played by the oboe, according to the League of American Orchestras, this is done because the pitch of the oboe is secure and its penetrating sound makes it ideal for tuning purposes. The pitch of the oboe is affected by the way in which the reed is made. The reed has a significant effect on the sound of the instrument, Variations in cane and other construction materials, the age of the reed, and differences in scrape and length all affect the pitch of the instrument. German and French reeds, for instance, differ in many ways, weather conditions such as temperature and humidity also affect the pitch
Oboe
–
A modern oboe with a reed
Oboe
–
Classical oboe, copy by Sand Dalton of an original by Johann Friedrich Floth, c. 1805
Oboe
–
The members of the oboe family from top:
heckelphone,
bass oboe,
cor anglais,
oboe d'amore, regular oboe, and
piccolo oboe
Oboe
–
Oboist
Albrecht Mayer preparing reeds for use. Most oboists scrape their own reeds to achieve the desired tone and response
20.
Trumpet
–
A trumpet is a musical instrument commonly used in classical and jazz ensembles. The trumpet group contains the instruments with the highest register in the brass family, trumpets are used in art music styles, for instance in orchestras, concert bands, and jazz ensembles, as well as in popular music. They are played by blowing air through almost-closed lips, producing a sound that starts a standing wave vibration in the air column inside the instrument. Since the late 15th century they have primarily been constructed of brass tubing, there are many distinct types of trumpet, with the most common being pitched in B♭, having a tubing length of about 1.48 m. Early trumpets did not provide means to change the length of tubing, most trumpets have valves of the piston type, while some have the rotary type. The use of rotary-valved trumpets is more common in orchestral settings, each valve, when engaged, increases the length of tubing, lowering the pitch of the instrument. A musician who plays the trumpet is called a trumpet player or trumpeter, the earliest trumpets date back to 1500 BC and earlier. The bronze and silver trumpets from Tutankhamuns grave in Egypt, bronze lurs from Scandinavia, trumpets from the Oxus civilization of Central Asia have decorated swellings in the middle, yet are made out of one sheet of metal, which is considered a technical wonder. The Shofar, made from a ram horn and the Hatzotzeroth and they were played in Solomons Temple around 3000 years ago. They were said to be used to blow down the walls of Jericho and they are still used on certain religious days. The Salpinx was a straight trumpet 62 inches long, made of bone or bronze, Salpinx contests were a part of the original Olympic Games. The Moche people of ancient Peru depicted trumpets in their art going back to AD300, the earliest trumpets were signaling instruments used for military or religious purposes, rather than music in the modern sense, and the modern bugle continues this signaling tradition. Improvements to instrument design and metal making in the late Middle Ages, the natural trumpets of this era consisted of a single coiled tube without valves and therefore could only produce the notes of a single overtone series. Changing keys required the player to change crooks of the instrument, the development of the upper, clarino register by specialist trumpeters—notably Cesare Bendinelli—would lend itself well to the Baroque era, also known as the Golden Age of the natural trumpet. During this period, a vast body of music was written for virtuoso trumpeters, the art was revived in the mid-20th century and natural trumpet playing is again a thriving art around the world. The melody-dominated homophony of the classical and romantic periods relegated the trumpet to a role by most major composers owing to the limitations of the natural trumpet. Berlioz wrote in 1844, Notwithstanding the real loftiness and distinguished nature of its quality of tone, there are few instruments that have been more degraded. The attempt to give the trumpet more chromatic freedom in its range saw the development of the keyed trumpet, the symphonies of Mozart, Beethoven, and as late as Brahms, were still played on natural trumpets
Trumpet
–
B ♭ trumpet
Trumpet
–
Written range:
Trumpet
–
Ceramic trumpet. 300 AD
Larco Museum Collection Lima, Peru.
Trumpet
–
Reproduction
baroque trumpet by Michael Laird
21.
Embouchure
–
The embouchure is the use of facial muscles and the shaping of the lips to the mouthpiece of woodwind instruments or the mouthpiece of the brass instruments. The word is of French origin and is related to the root bouche, the proper embouchure allows the instrumentalist to play the instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to ones muscles. While performing on an instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing his or her lips into a mouthpiece. Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation, the performers use of the air, tightening of cheek and jaw muscles, as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works. Even today, many brass pedagogues take an approach to teaching how a brass players embouchure should function. Many of these authors also disagree with each other regarding which technique is correct, research suggests efficient brass embouchures depend on the player using the method that suits that players particular anatomy. In 1962, Philip Farkas hypothesized that the air stream traveling through the lip aperture should be directed straight down the shank of the mouthpiece and he believed that it would be illogical to violently deflect the air stream downward at the point of where the air moves past the lips. In this text, Farkas also recommends that the lower jaw be protruded so that the upper and lower teeth are aligned, in 1970, Farkas published a second text which contradicted his earlier writing. Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees, the lower jaw position seen in these photographs show more variation from his earlier text as well. This supports what was written by trombonist and brass pedagogue Donald S. Reinhardt in 1942. According to this text, players who place the mouthpiece higher on the lips, so that more upper lip is inside the mouthpiece. Performers who place the lower, so that more lower lip is inside the mouthpiece. In order for the performer to be successful, the air stream direction, lloyd Leno confirmed the existence of both upstream and downstream embouchures. More controversial was Reinhardts description and recommendations regarding a phenomenon he termed a pivot, whether the player uses one general pivot direction or the other, and the degree to which the motion is performed, depends on the performers anatomical features and stage of development. The placement of the mouthpiece upon the lips doesnt change, but rather the relationship of the rim, later research supports Reinhardts claim that this motion exists and might be advisable for brass performers to adopt. Froelich noted that the symphonic trombonists used the least amount of direct and shear forces and recommends this model be followed. Other research notes that virtually all brass performers rely upon the upward and downward embouchure motion, other authors and pedagogues remain skeptical about the necessity of this motion, but scientific evidence supporting this view has not been sufficiently developed at this time to support this view. Some noted brass pedagogues prefer to instruct the use of the embouchure from an analytical point of view
Embouchure
–
The embouchure of a trumpeter.
Embouchure
–
Flute embouchure
Embouchure
–
Waterflute with 45 finger-embouchure holes, allowing an intricate but polyphonic embouchure-like control by inserting one finger into each of several of the instrument's mouths at the same time.
22.
Shahnameh
–
The Shahnameh, also transliterated as Shahnama, is a long epic poem written by the Persian poet Ferdowsi between c.977 and 1010 CE and is the national epic of Greater Iran. Consisting of some 50,000 distichs or couplets, the Shahnameh is the worlds longest epic poem written by a single poet. It tells mainly the mythical and to some extent the historical past of the Persian Empire from the creation of the world until the Islamic conquest of Persia in the 7th century. Modern Iran, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan and the region influenced by the Persian culture celebrate this national epic. The work is of importance in Persian culture, regarded as a literary masterpiece. Ferdowsi started writing the Shahnameh in 977 A. D and completed it on 8 March 1010, the Shahnameh is a monument of poetry and historiography, being mainly the poetical recast of what Ferdowsi, his contemporaries, and his predecessors regarded as the account of Irans ancient history. Many such accounts already existed in prose, an example being the Abu-Mansuri Shahnameh, a small portion of Ferdowsis work, in passages scattered throughout the Shahnameh, is entirely of his own conception. The Shahnameh is a poem of over 50,000 couplets. It is based mainly on a work of the same name compiled in Ferdowsis earlier life in his native Tus. The Xwadāynāmag contained historical information on the later Sassanid period, Ferdowsi added material continuing the story to the overthrow of the Sassanids by the Arabs in the middle of the 7th century. These verses, which deal with the rise of the prophet Zoroaster, were incorporated by Ferdowsi, with acknowledgment. The style of the Shahnameh shows characteristics of written and oral literature. Some claim that Ferdowsi also used Zoroastrian nasks, such as the now-lost Chihrdad, besides, the text is written in the late Middle Persian, which was the immediate ancestor of Modern Persian. According to one account of the sources, a Persian named Dehqan in the court of King Anushehrawan Dadgar had composed a book in prose form. After the fall of the Iranian Empire, Khoday Nameh came into the possession of King Yaqub Lais and then the Samani king Nuh ordered the poet Daqiqi to complete it, Ferdowsi obtained the book through a friend. The work is not precisely chronological, but there is a movement through time. Some of the characters live for hundreds of years but most have normal life spans, there are many shāhs who come and go, as well as heroes and villains, who also come and go. The only lasting images are those of Greater Persia itself, and of a succession of sunrises and sunsets, the work is divided into three successive parts, the mythical, heroic, and historical ages
Shahnameh
–
Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by
Barbad the Musician, Page from a Manuscript of the
Shahnama of
Ferdowsi.
Brooklyn Museum
Shahnameh
–
Shahnameh (Book of Kings) Abu'l Qasim Firdausi (935–1020)
Shahnameh
–
Faramarz, son of Rostam, mourns the death of his father, and of his uncle, Zavareh.
Shahnameh
–
The assassination of
Khosrau II in a
Mughal Era manuscript in 1535
23.
Sassanid Empire
–
The Sasanian Empire was founded by Ardashir I, after the fall of the Parthian Empire and the defeat of the last Arsacid king, Artabanus V. According to a legend, the vexilloid of the Sasanian Empire was the Derafsh Kaviani, in many ways, the Sasanian period witnessed the peak of ancient Iranian civilization. Persia influenced Roman culture considerably during the Sasanian period, the Sasanians cultural influence extended far beyond the empires territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe, Africa, China and India. It played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art, much of what later became known as Islamic culture in art, architecture, music and other subject matter was transferred from the Sasanians throughout the Muslim world. Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Sassanid Empire was established in Estakhr by Ardashir I. Papak was originally the ruler of a region called Khir, however, by the year 200, he managed to overthrow Gochihr, and appoint himself as the new ruler of the Bazrangids. His mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the governor of Pars. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power all of Pars. The subsequent events are unclear, due to the nature of the sources. It is certain, however, that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, sources reveal that Shapur, leaving for a meeting with his brother, was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By the year 208, over the protests of his brothers who were put to death. Once Ardashir was appointed shahanshah, he moved his capital further to the south of Pars, the city, well supported by high mountains and easily defendable through narrow passes, became the center of Ardashirs efforts to gain more power. The city was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgird, in a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, Artabanus V himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where Artabanus V met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir I went on to invade the provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire. Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, in the next few years, local rebellions would form around the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of Sistan, Gorgan, Khorasan, Margiana, Balkh and he also added Bahrain and Mosul to Sassanids possessions. In the west, assaults against Hatra, Armenia and Adiabene met with less success, in 230, he raided deep into Roman territory, and a Roman counter-offensive two years later ended inconclusively, although the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus, celebrated a triumph in Rome. Ardashir Is son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering Bactria, invading Roman Mesopotamia, Shapur I captured Carrhae and Nisibis, but in 243 the Roman general Timesitheus defeated the Persians at Rhesaina and regained the lost territories
Sassanid Empire
–
Normal domains
Sassanid Empire
–
Derafsh Kaviani
Sassanid Empire
–
Ghal'eh Dokhtar (or "The Maiden's Castle") in present-day
Fars,
Firuzabad,
Iran, built by Ardashir in 209, before he was finally able to defeat the Parthian empire.
24.
Hermitage Museum
–
The State Hermitage Museum is a museum of art and culture in Saint Petersburg, Russia. One of the largest and oldest museums in the world, it was founded in 1754 by Catherine the Great and has open to the public since 1852. Its collections, of only a small part is on permanent display. The collections occupy a complex of six historic buildings along Palace Embankment, including the Winter Palace. Apart from them, the Menshikov Palace, Museum of Porcelain, Storage Facility at Staraya Derevnya, the museum has several exhibition centers abroad. The Hermitage is a state property. Since July 1992, the director of the museum has been Mikhail Piotrovsky, of the six buildings in the main museum complex, five, namely the Winter Palace, Small Hermitage, Old Hermitage, New Hermitage and Hermitage Theatre, are open to the public. The entrance ticket for foreign tourists more than the fee paid by citizens of Russia. However, entrance is free of charge the first Thursday of every month for all visitors, the museum is closed on Mondays. The entrance for visitors is located in the Winter Palace. A hermitage is the dwelling of a hermit or recluse, the word derives from Old French hermit, ermit hermit, recluse, from Late Latin eremita, from Greek eremites, literally people who live alone, which is in turn derived from ἐρημός, desert. Originally, the building housing the collection was the Small Hermitage. Today, the Hermitage Museum encompasses many buildings on the Palace Embankment, apart from the Small Hermitage, the museum now also includes the Old Hermitage, the New Hermitage, the Hermitage Theatre, and the Winter Palace, the former main residence of the Russian tsars. In recent years, the Hermitage has expanded to the General Staff Building on the Palace Square facing the Winter Palace, the Western European Art collection includes European paintings, sculpture, and applied art from the 13th to the 20th centuries. It is displayed, in about 120 rooms, on the first, drawings and prints are displayed in temporary exhibitions. Since 1940, the Egyptian collection, dating back to 1852 and it serves as a passage to the exhibition of Classical Antiquities. A modest collection of the culture of Ancient Mesopotamia, including a number of Assyrian reliefs from Babylon, Dur-Sharrukin, the collection of Classical Antiquities occupies most of the ground floor of the Old and New Hermitage buildings. Its floor is made of a marble mosaic imitating ancient tradition, while the stucco walls
Hermitage Museum
–
Winter Palace
Hermitage Museum
–
The Hermitage Museum complex. From left to right: Hermitage Theatre – Old Hermitage – Small Hermitage – Winter Palace (the "New Hermitage" is situated behind the Old Hermitage).
Hermitage Museum
–
Egyptian Hall
Hermitage Museum
–
The Pavilion Hall
25.
Loristan
–
Lorestan Province (Persian, استان لرستان, also written Luristan, Lurestan, or Loristan, is a province of western Iran in the Zagros Mountains. The population of Lorestan was estimated at 1,716,527 people in 2006, in 2014 it was placed in Region 4. Lorestan covers an area of 28,392 km2, the major cities in this province are Khorramabad, Borujerd, Aligoodarz, Dorood, Koohdasht, Azna, Alashtar, Noor Abad, Doh Râh/Dowreh, and Pol-e-Dokhtar. The name Lorestan means land of the Lurs, the terrain consists chiefly of mountains, with numerous ranges, part of the Zagros chain, running northwest to southeast. The central range has many summits that almost reach the line of snow, rising to 4000 m. It feeds the headwaters of Irans most important rivers, such as the Zayandeh rud, Jarahi, Karun, Diz, Abi, between the higher ranges lie many fertile plains and low hilly, well-watered districts. The highest point of the province is the Oshtorankuh peak at 4,050 m, the low-lying areas being in the southern most sector of the province are approximately 500 m above sea level. Oak forest covers the slopes, together with elm, maple, walnut. Western Luristan comprises a series of fertile valleys running high in the Zagros mountains. The Pusht-i Kuh region is in the foothills of the Kabir Kuh range. The Pish-i Kuh region lies to the east of Kabir Kuh and this area had human settlements during the Bronze Age as early as the mid–3rd millennium B. C. Climatically, the province can be divided into three parts, the regions, such as Boroujerd, Doroud, Azna, Nourabad and Alishtar experience cold winters. In the central region, the season begins from mid-February. The township of Khorramabad is in this realm, however, southern areas such as Pol-e-Dokhtar and Papi are under the influence of the warm air currents of Khuzestan, have hot summers and relatively moderate winters. The climate is generally sub-humid continental with winter precipitation, a lot of which falls as snow, because it lies on the westernmost slopes of the Zagros Mountains, annual precipitation in Lorestan is among the highest anywhere in Iran south of the Alborz Mountains. At Khorramabad, the annual precipitation totals 530 millimetres of rainfall equivalent. The months June to September are usually dry, but Khorramabad can expect 4 inches of rainfall equivalent in December. Temperatures vary widely with the seasons and between day and night, at Khorramabad, summer temperatures typically range from a minimum of 12 °C to a hot maximum of 32 °C
Loristan
–
Sepiddasht
Loristan
–
Location of Lorestan within Iran
Loristan
–
Dare Anaran County
Loristan
–
Lorestan
Fritillaria
26.
Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province
–
Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It lies in the part of the country. The province was put as part of Region 2 upon the division of the provinces into 5 regions solely for coordination and it has an area of 16,332 square kilometers, and had a population of 895,263 in 2011. The history of the province is tied to that of the Bakhtiari tribe, the Bakhtiari tribe can be divided into two sub-tribes, Haft Lang and Chahar Lang with various territorial affiliations and they are the main speakers of Lurish language. As the name of the province dictates with the grammatical feature of -o- which is Persian for and. These peoples and the Lurs live side by side and share almost similar customs, very slight differences exist between them but most are almost unnoticeable. However, there is quite a bit of intermixing of the peoples through marriage. The cities of Shahrekord, Broujen, Ben, Naafch and Saman fall in the Chahar Mahali area of the province and are not inhabited by Lurs. The Bakhtiari territories at times have come under Isfahan and Khuzestan province. The people of this province have a history of having a living and being a capable people who are determined. They have gained such a reputation as being excellent, if not the best, the province has various unique traditions and rituals relative to the tribal lifestyles. Special forms of music, dance, and clothing are noteworthy, Shahrekord Shahrekian Hafshejan Borujen Lordegan Farsan Ardal Dashtak Kaj Farrokhshahr Naafch Saman Juneghan Ben Gandoman Boldaji Faradonbeh The province is mainly active in the agriculture sector. Most of the sector is clustered around the center of the province. The province has the potential to become a vibrant tourist attraction because of its natural resources, ChB highland has one of the highest amounts of precipitation in Iran. Although this province constitutes only 1% of Iran’s land area, 10% of the waters flow in it. The shape of mountains, the rate of Atmospheric precipitation, the height above sea level and the various climates in this province, all have brought about diverse intact landscapes. According to 2011 census, the population of this province is over 900,000 of which more than a half are settled in cities, and the others in villages and some are nomads. Based on the latest national divisions, this province has 9 townships,25 districts,40 towns,50 village units and 820 villages, the townships include Shahrekord, Ardal, Boroujen, Ben, Saman, Farsan, Kouhrang, Kiar and Lordegan
Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province
–
Location of Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari within Iran
27.
Kurdistan
–
Kurdistan roughly encompasses the northwestern Zagros and the eastern Taurus mountain ranges. Contemporary use of the term refers to four parts of Kurdistan, which include southeastern Turkey, northern Syria, northern Iraq, and northwestern Iran. Iraqi Kurdistan first gained autonomous status in a 1970 agreement with the Iraqi government, there is a province by the name Kurdistan in Iran, it is not self-ruled. Kurds fighting in the Syrian Civil War were able to control of large sections of northern Syria as government forces, loyal to Bashar al-Assad. Having established their own government, they called for autonomy in a federal Syria after the war, various groups, among them the Guti, Hurrians, Mannai, and Armenians, lived in this region in antiquity. The original Mannaean homeland was situated east and south of the Lake Urmia, the region came under Persian rule during the reign of Cyrus the Great and Darius I. At its zenith, the Roman Empire ruled large Kurdish-inhabited areas, corduene became a vassal state of the Roman Republic in 66 BC and remained allied with the Romans until AD384. After 66 BC, it passed another 5 times between Rome and Persia, corduene was situated to the east of Tigranocerta, that is, to the east and south of present-day Diyarbakır in south-eastern Turkey. When the Sasanian Marzban asked Mar Abdisho about his place of origin, he replied that according to his parents, they were originally from Hazza, a village in Assyria. However they were driven out of Hazza by pagans, and settled in Tamanon. Tamanon lies just north of the modern Iraq-Turkey border, while Hazza is 12 km southwest of modern Erbil, in another passage in the same document, the region of the Khabur River is also identified as land of the Kurds. According to Al-Muqaddasi and Yaqut al-Hamawi, Tamanon was located on the south-western or southern slopes of Mount Judi, Kurdistan in the Middle Ages was a collection of semi-independent and independent states called emirates. It was nominally under indirect political or religious influence of Khalifs or Shahs, a comprehensive history of these states and their relationship with their neighbors is given in the text of Sharafnama, written by Prince Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi in 1597. The emirates included Baban, Soran, Badinan and Garmiyan in the south, Bakran, Bohtan and Badlis in the north, the earliest medieval attestation of the toponym Kurdistan is found in a 12th-century Armenian historical text by Matteos Urhayeci. He described a battle near Amid and Siverek in 1062 as to have taken place in Kurdistan, the second record occurs in the prayer from the colophon of an Armenian manuscript of the Gospels, written in 1200. A later use of the term Kurdistan is found in Empire of Trebizond documents in 1336 and in Nuzhat-al-Qulub, written by Hamdollah Mostowfi in 1340. According to Sharafkhan Bitlisi in his Sharafnama, the boundaries of the Kurdish land begin at the Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and stretch on a line to the end of Malatya. In the 16th century, after prolonged wars, Kurdish-inhabited areas were split between the Safavid and Ottoman empires, a major division of Kurdistan occurred in the aftermath of the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, and was formalized in the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab
Kurdistan
–
Kurdish -inhabited areas
Kurdistan
–
Ancient Kurdistan as Kard-uchi, during
Alexander the Great 's Empire, 4th century BC
Kurdistan
–
19th-century map showing the location of the Kingdom of Corduene in 60 B.C
Kurdistan
–
Map by
Mahmud al-Kashgari (1074), showing Arḍ al-Akrād Arabic for land of Kurds located between Arḍ al-Šām (Syria), and Arḍ al-ʿIrāqayn (Iraq Arabi and Iraq Ajami).
28.
Azerbaijan (Iran)
–
Azerbaijan or Azarbaijan, also known as Iranian Azerbaijan, is a region in northwestern Iran that borders Iraq, Turkey, the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, Armenia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan. Iranian Azerbaijan is administratively divided into West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, the region is mostly populated by Azerbaijanis, with minority populations of Kurds, Armenians, Tats, Talysh, Assyrians and Persians. Historic Azerbaijan was called Atropatene in antiquity and Aturpatakan in the pre-Islamic Middle Ages, some refer to Iranian Azerbaijan as South Azerbaijan and the Republic of Azerbaijan as Northern Azerbaijan, although others believe that these terms are irredentist and politically motivated. Since then the Azerbaijani people have been partitioned between nations, the territories south of the Aras River, which comprised the region historically known as Azerbaijan, became the new north-west frontier of the Persian Empire and later Iran. The name Azerbaijan itself is derived from Atropates, the Persian Satrap of Medea in the Achaemenid empire, Atropates name is believed to be derived from the Old Persian roots meaning protected by fire. The name is mentioned in the Avestan Frawardin Yasht, âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide which translates literally to. The name Atropat in Middle Persian was transformed to Adharbad and is connected with Zoroastrianism, a famous Zoroastrian priest by the name Adarbad Mahraspandan is well known for his counsels. Thus, until 1918, when the Musavat regime decided to name the newly independent state Azerbaijan, the oldest kingdom known in Iranian Azerbaijan is that of the Mannea who ruled a region south-east of Lake Urmia centred around modern Saqqez. The Manneans were a confederation of Iranian and non-Iranian groups, according to Professor Zadok, it is unlikely that there was any ethnolinguistic unity in Mannea. Like other peoples of the Iranian plateau, the Manneans were subjected to an ever increasing Iranian penetration, the Mannaeans were conquered and absorbed by an Iranian people called Matieni, and the country was called Matiene, with Lake Urmia called Lake Matianus. Matiene was later conquered by the Medes and became a satrapy of the Median empire, after Alexander the Great conquered Persia, he appointed as governor the Persian general Atropates, who eventually established an independent dynasty. The region, which came to be known as Atropatene or Media Atropatene, was much disputed, in the 2nd century BC, it was liberated from Seleucid domination by Mithradates I of Arsacid dynasty, and was later made a province of the Sassanid Empire of Ardashir I. Under the Sassanids, Azerbaijan was ruled by a marzubān, and, towards the end of the period, large parts of the region were conquered by the Kingdom of Armenia. Large parts of the made up part of historical Armenia. The parts of historical Armenia within what is modern-day Azerbaijan comprise, Nor Shirakan, Vaspurakan, Vaspurakan, of which large parts were located in what is modern-day Iranian Azerbaijan is described as the cradle of Armenian civilization. On 26 May 451 AD, an important battle was fought that would prove immensely pivotal in Armenian history. On the Avarayr Plain, at what is modern-day Churs, the Armenian Army under Vardan Mamikonian clashed with Sassanid Persia, heraclius, the Byzantine emperor, briefly held the region in the 7th century until peace was made with the Sassanids. After the Islamic Conquest of Iran, Arab invaders converted most of its people to Islam, rustam himself was born in Azerbaijan and led the Sasanian army into battle
Azerbaijan (Iran)
–
Caspian sea and Azerbaijan position on the left side of the map in the 10th century. Original map is in Ṣūrat al-’Arḍ (صورة الارض; "The face of the Earth") Ibn Hawqal (977) Beyrut) page 419
Azerbaijan (Iran)
Azerbaijan (Iran)
–
An old map of Azerbaijan and its neighboring regions depicted by the Ibn Hawqal 1145 AD.
Azerbaijan (Iran)
–
The
Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by
Muhammad al-Idrisi for
Roger II of Sicily in 1154. Azerbaijan in south west of Caspian sea. South is towards the top.
29.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
30.
Bagpipes
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Bagpipes are a wind instrument using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag. The term bagpipe is equally correct in the singular or plural, though pipers usually refer to the bagpipes as the pipes, a set of bagpipes minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, a chanter, and usually at least one drone. Many bagpipes have more than one drone in various combinations, held in place in stocks—sockets that fasten the various pipes to the bag, the most common method of supplying air to the bag is through blowing into a blowpipe, or blowstick. In some pipes the player must cover the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while inhaling, an innovation, dating from the 16th or 17th century, is the use of a bellows to supply air. In these pipes, sometimes called cauld wind pipes, air is not heated or moistened by the players breathing, the bag is an airtight reservoir that holds air and regulates its flow via arm pressure, allowing the player to maintain continuous even sound. The player keeps the bag inflated by blowing air into it through a blowpipe or pumping air into it with a bellows, materials used for bags vary widely, but the most common are the skins of local animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, and cows. More recently, bags made of materials including Gore-Tex have become much more common. A drawback of the bag is the potential for fungal spores to colonise the bag because of a reduction in necessary cleaning. An advantage of a bag is that they have a zip which allows the user to fit a more effective moisture trap to the inside of the bag. Bags cut from larger materials are usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam, holes are then cut to accommodate the stocks. The chanter is the pipe, played with two hands. Almost all bagpipes have at least one chanter, some pipes have two chanters, particularly those in North Africa, the Balkans in Southern Europe, and Southwest Asia. A chanter can be bored internally so that the walls are parallel for its full length. The chanter is usually open-ended, so there is no way for the player to stop the pipe from sounding. Thus most bagpipes share a constant, legato sound where there are no rests in the music, primarily because of this inability to stop playing, technical movements are used to break up notes and to create the illusion of articulation and accents. Because of their importance, these embellishments are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe, a few bagpipes have closed ends or stop the end on the players leg, so that when the player closes the chanter becomes silent. A practice chanter is a chanter without bag or drones, allowing a player to practice the instrument quietly, the term chanter is derived from the Latin cantare, or to sing, much like the modern French word chanteur. The note from the chanter is produced by a reed installed at its top, the reed may be a single or double reed
Bagpipes
–
Angel playing bagpipes in the
Thistle Chapel, Edinburgh
Bagpipes
–
A detail from the
Cantigas de Santa Maria showing bagpipes with one chanter and a parallel drone (Spain, 13th century).
Bagpipes
–
A detail from a painting by
Hieronymus Bosch showing two bagpipers (15th century).
Bagpipes
–
A Great Highland Bagpipe practice chanter
31.
Piccolo oboe
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The piccolo oboe, also known as the piccoloboe and historically called an oboe musette, is the smallest and highest pitched member of the oboe family. Pitched in E♭ or F above the regular oboe, the oboe is a sopranino version of the oboe. Piccolo oboes are produced by the French makers F. Lorée, Lorée calls its instrument piccolo oboe or oboe musette, while Marigaux and Patricola call their instruments simply oboe musette. As of 2006, a new instrument typically sold for US$6, the instrument has found the most use in chamber and contemporary music, where it is valued for its unusual tone colour. It is also employed in double-reed ensembles such as Amoris, perhaps the best-known pieces requiring piccolo oboe are Solo for Oboe Instruments and Concerto for Oboe and Orchestra No. 2, both by Bruno Maderna, as well as Ar-Loth by Paolo Renosto, Oboe Piccolo heckelphone F. Lorée page with description and photograph Wayback archive of Amoris International Musette page WIMA scores for oboe family instruments
Piccolo oboe
–
A piccolo oboe with two-key action.
Piccolo oboe
–
Two oboe musette players from the
Cantigas de Santa Maria (13th century).
32.
Cor anglais
–
The cor anglais or English horn in North America, is a double-reed woodwind instrument in the oboe family. It is approximately one and a half times the length of an oboe, the cor anglais is a transposing instrument pitched in F, a perfect fifth lower than the oboe. This means that music for the cor anglais is written a fifth higher than the instrument actually sounds. The fingering and playing technique used for the cor anglais are essentially the same as those of the oboe, the cor anglais normally lacks the lowest B♭ key found on most oboes and so its sounding range stretches from E3 below middle C to C6 two octaves above middle C. The pear-shaped bell of the cor anglais gives it a more covered timbre than the oboe, the cor anglais is perceived to have a more mellow and plaintive tone than the oboe. Its appearance differs from the oboe in that the reed is attached to a bent metal tube called the bocal, or crook. The cor anglais is usually notated in the treble clef, a fifth higher than sounding. Some composers notated it in the bass clef, when the register was persistently used. Alto clef written at sounding pitch is used, even by as late a composer as Sergei Prokofiev. In late-18th- and early-19th-century Italy, where the instrument was played by bassoonists instead of oboists. French operatic composers up to Fromental Halévy notated the instrument at sounding pitch in the mezzo-soprano clef, although the instrument usually descends only to low B♮, continental instruments with an extension to low B♭ have existed since early in the 19th century. Examples of works requiring this note include Arnold Schoenbergs Gurre-Lieder and Gustav Mahlers Das Lied von der Erde, antonín Dvořák, in his Scherzo Capriccioso, even writes for the cor anglais down to low A, though it seems unlikely that such an extension ever existed. Reeds used to play the cor anglais are similar to those used for an oboe, consisting of a piece of cane folded in two. While the cane on a reed is mounted on a small metal tube partially covered in cork, there is no such cork on a cor anglais reed. The cane part of the reed is wider and longer than that of the oboe, unlike American style oboe reeds, cor anglais reeds typically have wire at the base, approximately 5 mm from the top of the string used to attach the cane to the staple. This wire serves to hold the two blades of cane together and stabilize tone and pitch. Perhaps the best-known makers of modern cors anglais are the French firms of F. Lorée, Marigaux and Rigoutat, the British firm of T. W. Howarth, instruments from smaller makers, such as A. Laubin, are also sought after. Fox has recently made some instruments in plastic resin and in maple, the instrument originated in Silesia about 1720, when a bulb bell was fitted to a curved oboe da caccia-type body by the Weigel family of Breslau
Cor anglais
–
Cor anglais or English horn
Cor anglais
–
Opening motive from the 2nd movement (Largo) of
Dvořák 's
Symphony No. 9, From the New World
33.
Bass oboe
–
The bass oboe or baritone oboe is a double reed instrument in the woodwind family. It is about twice the size of an oboe and sounds an octave lower, it has a deep, full tone somewhat akin to that of its higher-pitched cousin. The bass oboe is notated in the treble clef, sounding one octave lower than written. Its lowest note is B2, one octave and a semitone below middle C, the bass oboe uses its own double reed, similar to but larger than that of the English horn. The instrument is known popularly as the oboe in the English language. The bass designation is in resonance with that of the flute in the flute family and the bass clarinet in that family. Early bass oboes were modeled after bassoons, with a joint and bocal and some holes drilled obliquely. The concept of the oboe as an enlarged English horn survived. As a result, it is not always clear in English orchestral works of the early 20th century which of the two instruments is intended when the composer requests bass oboe. The instrument has been manufactured sporadically by various companies, including F. Lorée, Marigaux, Rigoutat, Fossati and it is usually a special order instrument, and its purchase price normally exceeds that of a top-of-the-line English horn. Another similar instrument, the Lupophon, has developed by Guntram Wolf. The bass oboe is also featured in the First Interlude of Sir Michael Tippetts Triple Concerto. There is also a substantial solo in the second movement of Thomas Ades Asyla. Frederick Delius scored for the oboe in a number of works, including Songs of Sunset, A Mass of Life, Requiem, An Arabesque, Fennimore and Gerda. 1, however, the latest research reveals that despite his use of this term, arnold Bax calls for it in his Symphony No. 1, and Havergal Brian requires an instrument in both the Gothic Symphony and his Symphony No.4 Das Siegeslied, percy Grainger includes the bass oboe in Childrens March and The Warriors. The bass oboe has not as yet come into its own as a solo instrument, the work was written for the Canadian performer Lawrence Cherney, who uses a bass oboe manufactured by F. Lorée. Robert Morans Survivor From Darmstadt, for nine amplified bass oboes, was commissioned by oboist Nora Post, at least one sonata for bass oboe and piano, by Simon Zaleski, has been written
Bass oboe
–
Bass Oboe
34.
Bassoon
–
The bassoon is a woodwind instrument in the double reed family that typically plays music written in the bass and tenor clefs, and occasionally the treble. Appearing in its form in the 19th century, the bassoon figures prominently in orchestral, concert band. The bassoon is an instrument known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, variety of character. Listeners often compare its warm, dark, reedy timbre to that of a baritone voice. Someone who plays the bassoon is called a bassoonist, the word bassoon comes from French basson and from Italian bassone. However, the Italian name for the instrument is fagotto. B♭1–C5 The range of the bassoon begins at B♭1 and extends upward over three octaves, roughly to the G above the treble staff, higher notes are possible but difficult to produce, and rarely called for, orchestral and concert band parts rarely go higher than C5 or D5. Even Stravinskys famously difficult opening solo in The Rite of Spring only ascends to D5, a1 is possible with a special extension to the instrument—see Extended techniques below. The bassoon disassembles into six pieces, including the reed. Bassoons are double reed instruments like the oboe and the English horn, a modern beginners bassoon is generally made of maple, with medium-hardness types such as sycamore maple and sugar maple preferred. Both bore and tone holes are precision-machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning and this ensures coverage by the fingers of the average adult hand. Wooden instruments are lined with hard rubber along the interior of the wing and boot joints to prevent damage from moisture, the end of the bell is usually fitted with a ring, either of metal, plastic or ivory. The joints between sections consist of a tenon fitting into a socket, the tenons are wrapped in either cork or string as a seal against air leaks. The bocal connects the reed to the rest of the instrument and is inserted into a socket at the top of the wing joint, bocals come in many different lengths and styles, depending on the desired tuning and playing characteristics. Folded upon itself, the bassoon stands 1.34 m tall, there are also short-reach bassoons made for the benefit of young or petite players. The origins of the dulcian are obscure, but by the century it was available in as many as eight different sizes. Otherwise, dulcian technique was rather primitive, with eight finger holes, the dulcian came to be known as fagotto in Italy. However, the etymology that equates fagotto with bundle of sticks is somewhat misleading
Bassoon
–
Two views of a Renard model 220 bassoon
Bassoon
–
Dulcians and
racketts, from the Syntagma musicum by
Michael Praetorius.
Bassoon
–
Heckel system bassoon from 1870
Bassoon
–
Edgar Degas, L'Orchestre de L'Opera, (1868)
35.
Contrabassoon
–
The contrabassoon, also known as the double bassoon or bass bassoon is a larger version of the bassoon, sounding an octave lower. Its technique is similar to its cousin, with a few notable differences. The reed is considerably larger than the bassoons, at 65–75 mm in length as compared to 53–58 mm for most bassoon reeds. The large blades allow ample vibration that produces the low register of the instrument, the contrabassoon reed is similar to an average bassoons in that scraping the reed affects both the intonation and response of the instrument. The fingering of the contrabassoon is slightly different than that of the bassoon, particularly at the register change and in the extreme high range. The instrument is twice as long, curves around on itself twice, additional support is sometimes given by a strap around the players neck. A wider hand position is required, as the primary finger keys are widely spaced. The contrabassoon has a key to expel condensation and a tuning slide for gross pitch adjustments. The instrument comes in a few pieces, some models cannot be disassembled without a screwdriver, sometimes, however, the bell can be detached, and instruments with a low A extension often come in two parts. The contrabassoon is a very deep sounding woodwind instrument that plays in the same register as the tuba. It has a range beginning at B♭0 and extending up three octaves and a major third to D4. Donald Erb and Kalevi Aho write even higher in their concertos for the instrument, the instrument is notated an octave above sounding pitch in bass clef, with tenor or even treble clef called for in high passages. Tonally, it sounds much like the bassoon except for an organ pedal quality in the lowest octave of its range which provides a solid underpinning to the orchestra or concert band. The lowest range, in comparison with the bassoon, can be played quieter than the bassoon can, while prominent in solo and small ensemble situations, the sound can be completely obscured in the volume of the full orchestra or concert band. The contrabassoon was developed, especially in England, in the century, the oldest surviving instrument. It was around that time that the contrabassoon began gaining acceptance in church music, however, until the late 19th century, the instrument typically had a weak tone and poor intonation. For more than a century, between 1880 and 2000, Heckel’s design remained relatively unchanged, chip Owen at the American company, Fox, began manufacturing an instrument in 1971 with some improvements. Generally, during the 20th century changes to the instrument were limited to an upper vent key near the socket, a tuning slide
Contrabassoon
–
Contrabassoon
Contrabassoon
–
Written pitch, sounds one
octave lower Sounding pitch
36.
Sarrusophone
–
The sarrusophones are a family of transposing musical instruments patented and placed into production by Pierre-Louis Gautrot in 1856. It was named after the French bandmaster Pierre-Auguste Sarrus who is credited with the concept of the instrument, the instrument was intended to serve as a replacement in wind bands for the oboe and bassoon which, at that time, lacked the carrying power required for outdoor band music. The traditional conventional range of the saxophone is written B♭-F, initially, Gautrot advertised the range of the sarrusophone to high F as well, but later fingering charts indicated a range to high G. Sometime after 1868, Gautrot also released a chart indicating fingerings higher still up to a top B-flat. All members of the family are made of metal, with a conical bore. Like the oboe and bassoon, all sizes of sarrusophone were originally designed to be played with a double reed, later, single reed mouthpieces were developed which resemble alto or soprano saxophone mouthpieces. It is unclear if these were available for all sizes of the sarrusophone family and this similarity caused Adolphe Sax to file and lose at least one lawsuit against Gautrot, claiming infringement upon his patent for the saxophone. Sax lost on the grounds that the produced by the two families of instruments is markedly different, despite their mechanical similarities. However, because the sarrusophone never gained acceptance, makers were not inclined to develop its mechanism to the same extent as that of the saxophone. Features of the sarrusophones mechanism generally include, Non-automatic octave keys, from sopranino through bass,2 octave keys. The contra basses have 3, the 3rd key being used for the notes D and E♭ directly above the break, only No articulated G♯, bis B♭, F♯ trill keys or 1/1. The top and bottom key stacks are not linked and this key can also be used to play high D as well. This may be taken to be an equivalent of the high D palm key of a saxophone, No palm keys for playing the top range. Using the non-automatic register keys, 3rd harmonics are easily available, additionally on some instruments made by Buffet in the early 20th century, the G♯ key is semi-articulated so that a G natural to G♯ trill can be made by an additional touchpiece for the right hand. Saxophones of this period also have this mechanism. Additionally, there is no connection from G♯ to low C♯ or low B natural, the sarrusophone is rarely called for in orchestral music. Igor Stravinsky included a part for contrabass sarrusophone in Threni, the composer Paul Dukas used the contrabass sarrusophone to great effect in 1897 in his The Sorcerers Apprentice, where the instrument begins the bassoons macabre dance motif. These parts are all normally played on the contrabassoon, though recordings of at least some of these pieces using sarrusophones are extant
Sarrusophone
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Conn Sarrusophone (c. late 1850s)
Sarrusophone
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Sarrusophones,
Museu de la Música de Barcelona
37.
P. D. Q. Bach
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Bach is a fictitious composer invented by musical satirist Professor Peter Schickele. Schickele developed a career, performing the discovered works of the only forgotten son of the Bach family. Schickeles music combines parodies of musicological scholarship, the conventions of Baroque and classical music, and slapstick. The name P. D. Q. is a parody of the names given to some members of the Bach family that are commonly reduced to initials. PDQ is an initialism for pretty damned quick, Schickele began working on the character while studying at the Aspen Music Festival and School and at Juilliard, and has performed a variety of P. D. Q. The Village Voice mentions the juxtaposition of collage, bitonality, musical satire, Bach he has single-handedly mapped a musical universe that everyone knew was there and no one else had the guts to explore. As of 2012 he has decreased touring due to age and he performed two concerts to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his first concert at The Town Hall in New York on December 28 and 29,2015, and continues to have live concert performances. Schickele gives a fictional biography of the composer according to which P. D. Q. Bach was born in Leipzig on April 1,1742, the son of Johann Sebastian Bach and Anna Magdalena Bach and he died May 5,1807, though his birth and death years are often listed on album literature in reverse, as. According to Schickele, P. D. Q. possessed the originality of Johann Christian, the arrogance of Carl Philipp Emanuel, schickeles works attributed to P. D. Q. Bach often incorporate comical rearrangements of well-known works of other composers, there is often a startling juxtaposition of styles within a single P. D. Q. The Prelude to Einstein on the Fritz, which alludes to Philip Glass opera Einstein on the Beach, Bachs first prelude from The Well-Tempered Clavier, but at double the normal speed, with each phrase repeated interminably in a minimalist manner that parodies Glasss. On top of this structure is added everything from jazz phrases to snoring to heavily-harmonized versions of Three Blind Mice to the chanting of a meaningless phrase. Through all these mutilations, the piece never deviates from Bachs original harmonic structure, Bachs fictional musical output into three periods, the Initial Plunge, the Soused Period, and Contrition. During the Initial Plunge, P. D. Q, Bach wrote the Traumerei for solo piano, an Echo Sonata for two unfriendly groups of instruments, and a Gross Concerto for Divers Flutes, two Trumpets, and Strings. During the Soused Period, P. D. Q, during the Contrition Period, P. D. Q. A final work is the mock religious work Missa Hilarious, the tromboon is a musical instrument made up of the reed and bocal of a bassoon, attached to the body of a trombone in place of the trombones mouthpiece. It combines the sound of double reeds and the slide for a distinctive, the name of the instrument is a portmanteau of trombone and bassoon
P. D. Q. Bach
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Tromboon
P. D. Q. Bach
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Tromboon detail; the bassoon reed is on the left
38.
Aulos
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An aulos or tibia was an ancient Greek wind instrument, depicted often in art and also attested by archaeology. An aulete was the musician who performed on an aulos, the ancient Roman equivalent was the tibicen, from the Latin tibia, pipe, aulos. There were several kinds of aulos, single or double, the most common variety was a reed instrument. Archeological finds, surviving iconography and other evidence indicate that it was double-reeded, like the modern oboe, a single pipe without a reed was called the monaulos. A single pipe held horizontally, as the flute, was the plagiaulos. A pipe with a bag to allow for sound, that is a bagpipe, was the askaulos. Like the Great Highland Bagpipe, the aulos has been used for martial music and it was the standard accompaniment of the passionate elegiac poetry. It also accompanied physical activities such as wrestling matches, the broad jump, plato associates it with the ecstatic cults of Dionysus and the Korybantes, banning it from his Republic but reintroducing it in Laws. It appears that some variants of the instrument were loud, shrill, sometimes a second strap was used over the top of the head to prevent the phorbeiá from slipping down. Aulos players are depicted with puffed cheeks. The playing technique almost certainly made use of breathing, very much like the Sardinian launeddas and Armenian duduk. Nevertheless, such musicians could achieve fame, the Romano-Greek writer Lucian discusses aulos playing in his dialogue Harmonides, in which Alexander the Greats aulete Timotheus discusses fame with his pupil Harmonides. Timotheus advises him to impress the experts within his profession rather than seek popular approval in big public venues, if leading musicians admire him, popular approval will follow. However, Lucian reports that Harmonides died from excessive blowing during practicing, in myth, Marsyas the satyr was supposed to have invented the aulos, or else picked it up after Athena had thrown it away because it caused her cheeks to puff out and ruined her beauty. But Apollo and his lyre beat Marsyas and his aulos, and since the pure lord of Delphis mind worked in different ways from Marsyass, he celebrated his victory by stringing his opponent up from a tree and flaying him alive. King Midas was cursed with donkeys ears for judging Apollo as the lesser player, Marsyass blood and the tears of the Muses formed the river Marsyas in Asia Minor. This tale was a warning against committing the sin of hubris, or overweening pride, some of this is a result of 19th century AD classical interpretation, i. e. Apollo versus Dionysus, or Reason opposed to Madness. In the temple to Apollo at Delphi, there was also a shrine to Dionysus, and his Maenads are shown on drinking cups playing the aulos, so a modern interpretation can be a little more complicated than just simple duality
Aulos
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Aulos
Aulos
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Drawing of a plagiaulos.
Aulos
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The competition between Marsyas and Apollo on a Roman
sarcophagus (290–300)
Aulos
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Theatrical scene from a
Pompeiian mosaic showing a masked performer with an aulos and two goatskin-wearing actors
39.
Bassanello
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The bore of bassanelli is straight and opens at the bottom, and these instruments only have one key. They are blown by direct contact with the reeds, exactly as are curtals, pommers, and bassets, and are nearly the same as these instruments in timbre, with good reeds, bassanelli can be made to play rather high. Like shawms, they have seven fingerholes, with a key on the lowest, in the rear, however, there is no hole to be found. They are pitched a fourth lower than chamber pitch, for their lowest size is the bass in F, though Praetorius attributes the invention of bassanelli to Johann Bassanello, it is more likely Giovannis father Santo who invented them. As there are no surviving examples of bassanelli, there has been some disagreement concerning its construction, a comparison of the lengths for the various sizes shown in the scale drawings by Praetorius to the pitches he gave for them, indicates the acoustical properties of a conical bore
Bassanello
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Bassanelli
40.
Cornamuse
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The cornamuse is a double reed instrument dating from the Renaissance period. It is similar to the crumhorn in having a windcap over the reed, Praetorius unfortunately did not include a woodcut of the cornamuse, but his depiction of the bassanello has a single bore and double reed. Since the paragraph by Praetorius is the only description of the cornamuse and no period specimen has been found. The name is not to be confused with cornemuse, which is the French word for bagpipes, musica Antiqua Cornamuse Page Building a Cornamuse in F
Cornamuse
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Alto Cornamuse in F, made of pear wood (Reconstruction by Dominik Bauer, Saarbrücken)
Cornamuse
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Description of the Cornamuse, a renaissance instrument, by Michael Praetorius
41.
Crumhorn
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The crumhorn is a musical instrument of the woodwind family, most commonly used during the Renaissance period. In modern times, there has been a revival of interest in early music, the name derives from the German Krumhorn meaning bent horn. This relates to the old English crump meaning curve, surviving in modern English in crumpled and it is uncertain if the Spanish wind instrument orlo designates the crumhorn, but it is known that crumhorns were used in Spain in the sixteenth century, and the identification seems likely. The crumhorn is a reed instrument. Its construction is similar to that of the chanter of a bagpipe, a double reed is mounted inside a long windcap. Blowing through a slot in the windcap produces a musical note, the pitch of the note can be varied by opening or closing finger holes along the length of the pipe. One unusual feature of the crumhorn is its shape, the end is bent upwards in a curve resembling the letter J, the curve is decorative only and does not influence the sound. Crumhorns make a buzzing sound, but quieter than their conical-bore relatives the rauschpfeife. They have a range, usually a ninth. Some modern instruments have their range extended upwards to an eleventh by two keys, Crumhorns can be chromatically played by using cross-fingerings, except for the minor second above the lowest note. Because of the range, music for crumhorns is usually played by a group of instruments of different sizes. Such a group is known as a consort of crumhorns, Crumhorns are built in imitation of the vocal quartet with soprano, alto, tenor and bass as a family, as was true of most instruments of the Renaissance. There are examples of higher- and lower-sounding instruments, of which the bass is the only commonly used one. Michael Praetorius suggested the use of crumhorns in some of his vocal works as a possible alternative to trombones, dulcians. In Ursula Dubosarskys novel Bruno and the Crumhorn, two children, Bruno and Sybil, find themselves learning to play the crumhorn almost by accident, the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. The Crumhorn and Other Renaissance Windcap Instruments, A Contribution to Renaissance Organology, buren, The Netherlands, Frits Knuf ISBN9789060274248, ISBN9789060274231. Spielanleitung für Krümmhorner, Cornamusen und Kortholte / How to Play the Crumhorn, Cornamusa, the Crumhorn, A Concise Method for the Crumhorn and Other Wind-cap Instruments. The Crumhorn, Its History, Design, Repertory, and Technique, Crumhorn Musica Antiqua Crumhorn Page Crumhorns by Moeck Renaissance Studio Mahillon, Victor-Charles, Schlesinger, Kathleen
Crumhorn
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modern crumhorns with keys, alto crumhorn in f, bass crumhorn in f
Crumhorn
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double-reed of an alto crumhorn in f
42.
Dulcian
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The dulcian is a Renaissance woodwind instrument, with a double reed and a folded conical bore. Equivalent terms include English, curtal, German, Dulzian, Spanish, bajón, French, douçaine, Dutch, dulciaan, the predecessor of the modern bassoon, it flourished between 1550 and 1700, but was probably invented earlier. Towards the end of this period it co-existed with, and was superseded by the baroque bassoon. It was played in both secular and sacred contexts, throughout northern and western Europe, as well as in the New World. The dulcian is generally made from a piece of maple, with the bores being drilled and reamed first. The reed is attached to the end of a metal bocal, unlike the bassoon it normally has a flared bell, sometimes made from a separate piece of timber. This bell can sometimes be muted, the mute being either detachable, the outside of the instrument can also be covered in leather, like the cornett. Although the bass in F is the most common size, the comes in many other sizes, tenor, alto. There are also examples of a quart bass dulcian in C, the range of each instrument is two and a half octaves, centred on the range of the corresponding singing voice, for example, the bass ranges from C2, to G4. The reed on the dulcian is fully exposed, allowing the player to control the sound and intonation by embouchure. At the time it first appeared, other double reed instruments either had the fully enclosed, like the crumhorn or the bagpipe, or partially enclosed by a pirouette. The instrument seems to have been in use by the middle of the sixteenth century. A set of instruments in various sizes exist in Brussels, these have a mark of Melchor and are thought to be Spanish. Another well known example is a later instrument in Linz, leather covered. The latest commonly copied example is by Denner, c,1700, which also has a built in mute. Modern copies of the Linz instrument have a sound and reach the high notes more easily. The dulcian is an instrument, capable of being loud enough to play in outdoor bands, quiet enough for chamber music. There are explicit dulcian parts in the sonatas by Dario Castello, Dulcian Home Page Hans Mons excellent site Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón – A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon, Maggie Kilbeys comprehensive book IDRS, many useful articles
Dulcian
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Dulcian, 1700,
Museu de la Música de Barcelona
Dulcian
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Dulcians in Theatrum Instrumentorum (Michael Praetorius - 1620)
Dulcian
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Soprano, alto, alto, tenor and bass dulcians from the Brussels collection.
43.
Kortholt
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The kortholt is a musical instrument of the woodwind family, used in the Renaissance period. The name comes from Low Saxon and means short piece of wood and this name is mentioned in the work Syntagma musicum by Michael Praetorius, who is the main source for information about this instrument. The kortholt is a reed instrument. Its construction is similar to that of the chanter of a bagpipe, a double reed is mounted inside a chamber. Blowing through a slot in the causes the reed to vibrate, because the reed is not touched by the lips. The pitch of the note can be varied by opening or closing finger, the kortholt is actually double bored, similar to the modern bassoon. The sound is a similar to the crumhorn, but is softer, although Praetorius only mentions one size, modern makers provide the standard soprano, alto, tenor and bass. They can be played together in a consort
Kortholt
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Kortholt from Praetorius, Syntagma musicum, Wolfenbüttel 1619
44.
Oboe da caccia
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The oboe da caccia is a double reed woodwind instrument in the oboe family, pitched a fifth below the oboe and used primarily in the Baroque period of European classical music. It has a tube and a brass bell, unusual for an oboe. Its range is close to that of the cor anglais—that is, the oboe da caccia is thus a transposing instrument in F. The notated range is identical to that of the baroque oboe. Johann Sebastian Bach tended to favor the middle and lowest registers, however, the instrument was likely invented by J. H. Eichentopf of Leipzig, Germany. The first dated reference to the da caccia is 1722. The first recorded use of the instrument is on 24 June 1723, but Bach was certainly the most prolific and most important composer for oboe da caccia, often using them in pairs. Bach wrote extensively for the da caccia in the years 1723–27. There are also significant parts for the da caccia in his Christmas Oratorio, the Passions. 1780–1820, roughly the Classical period, centering on Vienna, the soprano oboe underwent major changes first in bore and it is therefore understandable that the oboe da caccia, with its complex means of construction, was not selected for the same evolutionary treatment. The early English horn was no more suitable. Innovation was the watchword of the day, and antiquated instruments such as the da caccia stood little chance of surviving. A curious note, according to Cecil Forsyth in his famous book on orchestration, however, Forsyth wrote during a period when organology was in its infancy. The oboe da caccia has a wooden body terminating in a large wooden bell, or in the case of Eichentopfs instruments. There are typically two brass keys, E-flat and C, the E-flat key is normally doubled for the left hand. There are usually two twin fingerholes, G/A-flat and F/F#, similar to the baroque oboe. The construction differs from that of all other woodwinds. The bore and outward profiles are first created on the lathe, then a series of saw kerfs are made through the bore from the side, then the instrument is bent over steam and a slat glued onto the inside curve to fix it
Oboe da caccia
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Oboe da caccia
45.
Rackett
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The rackett or Sausage Bassoon is a Renaissance-era double reed wind instrument, introduced late in the sixteenth century and already superseded by bassoons at the end of the seventeenth century. There are four sizes of rackett, in a family ranging from discant, tenor-alto, relative to their pitch, racketts are quite small. This is achieved through its ingenious construction, the body consists of a wooden cylinder into which nine parallel bores are drilled. Additional holes are covered by the thumbs and second joint of the finger in order to extend the range a perfect fourth below the nominal scale. Thus the discant rackett is considered to be in C, the ranges for the rest of the family as given by Praetorius are, tenor alt, g to C, bass, c to FF, great bass, A to DD or G to CC. The range could be extended upward by several more notes since the renaissance rackett overblows at the twelfth like a clarinet. Praetorius writes in Syntagma Musicum II, if a rackett is well drilled and is played by a good musician, the three extant renaissance racketts are housed in two European collections, one is in the Musikinstrumenten Museum in Leipzig, and two are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. The baroque rackett combined the folded bore concept with a conical profile, in essence. It has ten parallel cylindrical bores whose diameters increase in succession to function as a conical bore. A number of tetines were added, which are tubular metal extensions covered by the joint of the index fingers as well as the pinkies. Condensation usually remains in the coil of the removable brass crook, despite its idiosyncrasies, the baroque rackett is a versatile instrument with a wide range of notes and dynamics. Extant specimens of the baroque rackett can be found in the Musikinstrumenten-Museum Berlin, the inventor of the rackett is unknown. The first historical mention can be found in German sources Wurttemberg inventories of 1576, early paintings of the Munich Court band and a carved cabinet by Christof Angermair depict a single rackett being played in a mixed consort of other instruments. Prior to the seventeenth century, the rackett had a cylindrical bore. The later baroque rackett had an expanding pseudo-conical bore and was blown through a coiled crook inserted into the top of the instrument, a separate bell joint is added to extend the sounding length. Praetorius noted, In sound renaissance racketts are quite soft, almost as if one were blowing through a comb and it is particularly pleasing and fine to hear on bass parts
Rackett
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Reproduction of a baroque rackett, manufactured by
Moeck Musikinstrumente + Verlag
Rackett
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Racketts, from
Michael Praetorius '
Syntagma Musicum Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia (1619)
46.
Rauschpfeife
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Rauschpfeife is a commonly used term for a specific type of capped conical reed musical instrument of the woodwind family, used in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. In common with the crumhorn and cornamuse, it is a wooden double-reed instrument with the reed enclosed in a windcap, the player blows into a slot in the top of the windcap to produce the sound. This instrument, for reasons given below, should be correctly referred to as Schreierpfeife. Rauschpfeifes differ from cornamusen mainly in the shape of the bore and this bore profile combined with the unrestricted vibration of the reed within the windcap produced an instrument that was exceedingly loud, which made it useful for outdoor performances. However, the instruments in the woodcut could just as easily be cylindrical bore capped douçaine-like instruments and it would appear then that the term Schreierpfeife may have been used variously for the two types of loud capped reed instruments. Consorts of rauschpfeiffen are found in museum instrument collections in Berlin, another solitary example is found in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. Examples are currently being made and played by music enthusiasts worldwide. German Heinrich Moeck company produced two instruments in sopranino and soprano which visually refer to the Naumburg pipes. Because for quite some time, Moeck was the manufacturer in Germany to produce rauschpfeifes in large numbers. The rauschpfeifes in Berlin are technically almost twice as large as they need to be, the tone holes of the instruments cover only half of the body. Because of this, Moecks instruments have a number of holes on the back. After Moeck discontinued the production of rauschpfeifen, manufacturers based their instruments on the chanters of German bagpipes, the vast majority of the instruments are built in open, German recorder fingering system, and have a tonal range of a ninth. Their appearance is similar to the chanter of the contemporary German bagpipe. As a result, many newly built rauschpfeifes have significantly larger bells than their historical ancestors, in addition, although having the same musical range, they are not quite half as long as the extant instruments of the Naumburg collection. A further technical aspect is that modern instruments use standard reeds from various kinds of bagpipes
Rauschpfeife
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A sopranino rauschpfeife being played
Rauschpfeife
–
Sopranino and soprano rauschpfeifes
Rauschpfeife
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Sopranino rauschpfeife with windcap removed
47.
Zukra
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The zukra is a Libyan bagpipe with a double-chanter terminating in two cow horns, it is similar in construction to the Tunisian mizwad. The instrument is played as a bagpipe in the south and west of Libya, the instrument is played at feasts, weddings, and funerals. Mizwad Gaida Rhaita Mizmar Image of a player in a band
Zukra
48.
Balaban (instrument)
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Balaban, or balaman is cylindrical-bore, double-reed wind instrument about 35 centimetres long with eight finger holes and one thumb hole. This instrument is played in Iranian Azerbaijan and in the Republic of Azerbaijan, in Turkey it is called mey. The origins of this instrument come from Armenian Duduk, which looks similar to it. Balaban can be made of mulberry or other woods, such as walnut. The bore through the instrument is about 1.5 centimetres in diameter, the double reed is made out of a single tube of cane about six cm long and pressed flat at one end. The performer uses air stored in his cheeks to keep playing the balaban while he inhales air into his lungs and this “circular” breathing technique is commonly used with all the double-reed instruments in the Middle East. The balaban consists of a stem, a reed, a regulator, the stem of the balaban, or govda, is a 280–320 millimetres cylindrical tube made primarily of apricot wood. The process of carving a balaban stem is called balaban chakma, the upper end of the stem is given a round shape, whereas the lower end is sharpened. The bore is 10 millimetres in diameter, eight holes or tones constituting a sound tone are made on the obverse and another one is made on the bottom side, opposite of the interval between the first and the second holes of the sas pardasi. Sometimes an additional hole called nizam pardasi is made on the end of the bottom side to ensure good timbre. The holes made on the stem are classified as follows, The reed made of club-rush that grows in an area is inserted into the upper end. It flattens and takes the shape of a double reed and it is tied to a 60 millimetres long and 10 millimetres wide regulator made of a willow or grape branch cut lengthways. The reed is fixed by a collar-like regulator on one side. The cap made of willow, hazel, cornel or mulberry is put on the reed to prevent it from damage and it is tied to the regulator in order not to be lost. On solemn occasions such as weddings and holiday ceremonies, a balaban-player is accompanied by a percussionist, a traditional Azeri musical group consisting of two balaban-players and a percussionist is called balabanchilar dastasi. In the past, the balaban was a musical element in the performance of mugham. It was also used in songs and funeral music. According to Huseyngulu Sarabski, hunters played the balaban to attract quails, certain types of the balaban are also used in ashik music
Balaban (instrument)
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Azerbaijani folk instrument Balaban.
Balaban (instrument)
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Balaban in
Azerbaijan State Museum of History
Balaban (instrument)
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Ashuq plays balaban in
Baku
Balaban (instrument)
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Azerbaijani musical instruments (including balaban) on the stamp of
USSR, 1990
