1.
Filmmaking
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Filmmaking is the process of making a film. Filmmaking takes place in places around the world in a range of economic, social, and political contexts. Typically, it involves a number of people, and can take from a few months to several years to complete. Film production consists of five stages, Development, The first stage in which the ideas for the film are created, rights to books/plays are bought etc. Financing for the project has to be sought and greenlit, pre-production, Preparations are made for the shoot, in which cast and film crew are hired, locations are selected and sets are built. Production, The raw elements for the film are recorded during the film shoot, post-production, The images, sound, and visual effects of the recorded film are edited. Distribution, The finished film is distributed and screened in cinemas and released to home video. In this stage, the project producer selects a story, which may come from a book, play, another film, true story, video game, comic book, graphic novel, or an original idea, etc. After identifying a theme or underlying message, the works with writers to prepare a synopsis. Next they produce an outline, which breaks the story down into one-paragraph scenes that concentrate on dramatic structure. Then, they prepare a treatment, a 25-to-30-page description of the story, its mood and this usually has little dialogue and stage direction, but often contains drawings that help visualize key points. Another way is to produce a scriptment once a synopsis is produced, next, a screenwriter writes a screenplay over a period of several months. The screenwriter may rewrite it several times to improve dramatization, clarity, structure, characters, dialogue, however, producers often skip the previous steps and develop submitted screenplays which investors, studios, and other interested parties assess through a process called script coverage. A film distributor may be contacted at a stage to assess the likely market. All these factors imply a certain appeal of the film to a possible audience, not all films make a profit from the theatrical release alone, so film companies take DVD sales and worldwide distribution rights into account. The producer and screenwriter prepare a film pitch, or treatment and they will also pitch the film to actors and directors in order to attach them to the project. Many projects fail to move beyond this stage and enter so-called development hell, if a pitch succeeds, a film receives a green light, meaning someone offers financial backing, typically a major film studio, film council, or independent investor. The parties involved negotiate a deal and sign contracts, once all parties have met and the deal has been set, the film may proceed into the pre-production period
2.
Television program
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It may be a single production, or more commonly, a series of related productions. A limited number of episodes of a show may be called a miniseries or a serial or limited series. Television series are without a fixed length and are divided into seasons or series. While there is no defined length, U. S. industry practice has traditionally favored longer television seasons than those of other countries, a one-time broadcast may be called a special, or particularly in the UK a special episode. A television film is a film that is initially broadcast on television rather than released in theaters or direct-to-video, a program can be either recorded, as on video tape, other various electronic media forms, played with an on-demand player or viewed on live television. Television programs may be fictional, or non-fictional and it may be topical, or historical. They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy, a drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting. The program follows their lives and adventures, except for soap opera-type serials, many shows especially before the 1980s, remained static without story arcs, and the main characters and premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters lives during the episode, because of this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order. Since the 1980s, there are series that feature progressive change to the plot. For instance, Hill Street Blues and St. Elsewhere were two of the first American prime time television series to have this kind of dramatic structure. While the later series, Babylon 5 is an example of such production that had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run. In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a component of major media companies revenues than film. Some also noted the increase in quality of television programs. When a person or company decides to create a new series, they develop the elements, consisting of the concept, the characters, the crew. Then they offer it to the networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series. They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they’re looking for, to create the pilot, the structure and team of the whole series must be put together. If the network likes the pilot, they pick up the show to air it the next season, sometimes they save it for mid-season, or request rewrites and further review
3.
Video game development
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Video game development is the process of creating a video game. Development is undertaken by a developer, which may range from one person to a large business. Traditional commercial PC and console games are funded by a publisher. Indie games can take time and can be produced cheaply by individuals. The indie game industry has seen a rise in recent years with the growth of new distribution systems. The first video games were developed in the 1960s, but required mainframe computers and were not available to the general public, commercial game development began in the 1970s with the advent of first-generation video game consoles and home computers. Due to low costs and low capabilities of computers, a programmer could develop a full game. The average cost of producing a video game rose from US$1–4 million in 2000 to over $5 million in 2006. Mainstream PC and console games are developed in phases. First, in pre-production, pitches, prototypes, and game design documents are written, if the idea is approved and the developer receives funding, a full-scale development begins. This usually involves a team of 20–100 individuals with various responsibilities, including designers, artists, programmers, Game development is the software development process by which a video game is produced. Games are developed as an outlet and to generate profit. Development is normally funded by a publisher, well-made games bring profit more readily. However, it is important to estimate a games financial requirements, failing to provide clear implications of games expectations may result in exceeding allocated budget. In fact, the majority of games do not produce profit. Most developers cannot afford changing development schedule and require estimating their capabilities with available resources before production, the game industry requires innovations, as publishers cannot profit from constant release of repetitive sequels and imitations. Every year new independent development companies open and some manage to develop hit titles, similarly, many developers close down because they cannot find a publishing contract or their production is not profitable. It is difficult to start a new due to high initial investment required
4.
Theatre
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The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of gesture, speech, song, music, and dance. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and stagecraft such as lighting are used to enhance the physicality, presence, the specific place of the performance is also named by the word theatre as derived from the Ancient Greek θέατρον, itself from θεάομαι. Modern theatre, broadly defined, includes performances of plays and musical theatre, there are connections between theatre and the art forms of ballet, opera and various other forms. The city-state of Athens is where western theatre originated, participation in the city-states many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the City Dionysia as an audience member in particular—was an important part of citizenship. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism and theatre architecture, Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional. The theatre of ancient Greece consisted of three types of drama, tragedy, comedy, and the satyr play, the origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to Aristotle, the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10, the stage consisted of a dancing floor, dressing room and scene-building area. Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics, the actors wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts. Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of dance-drama that formed an important part of the culture of the city-state. Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE, no tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived. We have complete texts extant by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was institution alised in competitions held as part of festivities celebrating Dionysus. As contestants in the City Dionysias competition playwrights were required to present a tetralogy of plays, the performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE, official records begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced. More than 130 years later, the philosopher Aristotle analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of dramatic theory—his Poetics, Athenian comedy is conventionally divided into three periods, Old Comedy, Middle Comedy, and New Comedy. Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the surviving plays of Aristophanes. New Comedy is known primarily from the papyrus fragments of Menander. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster. In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyrs themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal companions, often engaging in drunken revelry
5.
Sound recording and reproduction
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Sound recording and reproduction is an electrical, mechanical, electronic, or digital inscription and re-creation of sound waves, such as spoken voice, singing, instrumental music, or sound effects. The two main classes of sound recording technology are analog recording and digital recording, prior to the development of analog recording, there were mechanical systems for reproducing instrumental music, such as wind-up music boxes and later, in the late 19th century, player pianos. Analog sound reproduction is the process, with a bigger loudspeaker diaphragm causing changes to atmospheric pressure to form acoustic sound waves. Digital recording and reproduction converts the sound signal picked up by the microphone to a digital form by the process of digitization. This lets the audio data be stored and transmitted by a variety of media. Whereas successive copies of an analog recording tend to degrade in quality, as noise is added. A digital audio signal must be reconverted to analog form during playback before it is amplified and connected to a loudspeaker to produce sound, long before sound was first recorded on cylinders or records, music was recorded—first by written music notation, then also by mechanical devices. Fowler, this. cylinder with raised pins on the surface remained the device to produce and reproduce music mechanically until the second half of the nineteenth century. The Banu Musa brothers also invented an automatic flute player, which appears to have been the first programmable machine, according to Fowler, the automata were a robot band that performed. more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection. In the 14th century, Flanders introduced a mechanical bell-ringer controlled by a rotating cylinder, similar designs appeared in barrel organs, musical clocks, barrel pianos, and musical boxes. A music box is a musical instrument that produces sounds by the use of a set of pins placed on a revolving cylinder or disc so as to pluck the tuned teeth of a steel comb. They were developed from musical snuff boxes of the 18th century, some of the more complex boxes also have a tiny drum and/or bells, in addition to the metal comb. The fairground organ, developed in 1892, used a system of accordion-folded punched cardboard books, the player piano, first demonstrated in 1876, used a punched paper scroll that could store an long piece of music. The most sophisticated of the rolls were hand-played, meaning that the roll represented the actual performance of an individual. This technology to record a live performance onto a piano roll was not developed until 1904, piano rolls were in continuous mass production from 1896 to 2008. A1908 U. S. Supreme Court copyright case noted that, in 1902 alone, the use of piano rolls began to decline in the 1920s although one type is still being made today. The first device that could record actual sounds as they passed through the air was the phonautograph, the earliest known recordings of the human voice are phonautograph recordings, called phonautograms, made in 1857. They consist of sheets of paper with sound-wave-modulated white lines created by a stylus that cut through a coating of soot as the paper was passed under it
6.
Concert
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A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. A recital is a concert by a soloist or small group which follows a program, a recitalist is a musician who gives frequent recitals. The invention of the piano recital has been attributed to Franz Liszt. The performance may be by a musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called arena concerts or amphitheatre concerts, informal names for a concert include show and gig. Regardless of the venue, musicians perform on a stage. Concerts often require live event support with professional audio equipment, before recorded music, concerts provided the main opportunity to hear musicians play. The nature of a concert varies by musical genre, individual performers, concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume—but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle. For example, concert goers in the 1960s often had hair, sandals. Regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a style that comprises that venues scene. Other Types of concerts, To plan or arrange by mutual agreement, some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive shows. To create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, some singers, especially popular music, augment concert sound with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singers own voice. Activities during these concerts can include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing, concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for multiple days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music. Due to their size, festivals are almost exclusively held outdoors, new platforms for festivals are becoming increasingly popular such as Jam Cruise, which is a festival held on a cruise ship, as well as Mayan Holidaze, which is a destination festival held in Tulum. Often concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist, different segments of longer concert tours are known as legs. In the largest concert tours it is becoming common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment
7.
Sound art
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Sound art is an artistic discipline in which sound is utilised as a primary medium. Like many genres of art, sound art is interdisciplinary in nature. In Western art, early examples include Luigi Russolos Intonarumori or noise intoners, and subsequent experiments by Dadaists, Surrealists, the Situationist International, and in Fluxus happenings. Because of the diversity of art, there is often debate about whether sound art falls within the domain of either the visual art or experimental music categories. The earliest documented use of the term in the U. S. is from a catalogue for a show called Sound/Art at The Sculpture Center in New York City, the show was sponsored by The SoundArt Foundation, which Hellerman founded in 1982. The conjunction of sound and image insists on the engagement of the viewer, forcing participation in space and concrete, responsive thought rather than illusionary space. Catalogue for Sound/Art at The Sculpture Center, New York City, May 1–30,1983, Noise, Water, Meat, A History of Sound in the Arts. Sound Art, Beyond Music, Between Categories, Noise, The Political Economy of Music, translated by Brian Massumi, foreword by Fredric Jameson, afterword by Susan McClary. ISBN 0-8166-1286-2 ISBN 0-8166-1287-0 Bandt, Ros, Sound Sculpture, Intersections in Sound and Sculpture in Australian Artworks. Return to Form, Christoph Cox on Neo-modernist Sound Art—Sound—Column, Sound Art and the Sonic Unconscious. Beyond Representation and Signification, Toward a Sonic Materialism, journal of Visual Culture 10, no. Audio Culture, Readings in Modern Music, toronto, YYZ Books, Banff, Walter Phillips Gallery Editions. New York, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-1726-8 ISBN 978-0-8264-1727-5 Kim-Cohen, Seth. In the Blink of an Ear, Toward a Non-Cochlear Sonic Art, background Noise, Perspectives on Sound Art. New York and London, The Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-8264-1844-9 ISBN 0-8264-1845-7 Lander, Dan, and Micah Lexier. ISBN 0-914162-59-4 ISBN 0-914162-60-8 Paik, Nam June, post Music Manifesto, Videa N Videology. Syracuse, New York, Everson Museum of Art, Schaefer, Janek, Bryan Biggs, Christoph Cox, and Sara-Jayne Parsons. Janek Schaefer, Sound Art, A Retrospective, haunted Weather, Music, Silence, and Memory
8.
Post-production
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Post-production, or postproduction, is part of the process of filmmaking, video production, and photography. It occurs in the making of pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio recordings, photography. It is a term for all stages of production occurring after shooting or recording individual program segments, traditional post-production has been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. Post-production is many different processes grouped under one name and these typically include, Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision list Writing, recording, and editing the soundtrack. Adding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery and digital copy from which release prints will be made, sound design, sound effects, ADR, foley, and music, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or mixing with professional audio equipment. Transfer of colour motion picture film to video or DPX with a telecine, the process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading tools and the addition of music and sound, for instance, a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience. Post-production was named a dying industry by Phil Izzo, the once exclusive service offered by high-end post-production facilities have been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. As such, traditional services are being surpassed by digital. In television, the phases of post-production include, editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and it is imperative that post-production executes and oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready. Professional post-producers usually apply a certain range of image editing operations to the raw image format provided by a photographer or an image-bank, there is a range of proprietary and free and open-source software, running on a range of operating systems available to do this work. The first stage of post-production usually requires loading the RAW images into the post-production software, if there is more than one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize the images before loading them. After that, if necessary, the step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool for a perfect. The next stage would be cleaning the image using tools such as the tool, clone tool. The next stages depend on what the client ordered, if its a photo-montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the background. In advertising, it usually requires assembling several images together in a photo-composition, types of work usually done, Advertising that requires one background and one or more models. Fashion photography that usually requires a really heavy post-production for editorial and/or advertising, techniques used in music post-production include comping, timing and pitch correction, and adding effects. This process is referred to as mixing and can also involve equalization
9.
Radio broadcasting
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Radio broadcasting is a unidirectional wireless transmission over radio waves intended to reach a wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a radio format. Audio broadcasting also can be done via radio, local wire television networks, satellite radio. The signal types can be either analog audio or digital audio, the earliest radio stations were simply radiotelegraphy systems and did not carry audio. For audio broadcasts to be possible, electronic detection and amplification devices had to be incorporated, the thermionic valve was invented in 1904 by the English physicist John Ambrose Fleming. He developed a device he called an oscillation valve, the heated filament, or cathode, was capable of thermionic emission of electrons that would flow to the plate when it was at a higher voltage. Electrons, however, could not pass in the direction because the plate was not heated. Later known as the Fleming valve, it could be used as a rectifier of alternating current and this greatly improved the crystal set which rectified the radio signal using an early solid-state diode based on a crystal and a so-called cats whisker. However, what was required was an amplifier. The triode was patented on March 4,1906, by the Austrian Robert von Lieben independent from that, on October 25,1906 and it wasnt put to practical use until 1912 when its amplifying ability became recognized by researchers. By about 1920, valve technology had matured to the point where radio broadcasting was quickly becoming viable, however, an early audio transmission that could be termed a broadcast may have occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906 by Reginald Fessenden, although this is disputed. Charles Herrold started broadcasting in California in 1909 and was carrying audio by the next year, in The Hague, the Netherlands, PCGG started broadcasting on November 6,1919, making it, arguably the first commercial broadcasting station. In 1916, Frank Conrad, an engineer employed at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, began broadcasting from his Wilkinsburg. Later, the station was moved to the top of the Westinghouse factory building in East Pittsburgh, Westinghouse relaunched the station as KDKA on November 2,1920, as the first commercially licensed radio station in America. The commercial broadcasting designation came from the type of broadcast license, the first licensed broadcast in the United States came from KDKA itself, the results of the Harding/Cox Presidential Election. In 1920, wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in the UK from the Marconi Research Centre 2MT at Writtle near Chelmsford, England. A famous broadcast from Marconis New Street Works factory in Chelmsford was made by the famous soprano Dame Nellie Melba on 15 June 1920 and she was the first artist of international renown to participate in direct radio broadcasts. The 2MT station began to broadcast regular entertainment in 1922, the BBC was amalgamated in 1922 and received a Royal Charter in 1926, making it the first national broadcaster in the world, followed by Czech Radio and other European broadcasters in 1923
10.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
11.
Foley (filmmaking)
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Foley is the reproduction of everyday sound effects that are added to film, video, and other media in post-production to enhance audio quality. These reproduced sounds can be anything from the swishing of clothing and footsteps to squeaky doors, the best Foley art is so well integrated into a film that it goes unnoticed by the audience. It helps to create a sense of reality within a scene, without these crucial background noises, movies feel unnaturally quiet and uncomfortable. Foley artists recreate the ambient sounds that the film portrays. The props and sets of a film often do not react the same way acoustically as their real life counterparts, Foley sounds are used to enhance the auditory experience of the movie. Foley can also be used to cover up unwanted sounds captured on the set of a movie during filming, the term Foley also means a place, such as Foley-stage or Foley-studio, where the Foley process takes place. What is now called Foley is a range of sound effects originally developed for live broadcasts of radio drama in the early 1920s in various radio studios around the world. Because no effective recording method existed in those days, a sound effects person had to create all sounds for radio plays live, jack Donovan Foley started working with Universal Studios in 1914 during the silent movie era. When Warner studios released its first film to sound, The Jazz Singer, Universal knew it needed to get on the bandwagon. Foley became part of the crew that turned Universal’s then upcoming “silent” musical Show Boat into a musical. Because microphones of the time could not pick up more than dialogue, Foley and his small crew projected the film on a screen while recording a single track of audio that captured their live sound effects. Their timing had to be perfect, so that footsteps and closing doors synchronized with the motions in the film. Jack Foley created sounds for films until his death in 1967 and his basic methods are still used today. Modern Foley art has progressed as recording technology has progressed, today, sounds do not have to be recorded live on a single track of audio. They can be captured separately on individual tracks and carefully synchronized with their visual counterpart, Foley studios employ hundreds of props and digital effects to recreate the ambient sounds of their films. In this article, Foley complements or replaces sound recorded on set at the time of the filming, the soundscape of most films uses a combination of both. A Foley artist is the person who creates this sound art, Foley artists use creativity to make viewers believe that the sound effects are actually real. The viewers should not be able to realize that the sound was not actually part of the process itself
12.
Prehistoric music
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Prehistoric music is a term in the history of music for all music produced in preliterate cultures, beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in different parts of the world, however, it is more common to refer to the prehistoric music which still survives as folk, indigenous or traditional music. Prehistoric music is studied alongside other periods within music archaeology, findings from paleolithic archaeology sites suggest that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced, the Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the flute and various types of stringed instruments. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music are found in the Vedas, the earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BCE. Research on the origins of music started in the second half of the 19th century. After the appearance of the collection of articles The Origins of Music the subject was a topic of human evolutionary history. There are currently many hypotheses about the origins of music, some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality, even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment or practical functions, even aside from the bird song, monkeys have been witnessed to beat on hollow logs. Although this might serve some purpose of territorialism, it suggests a degree of creativity and seems to incorporate a call, explanations of the origin of music depend on how music is defined. If we assume that music is a form of emotional manipulation, music as we know it was not possible until the onset of intentionality - the ability to reflect about the past. Between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago humans started creating art in the form of paintings on walls, jewelry. They also started to bury their dead ceremonially, if we assume that these new forms of behavior reflect the emergence of intentionality, then music as we know it must also have emerged during that period. From a psychological viewpoint, the question of the origin of music is difficult to answer, Music evokes strong emotions and changed states of awareness. Generally, strong emotions are associated with evolution, but there is no clear link between music and sex, or between music and survival
13.
Prehistory
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Prehistory means literally before history, from the Latin word for before, præ, and Greek ιστορία. Neighbouring civilisations were the first to follow, most other civilisations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no records from human prehistory. Clear techniques for dating were not well-developed until the 19th century and this article is concerned with human prehistory as defined here above. There are separate articles for the history of the Earth. However, for the race as a whole, prehistory ends when recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC. For example, in Egypt it is accepted that prehistory ended around 3200 BC, whereas in New Guinea the end of the prehistoric era is set much more recently. The three-age system is the periodization of prehistory into three consecutive time periods, named for their respective predominant tool-making technologies, Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age. The notion of prehistory began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word primitive to describe societies that existed before written records, the first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history, human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology, restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age, and begins with the first use of stone tools, the Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP in a site at Bnot Yaakov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic
14.
Kagura
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Kagura is a Japanese word referring to a specific type of Shinto theatrical dance—with roots arguably predating those of Noh. Once strictly a ceremonial art derived from kamigakari and chinkon, Kagura has evolved in many directions over the span of more than a millennium, the epics Kojiki and Nihonshoki describe a folklore origin for the dances. In these texts, there is a legendary tale about the sun goddess Amaterasu. Ame-no-Uzume, kami/goddess of the dawn and of revelry, led the gods in a wild dance. Kagura is one of a number of rituals and arts said to derive from this event, originally called kamukura or kamikura, kagura began as sacred dances performed at the Imperial court by shrine maidens who were supposedly descendants of Ame-no-Uzume. Among these are miko kagura, shishi kagura, and Ise-style and Izumo-style kagura dances, many more variations have developed over the centuries, including some which are fairly new, and most of which have become highly secularized folk traditions. Kagura, in particular those forms that involve storytelling or reenactment of fables, is one of the primary influences on the Noh theatre. The formal ritual dances were performed in a number of sacred places, at the Imperial Sanctuary, where the Sacred Mirror was kept, they were performed as part of gagaku court music. Mikagura were also performed at the Imperial harvest festival and at major shrines such as Ise, Kamo, since around the year 1000, these events have taken place every year. According to the department of the Imperial Household Agency, kagura still take place every December in the Imperial Sanctuary. Satokagura, or normal kagura, is an umbrella term containing a great diversity of folk dances derived from mikagura. For the sake of brevity, a selection of traditions from the Kantō region will be used as examples, miko kagura – dances performed by shrine maidens originally derived from ritual dances in which the miko channeled the kami, speaking, singing, and dancing as the god. Today, they are performed largely in worship to kami at Shinto shrines and these dances are often performed with ritual props, such as bells, bamboo canes, sprigs of sakaki, or paper streamers. Izumo-ryū kagura – Dances based on those performed at Izumo Shrine serve a number of purposes, including ritual purification, celebration of auspicious days, ise-ryū kagura – A form of dances derived from those performed alongside yudate rituals at the outer shrines of Ise Shrine. Largely associated with Hanamatsuri, the miko or other group leaders immerse certain objects in boiling water as part of a purification ritual, as with other forms of kagura, this has become secularized and popularized as it transformed into a folk practice. Shishi kagura – A form of dance, in which a group of dancers take on the role of the shishi lion. The lion mask and costume is seen as, in ways, embodying the spirit of the lion. Acrobatic feats and lion dances played a role in these rituals
15.
Shinto shrine
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A Shinto shrine is a structure whose main purpose is to house one or more Shinto kami. Its most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects, structurally, a Shinto shrine is usually characterized by the presence of a honden or sanctuary, where the kami is enshrined. The honden may however be completely absent, as for example when the stands on a sacred mountain to which it is dedicated. There may be a haiden and other structures as well, however, a shrines most important building is used for the safekeeping of sacred objects rather than for worship. Miniature shrines can occasionally be found on roadsides, large shrines sometimes have on their precincts miniature shrines. The portable shrines which are carried on poles during festivals enshrine kami and are therefore true shrines. in 927 CE and this work listed all of the 2,861 Shinto shrines existing at the time, and the 3,131 official-recognized and enshrined Kami. Certainly, that number has grown and greatly exceeded this figure through the following generations, in Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan placed the number of shrines at 79,467, mostly affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines. Some shrines, such as the Yasukuni Shrine are totally independent of any outside authority, the number of Shinto shrines in Japan is estimated to be around 100,000. This figure may, or may not, include private shrines in homes and owned by groups, abandoned or derelict shrines. Ancestors are kami to be worshiped, yayoi-period village councils sought the advice of ancestors and other kami, and developed instruments to evoke them. Yoshishiro means approach substitute and were conceived to attract the kami to allow them physical space, village-council sessions were held in quiet spots in the mountains or in forests near great trees or other natural objects that served as yorishiro. These sacred places and their yorishiro gradually evolved into todays shrines, whose origins can be seen in the Japanese words for mountain and forest. Many shrines have on their grounds one of the original great yorishiro, the first buildings at places dedicated to worship were surely huts built to house some yorishiro. A trace of this origin can be found in the term hokura, deity storehouse, which evolved into hokora, true shrines arose with the beginning of agriculture, when the need arose to attract kami to ensure good harvests. These were, however, just temporary structures built for a particular purpose, Ōmiwa Shrine in Nara, for example, contains no sacred images or objects because it is believed to serve the mountain on which it stands. Those images or objects are therefore unnecessary, for the same reason, it has a worship hall but no place to house the kami. Archeology confirms that, during the Yayoi period, the most common shintai in the earliest shrines were nearby mountain peaks that supplied water to the plains where people lived. Besides the already mentioned Ōmiwa Shrine, another important example is Mount Nantai, significantly, the name Nantai means mans body
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Commedia dell'arte
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Commedia dellarte translates to theatre of the professional and is known as the first form of professional theatre. Commedia dellarte also is considered commedia alla maschera, commedia improvviso, a commedia, such as The Tooth Puller, is both scripted and improvised. Characters entrances and exits are scripted, a special characteristic of commedia dellarte are the lazzi. A lazzo is a joke or something foolish or witty, another characteristic of commedia dellarte is pantomime, which is mostly used by the character Arlecchino. The characters of the commedia usually represent fixed social types, stock characters, such as old men, devious servants. The main categories of characters include servants, old men, lovers. The characters are exaggerated real characters, such as a know it all doctor called Il Dottore, many troupes were formed to perform commedia dellarte, including I Gelosi, Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe. Commedia dellarte was often performed outside on platforms or in areas such as a piazza. The form of theatre originated in Italy, but travelled throughout Europe, the commedia genesis may be related to carnival in Venice, where by 1570 the author/actor Andrea Calmo had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the vecchio Pantalone. In the Flaminio Scala scenario for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone, while Calmos characters were not masked, it is uncertain at what point the characters donned the mask. However, the connection to carnival would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some point, the tradition in Northern Italy is centered in Mantua, Florence, and Venice, where the major companies came under the aegis of the various dukes. Concomitantly, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure Pulcinella, Pulcinella has been long associated with Naples, and derived into various types elsewhere—the most famous as the puppet character Punch in England. Although commedia dellarte flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, there has been a tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. While we can detect formal similarities between the commedia dellarte and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin, some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic or the Empire. The Atellan Farces of the Roman Empire featured crude types wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features, some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the Commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano. More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, the first recorded commedia dellarte performances came from Rome as early as 1551. This view may be somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tassos Aminta, for example, by the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adapted as their impress the two-faced Roman god Janus, Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this traveling troupe, and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the other
17.
English Renaissance theatre
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English Renaissance theatre, also known as early modern English theatre, or as Elizabethan theatre, refers to the theatre of England between 1562 and 1642. This is the style of the plays of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, English Renaissance theatre encompasses the period between 1562 and 1642. Strictly speaking, English Renaissance theatre may be said to encompass Elizabethan theatre from 1562 to 1603, Jacobean theatre from 1603 to 1625, along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed towards the end of the period. Under Elizabeth, the drama was an expression as far as social class was concerned. With the development of the theatres, drama became more oriented towards the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign of Charles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, theatrical life was largely centred just outside London, as the theatre was banned inside the city itself, but plays were performed by touring companies all over England. English companies even toured and performed English plays abroad, e. g. in Germany, the period starts before the establishment of the first permanent theatres. Initially two types of location were used for performing plays, the courtyards of inns and the Inns of Court such as the Inner Temple and these venues continued to be used even after permanent theatres were established. The first permanent English theatre, the Red Lion opened in 1567, the first successful theatres, such as The Theatre, opened in 1576. The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an enabling factor in the success of English Renaissance drama. Once they were in operation, drama could become a fixed and their construction was prompted when the Mayor and Corporation of London first banned plays in 1572 as a measure against the plague, and then formally expelled all players from the city in 1575. The Theatre was rapidly followed by the nearby Curtain Theatre, the Rose, the Swan, the Globe, the Fortune, the public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. The upper level behind the stage could be used as a balcony, as in Romeo and Juliet or Antony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, the playhouses were generally built with timber and plaster, and were three stories high. Individual theatre descriptions give additional information to their construction, such as flint stones being used to build the Swan, theatres were also constructed to be able to hold large amounts of people. A different model was developed with the Blackfriars Theatre, which came into use on a long-term basis in 1599. The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the theatres and roofed rather than open to the sky. Other small enclosed theatres followed, notably the Whitefriars and the Cockpit, around 1580, when both the Theatre and the Curtain were full on summer days, the total theatre capacity of London was about 5000 spectators. With the building of new facilities and the formation of new companies
18.
Luigi Russolo
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Luigi Russolo was an Italian Futurist painter, composer, builder of experimental musical instruments, and the author of the manifesto The Art of Noises. He is often regarded as one of the first noise music experimental composers with his performances of music concerts in 1913–14 and then again after World War I. He designed and constructed a number of noise-generating devices called Intonarumori, Luigi Russolo was perhaps the first noise artist. His 1913 manifesto, LArte dei Rumori, translated as The Art of Noises, Russolo found traditional melodic music confining, and he envisioned noise music as its future replacement. Russolo designed and constructed a number of noise-generating devices called Intonarumori, a performance of his Gran Concerto Futuristico was met with strong disapproval and violence from the audience, as Russolo himself had predicted. None of his intoning devices have survived, though some have been reconstructed and used in performances. Although Russolos works bear little resemblance to modern music, his pioneering creations cannot be overlooked as an essential stage in the evolution of the several genres in this category. Many artists are now familiar with Russolos manifesto, at first the art of music sought purity, limpidity and sweetness of sound. Then different sounds were amalgamated, care being taken, however, today music, as it becomes continually more complicated, strives to amalgamate the most dissonant, strange and harsh sounds. In this way we come ever closer to noise-sound, antonio Russolo, another Italian Futurist composer and Luigis brother, produced a recording of two works featuring the original Intonarumori. The phonograph recording, made in 1921, included works entitled Corale and Serenata and it is the only surviving contemporaneous sound recording of Luigi Russolos noise music. Russolo and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti gave the first concert of Futurist music, complete with intonarumori, in April 1914, causing a riot. The program comprised four networks of noises with the titles, Awakening of a City Meeting of cars. Some of Russolos instruments were destroyed in World War II, others have been lost, replicas of the instruments have since been built. A Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Art, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press. Noise, Visual Arts, and the Occult, Video Video of Carnegie Mellon Universitys 2013 Wats, ON. NOISE Festival, Intonarumori-100 performance featuring 11 reconstructed Intonarumori Instruments
19.
Intonarumori
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Intonarumori are a group of experimental musical instruments built and invented by the Italian futurist Luigi Russolo between roughly 1910 and 1930. There were 27 varieties of intonarumori in total with different names, Russolo built these instruments to perform the music outlined in his Art of Noises manifesto. The instruments were completely acoustic, not electronic, the boxes had various types of internal construction to create different types of noise. Often a wheel was touching a string attached to a drum, the wheel rattled or bowed the strings, while the drum functioned as an acoustic resonator. Many of the featured a handle on top of the box. Pulling the handle raised the tone, and the attached to the box amplified the sound. Intonarumori made noise, but not at a loud volume. Most of Russolos instruments were destroyed in Paris when that city was bombed during World War II, original sketches still exist, however, along with a few sound recordings of the original instruments. Based on these sources, three collections of reconstructions exist and this project offered the set of 16 original intonarumori that Russolo built in Milan in the summer of 1913. These intonarumori were physically built by luthier Keith Cary in Winters, California, under Chessa’s direction and scientific supervision. The concert premiered at San Francisco Museum of Modern Art on October 16,2009, with 2013 being the 100th anniversary of both The Art of Noises and John Cage’s birth, the curators of Carnegie Mellon University’s Wats, ON. Festival, Golan Levin and Spike Wolff felt the time was ripe for a presentation of noise, carl Bajandas, a sculptor, an instrument builder, took the lead and built 10 Intonarumori instruments. Meanwhile, experimental composer, music technologist John Ozbay, has asked to compose for the Intonarumori instruments. The performance took place in Carnegie Mellon Universitys Kresge Theatre on April 4,2013, followed by performances of electronic/experimental music artists, Jeremy Boyle, Michael Johnsen, Eric Singer and Lesley Flanigan. Dutch sound artist Wessel Westerveld made a series of replicas, westervelds replicas are the most professional versions with welded steel horns instead of cardboard and nailed steel cones like the Italian and NYC ones. The woodwork of these versions are also real hard wood instead of plywood, Westerveld has also made a few open variants with the sound system visible from the outside. Westerveld performs regularly with his Intonarumori in collaboration with Dutch sound artist Yuri Landman, the Dutch replicas were shown and played by Westerveld at the Tuned City festivals in several cities, and a few times at the Gogbot Festival in Enschede. In 2012 Lee Ranaldo wrote a score for the instruments at the Performa Festival in NYC, in 2015 the Italian band King Tongue staged a tribute to Russolo at Circolo Filologico in Milan performing along with an orchestra of four intonarumori
20.
Futurism (music)
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Futurism was an early 20th-century art movement which encompassed painting, sculpture, poetry, theatre, music, architecture and gastronomy. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti initiated the movement with his Manifesto of Futurism, Futurist music rejected tradition and introduced experimental sounds inspired by machinery, and influenced several 20th-century composers. The musician Francesco Balilla Pratella joined the movement in 1910 and wrote the Manifesto of Futurist Musicians, in The Manifesto of Futurist Musicians, Pratella appealed to the young, as had Marinetti, because only they could understand what he had to say. According to Pratella, Italian music was inferior to music abroad and he praised the sublime genius of Wagner and saw some value in the work of Richard Strauss, Debussy, Elgar, Mussorgsky, Glazunov and Sibelius. By contrast, the Italian symphony was dominated by opera in an absurd, the conservatories encouraged backwardness and mediocrity. The publishers perpetuated mediocrity and the domination of music by the rickety and vulgar operas of Puccini, luigi Russolo was an Italian painter and self-taught musician. In 1913 he wrote The Art of Noises, which is considered to be one of the most important, the program comprised four networks of noises with the following titles, Awakening of a City Meeting of cars and aeroplanes Dining on the casino terrace and Skirmish in the oasis. Further concerts around Europe were cancelled due to the outbreak of the First World War, Futurism was one of several 20th century movements in art music that paid homage to, included or imitated machines. Ferruccio Busoni has been seen as anticipating some Futurist ideas, though he remained wedded to tradition, Russolos intonarumori influenced Stravinsky, Honegger, Antheil, and Edgar Varèse. In Pacific 231, Honegger imitated the sound of a steam locomotive, there are also Futurist elements in Prokofievs The Steel Step. Most notable in respect, however, is George Antheil. Embraced by Dadaists, Futurists and modernists, Antheil expressed in music the artistic radicalism of the 1920s and his fascination with machinery is evident in his Airplane Sonata, Death of the Machines, and the 30-minute Ballet mécanique. The Ballet mécanique was originally intended to accompany a film by Fernand Léger. Antheils piece was the first to synchronize machines with human players, russian Futurist composers included Arthur-Vincent Lourié, Mikhail Gnesin, Alexander Goedicke, Geog Kirkor, Julian Krein, and Alexander Mosolov. A collection of Futurist music and spoken word from the period 1909-1935 has been recorded on a CD, Musica Futurista, The Art of Noises, issued in 2004. As well as recordings, including free-verse readings by Marinetti and Russolos intonarumori. The material has been remastered and includes a booklet with rare images and sleeve notes by Lombardi. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie, an Outline of Italian Instrumental Music in the 20th Century
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The Art of Noises
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The Art of Noises is a Futurist manifesto, written by Luigi Russolo in a 1913 letter to friend and Futurist composer Francesco Balilla Pratella. The Art of Noises is considered to be one of the most important, russolos essay explores the origins of man made sounds. Russolo states that noise first came into existence as the result of 19th century machines, before this time the world was a quiet, if not silent, place. With the exception of storms, waterfalls, and tectonic activity, the Greek musical theory was based on the tetrachord mathematics of Pythagoras, which did not allow for any harmonies. Developments and modifications to the Greek musical system were made during the Middle Ages, Russolo notes that during this time sounds were still narrowly seen as unfolding in time. The chord did not yet exist, Russolo refers to the chord as the complete sound, the conception of various parts that make and are subordinate to the whole. He notes that chords developed gradually, first moving from the consonant triad to the consistent and he notes that while early music tried to create sweet and pure sounds, it progressively grew more and more complex, with musicians seeking to create new and more dissonant chords. This, he says, comes ever closer to the noise-sound and he notes that music has been developing towards a more complicated polyphony by seeking greater variety in timbres and tone colors. Russolo explains how musical sound is too limited in its variety of timbres and he breaks the timbres of an orchestra down into four basic categories, bowed instruments, metal winds, wood winds, and percussion. Russolo claims that music has reached a point that no longer has the power to excite or inspire, even when it is new, he argues, it still sounds old and familiar, leaving the audience waiting for the extraordinary sensation that never comes. He urges musicians to explore the city with more sensitive than eyes, listening to the wide array of noises that are often taken for granted. He feels these noises can be given pitch and regulated harmonically, while preserving their irregularity and character. The variety of noises is infinite, Russolo includes a list of conclusions, Futurist composers should use their creativity and innovation to enlarge and enrich the field of sound by approaching the noise-sound. Futurist musicians should strive to replicate the infinite timbres in noises, Futurist musicians should free themselves from the traditional and seek to explore the diverse rhythms of noise. The complex tonalities of noise can be achieved by creating instruments that replicate that complexity, pitch can be manipulated through simple changes in speed or tension. The variety of noise is infinite, and as man creates new machines the number of noises he can differentiate between continues to grow. Therefore, he invites all talented musicians to pay attention to noises and their complexity and he predicts that our multiplied sensibility, having been conquered by futurist eyes, will finally have some futurist ears, and. Every workshop will become an intoxicating orchestra of noise, john Cage Pierre Schaeffer Pierre Henry Art of Noise Adam Ant Einstürzende Neubauten Test Dept DJ Spooky Dywane Thomas, Jr
22.
Herbert Beerbohm Tree
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Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree was an English actor and theatre manager. Tree began performing in the 1870s, by 1887, he was managing the Haymarket Theatre, winning praise for adventurous programming and lavish productions, and starring in many of its productions. In 1899, he helped fund the rebuilding, and became manager, again, he promoted a mix of Shakespeare and classic plays with new works and adaptations of popular novels, giving them spectacular productions in this large house, and often playing leading roles. His wife, actress Helen Maud Holt, often played opposite him, although Tree was regarded as a versatile and skilled actor, particularly in character roles, by his later years, his technique was seen as mannered and old fashioned. He founded the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1904 and was knighted, for his contributions to theatre and his famous family includes his siblings, explorer Julius Beerbohm, author Constance Beerbohm and half-brother caricaturist Max Beerbohm. His daughters were Viola, an actress, Felicity and Iris, a poet, a grandson was the actor Oliver Reed. Born in Kensington, London as Herbert Draper Beerbohm, Tree was the son and second child of Julius Ewald Edward Beerbohm. The senior Beerbohm was of Dutch, Lithuanian, and German origin, he had come to England in about 1830, Trees younger brother was the author and explorer Julius Beerbohm, and his sister was author Constance Beerbohm. A younger half-brother was the parodist and caricaturist Max Beerbohm, born from their fathers second marriage, Max jokingly claimed that Herbert added the Tree to his name because it was easier for audiences than shouting Beerbohm. The latter part of his surname, bohm, is north German dialect for tree, Trees early education included Mrs Adamss Preparatory School at Frant, Dr Stones school in Kings Square, Bristol, and Westbourne collegiate school in Westbourne Grove, London. After these, he attended his fathers alma mater, Schnepfeuthal College in Thuringia, upon his return to England, he began performing with amateur troupes, eventually using the name Herbert Beerbohm Tree, while working in his fathers business. In 1878 Tree played Grimaldi in Dion Boucicaults The Life of an Actress at the Globe Theatre, shortly after, for the next six years, he performed mainly on tour in the British provinces, playing character roles. He made his London debut late in 1878 at the Olympic Theatre under the management of Henry Neville and his first real success was as the elderly Marquis de Pontsablé in Madame Favart, in which he toured towards the end of 1879. Another London engagement was as Prince Maleotti in a revival of Forget-me-Not at the Prince of Waless Theatre in 1880 and his first London success came in 1884 as the Rev. Robert Spalding in Charles Hawtreys adaptation of The Private Secretary. Tree embellished the comic elements of the role, which added to the popularity of the play and his next role was Paolo Marcari in Called Back by Hugh Conway. The contrast between this dashing Italian spy and his timid parson in Hawtreys play, showed his versatility as a character actor, other appearances over the next two years included roles in revivals of A. W. Pineros The Magistrate and W. S. Gilberts Engaged. In 1886 he played Iago in Othello and Sir Peter Teazle in The School for Scandal with F. R. Bensons company at Bournemouth. The same year, in London, he made a success at the Haymarket Theatre, in 1887, at age thirty-four, Tree took over the management of the Comedy Theatre in the West End of London
23.
Bertolt Brecht
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Eugen Bertolt Friedrich Brecht was a German poet, playwright, and theatre director of the 20th century. Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht was born in February 1898 in Augsburg, Bavaria, Brechts mother was a devout Protestant and his father a Catholic. The modest house where he was born is preserved as a Brecht Museum. His father worked for a mill, becoming its managing director in 1914. Thanks to his mothers influence, Brecht knew the Bible, a familiarity that would have an effect on his writing. From her, too, came the image of the self-denying woman that recurs in his drama. Brechts home life was comfortably middle class, despite what his occasional attempt to claim peasant origins implied, at school in Augsburg he met Caspar Neher, with whom he formed a lifelong creative partnership. Neher designed many of the sets for Brechts dramas and helped to forge the distinctive visual iconography of their epic theatre, when Brecht was 16, the First World War broke out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht soon changed his mind on seeing his classmates swallowed by the army and his expulsion was only prevented through the intervention of his religion teacher. On his fathers recommendation, Brecht sought a loophole by registering for a course at Munich University. There he studied drama with Arthur Kutscher, who inspired in the young Brecht an admiration for the iconoclastic dramatist, from July 1916, Brechts newspaper articles began appearing under the new name Bert Brecht. Brecht was drafted into service in the autumn of 1918, only to be posted back to Augsburg as a medical orderly in a military VD clinic. In July 1919, Brecht and Paula Banholzer had a son, some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in the political cabaret of the Munich comedian Karl Valentin. Brechts diaries for the few years record numerous visits to see Valentin perform. Brecht compared Valentin to Charlie Chaplin, for his virtually complete rejection of mimicry and he did short sketches in which he played refractory employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers and made them look ridiculous. The employer was played by his partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a popular woman comedian who used to pad herself out, anyone can be creative, he quipped, its rewriting other people thats a challenge. Brecht completed his second play, Drums in the Night. Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht made acquaintance with many people in the Berlin cultural scene
24.
Grigori Rasputin
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Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin was a Russian mystic and self-proclaimed holy man who befriended the family of Tsar Nicholas II and gained considerable influence in late imperial Russia. Born to a peasant family in the Siberian village of Pokrovskoye and he has been described as a monk or as a strannik, though he held no official position in the Russian Orthodox Church. After traveling to St. Petersburg, either in 1903 or the winter of 1904-5, Rasputin captivated some church and he became a society figure, and met the Tsar in November 1905. In late 1906, Rasputin began acting as a healer for the Nicholas II and Alexandras son Alexei, at court, he was a divisive figure, seen by some Russians as a mystic, visionary, and prophet, and by others as a religious charlatan. The high point of Rasputins power was in 1915, when Nicholas II left St Petersburg to oversee Russian armies fighting World War I, as Russian defeats in the war mounted, however, both Rasputin and Alexandra became increasingly unpopular. On the night of 29-30 December 1916 Rasputin was assassinated by a group of noblemen who opposed his influence over Alexandra. Some writers have suggested that Rasputin helped to discredit the tsarist government, and thus helped to precipitate the Russian Revolution, very little about Rasputins life and influence is certain, however, as accounts have often been based on hearsay, rumor, and legend. Rasputin was born a peasant in the village of Pokrovskoye. His father, Efim, was a peasant farmer and church elder who had born in Pokrovskoye in 1842. Efim also worked as a government courier, ferrying people and goods between Tobolsk and Tyumen,6,14 The couple had seven children, all of whom died in infancy. There may have been a child, Feodosiya. After a courtship of several months, they married in February 1887, praskovya remained in Pokrovskoye throughout Rasputins later travels and rise to prominence, and remained devoted to him until his death. Building a makeshift chapel in Efims root cellar - Rasputin was still living within his fathers household at the time - the group held secret meetings there. Petersburg Theological Seminary at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, and arranged for him to travel to St. Petersburg, during this time, however, Rasputin wrote several letters to the Tsar. 69-76 Rasputin was wandering as a pilgrim in Siberia when he heard reports of Tsarevich Alexeis illness. This made it appear that Rasputin was effectively healing him, skeptics have claimed that he did so by hypnosis. His pragmatic tips included suggestions such as Dont let the doctors bother him too much, Rasputin had a considerable personal and political influence on Alexandra, and the Tsar and Tsarina considered him a man of God and a religious prophet. Alexandra came to believe that God spoke to her through Rasputin, of course, this relationship can also be viewed in the context of the very strong, traditional, age-old bond between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Russian state leadership. Another important factor was probably the Tsarinas German-Protestant origin and she was definitely highly fascinated by her new Orthodox outlook — the Orthodox religion puts a great deal of faith in the healing powers of prayer
25.
Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy
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Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy, nicknamed the Comrade Count, was a Russian and Soviet writer who wrote in many genres but specialized in science fiction and historical novels. During World War II, he served on an Extraordinary State Commission which ascertained without reasonable doubt the mass extermination of people in gas vans by the German occupiers. His work in the investigation of atrocities committed in the Stavropol region was recognized by Soviet prosecutors during the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals, Aleksey was the son of Count Nikolay Alexandrovich Tolstoy and Alexandra Leontievna Turgeneva. His mother was a grand-niece of Decembrist Nikolay Turgenev and a relative of the renowned Russian writer Ivan Turgenev and his father belonged to the Tolstoy family of Russian nobles and was a remote relative of Leo Tolstoy. His father had been a cavalry officer, whose rowdy excesses proved too much even for his fellow hussars. He was obliged to leave his regiment and the two cities, and retired to an estate in Samara, Russia. There he met and married Alexandra Leontievna Turgenev, a girl of good family. She bore him two sons, Alexander and Mstislav, and a daughter Elizabeth, but the wild blood of the Tolstoys did not allow him to settle down to an existing domestic harmony. Within a year the retired hussar had been exiled to Kostroma for insulting the Governor of Samara, when strings were eventually pulled to arrange his return, he celebrated it by provoking a fellow-noble to a duel. This was more than his wife could stand. In May 1882, already two months pregnant with her child, Alexandra fled into the arms of her lover. The scandal that followed was appalling, the Count loosed off his revolver at Bostrom and was exculpated by the courts, whilst the ecclesiastical court in granting a divorce ruled that the guilty wife should never be allowed to remarry. In order to keep the baby, Alexandra was compelled to assert that it was Bostroms child. Ostracized by society and even for years by her own parents, she left with her lover for Nikolaevsk. Due in part to their rejection by both the Russian nobility and the Church, Aleksei Bostrom and Alexandra Tolstoy raised Aleksei in a staunchly atheistic, Aleksei would insist in later years that they were also great admirers of the writings of Karl Marx and Georgi Plekhanov. Even after learning the truth, he still considered Aleksey Bostrom his true father, Nikolai Tolstoy comments that As with so many Russian children at that time, little Alexei picked up his earliest education at home. There were lessons with his not over-strict tutor, his mother taught him to read and write and his attention was perfunctory, and in his earliest years it was his imagination and dreams which absorbed his energy. His mother was a writer and poetess of modest abilities
26.
Erwin Piscator
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Erwin Friedrich Max Piscator was born on 17 December 1893 in the small Prussian village of Greifenstein-Ulm, son of Carl Piscator, a merchant, and his wife Antonia Laparose. His family was descended from Johannes Piscator, a Protestant theologian who produced an important translation of the Bible in 1600, the family moved to the university town Marburg in 1899 where Piscator attended the Gymnasium Philippinum. In the autumn of 1913, he attended a private Munich drama school and enrolled at University of Munich to study German, philosophy, Piscator also took Arthur Kutschers famous seminar in theatre history which Bertolt Brecht was also later to attend. He began his career in the autumn of 1914, in small unpaid roles at the Munich Court Theatre. In 1896, Karl Lautenschläger had installed one of the worlds first revolving stages at that theatre, during the First World War Piscator was drafted into the German army, serving in a front-line infantry unit as a Landsturm soldier from the spring of 1915. In summer 1917, having participated in the battles at Ypres Salient and been in hospital once, in November 1918, when the armistice was declared, Piscator gave a speech in Hasselt at the first meeting of a revolutionary Soldiers Council. As stage director at the Volksbühne, and later as managing director at his own theatre and his dramatic aims were utilitarian — to influence voters or clarify left-wing policies. He used mechanized sets, lectures, movies, and mechanical devices that appealed to his audiences, in 1926, his updated production of Friedrich Schillers The Robbers at the distinguished Preußisches Staatstheater in Berlin provoked widespread controversy. Piscator cut the text heavily and reinterpreted it as a vehicle for his political beliefs and he presented the protagonist Karl Moor as a substantially self-absorbed insurgent. As Karls foil, Piscator made the character of Spiegelberg, often presented as a sinister figure, Spiegelberg appeared as a Trotskyist intellectual, slightly reminiscent of Charlie Chaplin with his cane and bowler hat. As he died, the audience heard The Internationale sung, Piscator founded the influential Piscator-Bühne in Berlin in 1927. In 1928 he produced an adaptation of the unfinished episodic comic Czech novel The Good Soldier Schweik. The dramaturgical collective that produced this adaptation included Bertolt Brecht, Brecht later described it as a montage from the novel. In 1929 Piscator published his own work on the theory of theatre, as John Willett put it, throughout the pre-Hitler years Piscators commitment to the Russian Revolution was a decisive factor in all his work. With Hitlers rise to power in 1933, Piscators stay in the Soviet Union became exile, in July 1936, Piscator left the Soviet Union for France. In 1937, he married dancer Maria Ley in Paris, Bertolt Brecht was one of the groomsmen. When Piscator and Ley subsequently migrated to the United States in 1939, Piscator was invited by Alvin Johnson, Piscator returned to West Germany in 1951 due to McCarthy era political pressure. He was appointed manager and director of the Freie Volksbühne in West Berlin in 1962, until his death in 1966, Piscator was a major exponent of contemporary and documentary theatre
27.
Vladimir Lenin
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Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, better known by the alias Lenin, was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician, and political theorist. He served as head of government of the Russian Republic from 1917 to 1918, of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic from 1918 to 1924, under his administration, Russia and then the wider Soviet Union became a one-party socialist state governed by the Russian Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, he developed political theories known as Leninism, born to a wealthy middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brothers execution in 1887. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Russian Empires Tsarist regime and he moved to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and became a senior figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In 1897, he was arrested for sedition and exiled to Shushenskoye for three years, where he married Nadezhda Krupskaya, after his exile, he moved to Western Europe, where he became a prominent party theorist through his publications. In 1903, he took a key role in a RSDLP ideological split, Lenins government was led by the Bolsheviks—now renamed the Communist Party—with some powers initially also held by elected soviets. It redistributed land among the peasantry and nationalised banks and large-scale industry, opponents were suppressed in the Red Terror, a violent campaign orchestrated by the state security services, tens of thousands were killed and others interned in concentration camps. Anti-Bolshevik armies, established by both right and left-wing groups, were defeated in the Russian Civil War from 1917 to 1922, responding to wartime devastation, famine, and popular uprisings, in 1921 Lenin promoted economic growth through a mixed economic system. Seeking to promote world revolution, Lenins government created the Communist International, waged the Polish–Soviet War, in increasingly poor health, Lenin expressed opposition to the growing power of his successor, Joseph Stalin, before dying at his Gorki mansion. He became a figurehead behind Marxism-Leninism and thus a prominent influence over the international communist movement. Lenins father, Ilya Nikolayevich Ulyanov, was from a family of serfs, his origins remain unclear, with suggestions being made that he was Russian, Chuvash, Mordvin. Despite this lower-class background he had risen to middle-class status, studying physics and mathematics at Kazan Imperial University before teaching at the Penza Institute for the Nobility, Ilya married Maria Alexandrovna Blank in mid-1863. Well educated and from a prosperous background, she was the daughter of a German–Swedish woman. Soon after their wedding, Ilya obtained a job in Nizhny Novgorod, five years after that, he was promoted to Director of Public Schools for the province, overseeing the foundation of over 450 schools as a part of the governments plans for modernisation. His dedication to education earned him the Order of St. Vladimir, the couple had two children, Anna and Alexander, before Lenin—who would gain the childhood nickname of Volodya—was born in Simbirsk on 10 April 1870, and baptised several days later. They were followed by three children, Olga, Dmitry, and Maria. Two later siblings died in infancy, Ilya was a devout member of the Russian Orthodox Church and baptised his children into it, although Maria – a Lutheran – was largely indifferent to Christianity, a view that influenced her children. Every summer they holidayed at a manor in Kokushkino
28.
Stage management
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Stage management is the practice of organizing and coordinating a theatrical production. It encompasses a variety of activities, including organizing the production, Stage management is a sub-discipline of stagecraft. Stage managers may use a Stage Managers book to help organize the production, a stage manager is one who has overall responsibility for stage management and the smooth execution of a production. Between the Renaissance and the 16th century, actors and playwrights took upon themselves the handling of finances, general directorial duties, and stage management. Stage management first emerged as a role in the 17th century during Shakespeares and Molières time. This was the first time a person other than actors and playwright was hired to direct or manage the stage, many playwrights, directors and actors had as their first job in the theatre work as an assistant stage manager. One is very aware that everything depends on the delivery of the cue at exactly the right microsecond. One stands there, knees bent, breathing heavily. The responsibilities and duties of stage management vary depending on the setting of a production, most broadly, it is the stage managers responsibility to ensure that the directors artistic choices are realized in actual performance. As the lighting, sound, and set change cues are developed, the stage manager maintains a prompt book, sometimes called the book or the bible, which contains all cues, technical notes, blocking and other information pertinent to the show. Stage managers are responsible for helping establish a shows rehearsal schedule, the stage manager typically documents each rehearsal in a rehearsal report. Once the house opens for a performance, the stage manager controls all aspects of the performance by calling the cues for all transitions and acting as communications hub for the cast and crew. After a show opens, the manager is also responsible for calling brush-up, put in. The stage manager ensures that lighting and sound cues are acted upon at the time by issuing verbal standby. Each cue call begins with the word standby to indicate that an action is imminent and, in response, occasionally, after a long pause or break in the productions action, the stage manager will give a warning cue. This warns the technicians that the cue is approaching. At the appropriate time, the manager will prompt immediate execution of the action by saying go. In the United States, Stage Manager is a title that may be applied to anyone who performs stage management functions
29.
Sound effect
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In motion picture and television production, a sound effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording, in professional motion picture and television production, dialogue, music, and sound effects recordings are treated as separate elements. Dialogue and music recordings are never referred to as sound effects, even though the processes applied to such as reverberation or flanging effects, the term sound effect ranges back to the early days of radio. In its Year Book 1931 the BBC published an article about The Use of Sound Effects. It considers sounds effect deeply linked with broadcasting and states, It would be a mistake to think of them as anologous to punctuation marks. They should never be inserted into an already existing. The author of a broadcast play or broadcast construction ought to have used Sound Effects as bricks with which to build, treating them as of value with speech. If it fails to do so its presence could not be justified, the sound of people talking in the background is also considered a BG, but only if the speaker is unintelligible and the language is unrecognizable. These background noises are also called ambience or atmos, Foley sound effects are sounds that synchronize on screen, and require the expertise of a foley artist to record properly. Footsteps, the movement of hand props, and the rustling of cloth are common foley units, design sound effects are sounds that do not normally occur in nature, or are impossible to record in nature. These sounds are used to suggest futuristic technology in a fiction film. Each of these sound effect categories is specialized, with sound editors known as specialists in an area of sound effects, Foley is another method of adding sound effects. With this technique the action onscreen is essentially recreated to try to match it as closely as possible, if done correctly it is very hard for audiences to tell what sounds were added and what sounds were originally recorded. In the early days of film and radio, foley artists would add sounds in realtime or pre-recorded sound effects would be played back from analogue discs in realtime. Today, with effects held in digital format, it is easy to any required sequence to be played in any desired timeline. In the days of silent film, sound effects were added by the operator of an organ or photoplayer. Theater organ sound effects are usually electric or electro-pneumatic, and activated by a button pressed with the hand or foot, photoplayer operators activate sound effects either by flipping switches on the machine or pulling cow-tail pull-strings, which hang above. Sounds like bells and drums are made mechanically, sirens and horns electronically, due to its smaller size, a photoplayer usually has less special effects than a theater organ, or less complex ones
30.
Electrician
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An electrician is a tradesperson specializing in electrical wiring of buildings, stationary machines, and related equipment. Electricians may be employed in the installation of new electrical components or the maintenance, Electricians may also specialize in wiring ships, airplanes, and other mobile platforms, as well as data and cable. Electricians were originally people who demonstrated or studied the principles of electricity, wiremen are generally trained in one of five primary specialties, commercial, residential, light industrial, industrial, and low-voltage wiring, more commonly known as Voice-Data-Video, or VDV. Other sub-specialties such as wiring and fire-alarm may be performed by specialists trained in the devices being installed. Electricians are trained to one of three levels, Apprentice, Journeyman, and Master Electrician, in the US and Canada, apprentices work and receive a reduced compensation while learning their trade. Journeymen are electricians who have completed their Apprenticeship and who have been found by the local, State, or National licensing body to be competent in the electrical trade. Master Electricians have performed well in the trade for a period of time, often seven to ten years, service electricians are tasked to respond to requests for isolated repairs and upgrades. They have skills troubleshooting wiring problems, installing wiring in existing buildings, other specialty areas are marine electricians, research electricians and hospital electricians. Electrician is also used as the name of a role in stagecraft, where electricians are tasked primarily with hanging, focusing, in this context, the Master Electrician is the shows chief electrician. In the film industry and on a television crew the head electrician is referred to as a Gaffer, Electrical contractors are businesses that employ electricians to design, install, and maintain electrical systems. Many jurisdictions have regulatory restrictions concerning electrical work for safety due to the many hazards of working with electricity. Such requirements may be testing, registration or licensing, an electricians license entitles the holder to carry out all types of electrical installation work in Australia without supervision. However, to contract, or offer to contract, to carry out electrical installation work, under Australian law, electrical work that involves fixed wiring is strictly regulated and must almost always be performed by a licensed electrician or electrical contractor. Electrical licensing in Australia is regulated by the individual states, in Western Australia the Department of Commerce tracks licensees and allows the public to search for individually named/licensed Electricians. Currently in Victoria the apprenticeship last for four years, during three of years the apprentice attends trade school in either a block release of one week each month or one day each week. At the end of the apprenticeship the apprentice is required to pass three examinations, one of which is based with the other two practically based. Upon successful completion of exams, providing all other components of the apprenticeship are satisfactory. In most cases a certificate of electrical safety must be submitted to the relevant body after any electrical works are performed, Safety equipment used and worn by electricians in Australia needs to be tested regularly to ensure it is still protecting the worker
31.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
32.
MIDI
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A single MIDI link can carry up to sixteen channels of information, each of which can be routed to a separate device. These messages are sent via a MIDI cable to other devices where they control sound generation, a simple example of a MIDI setup is the use of a MIDI controller such as an electronic musical keyboard to trigger sounds created by a sound module. This MIDI data can also be recorded into a hardware or software device called a sequencer, advantages of MIDI include compactness, ease of modification and manipulation and a wide choice of electronic instruments and synthesizer or digitally-sampled sounds. MIDI technology was standardized in 1983 by a panel of industry representatives. In June 1981, Roland founder Ikutaro Kakehashi proposed the idea of standardization to Oberheim Electronics founder Tom Oberheim, in October 1981, Kakehashi, Oberheim and Smith discussed the idea with representatives from Yamaha, Korg and Kawai. Smith proposed this standard at the Audio Engineering Society show in November 1981, MIDIs development was announced to the public by Robert Moog, in the October 1982 edition of Keyboard magazine. By the time of the January 1983 Winter NAMM Show, Smith was able to demonstrate a MIDI connection between his Prophet 600 analog synthesizer and a Roland JP-6, the MIDI Specification was published in August 1983. The MIDI standard was unveiled by Ikutaro Kakehashi and Dave Smith, MIDIs appeal was originally limited to professional musicians and record producers who wanted to use electronic instruments in the production of popular music. The standard allowed different instruments to speak with other and with computers. This interoperability allowed one device to be controlled from another, which reduced the amount of hardware musicians needed to own, MIDIs introduction coincided with the dawn of the personal computer era and the introductions of samplers and digital synthesizers. The creative possibilities brought about by MIDI technology have been credited as having helped to revive the industry in the 1980s. MIDI introduced many capabilities which transformed the way musicians work, MIDI sequencing made it possible for a user with no notation skills to build complex arrangements. A musical act with as few as one or two members, each operating multiple MIDI-enabled devices, could deliver a performance which sounds similar to that of a larger group of musicians. By performing preproduction in an environment, an artist can reduce recording costs by arriving at a recording studio with a song that is already partially completed and worked out. Educational technology enabled by MIDI has transformed music education and those new to the subject of MIDI might confuse it with digital audio. MIDI symbolically represents a note, whereas digital audio represents the sound produced by the note, MIDI was invented so that musical instruments could communicate with each other and so that one instrument can control another. Analog synthesizers that have no digital component and were built prior to MIDIs development can be retrofit with kits that convert MIDI messages into analog control voltages. When a note is played on a MIDI instrument, it generates a signal that can be used to trigger a note on another instrument
33.
Digital audio
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Digital audio is technology that can be used to record, store, generate, manipulate, and reproduce sound using audio signals that have been encoded in digital form. A microphone converts sound to an electrical signal, then an analog-to-digital converter —typically using pulse-code modulation—converts the analog signal into a digital signal. This digital signal can then be recorded, edited and modified using digital audio tools, digital audio systems may include compression, storage, processing and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission, modern online music distribution depends on digital recording and data compression. The availability of music as data files, rather than as objects, has significantly reduced the costs of distribution. Before digital audio, the music industry distributed and sold music by selling copies in the form of records. With digital audio and online distribution systems such as iTunes, companies sell digital files to consumers. This digital audio/Internet distribution model is less expensive than producing physical copies of recordings, packaging them. An analog audio system captures sounds, and converts their physical waveforms into electrical representations of those waveforms by use of a transducer, the sounds are then stored, as on tape, or transmitted. The process is reversed for playback, the signal is amplified. Analog audio retains its fundamental wave-like characteristics throughout its storage, transformation, duplication, analog audio signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, due to the innate characteristics of electronic circuits and associated devices. Disturbances in a system do not result in error unless the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturb the sequence of symbols. A digital audio signal may be encoded for correction of any errors that occur in the storage or transmission of the signal. This technique, known as channel coding, is essential for broadcast or recorded digital systems to maintain bit accuracy, the discrete time and level of the binary signal allow a decoder to recreate the analog signal upon replay. Eight to Fourteen Bit Modulation is a code used in the audio Compact Disc. A digital audio system starts with an ADC that converts a signal to a digital signal. The ADC runs at a sampling rate and converts at a known bit resolution. CD audio, for example, has a rate of 44.1 kHz
34.
Digital audio workstation
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Regardless of configuration, modern DAWs have a central interface that allows the user to alter and mix multiple recordings and tracks into a final produced piece. DAWs are used for the production and recording of music, radio, television, podcasts, multimedia, early attempts at digital audio workstations in the 1970s and 1980s faced limitations such as the high price of storage, and the vastly slower processing and disk speeds of the time. In 1978, Soundstream built what could be considered the first digital audio workstation using some of the most current computer hardware of the time. Interface cards that plugged into the PDP-11s Unibus slots provided analog and digital input and output for interfacing to Soundstreams digital recorders. The DAP software could perform edits to the recorded on the systems hard disks. By the late 1980s, a number of consumer level computers such as the Apple Macintosh, Atari ST, soon, people began to use them for simple two-track audio editing and CD mastering. This combination of software and hardware was one of the earliest examples of a DAW. Many major recording studios finally went digital after Digidesign introduced its Pro Tools software, modeled after the traditional method, at this time, most DAWs were Apple Mac based. Around 1992, the first Windows based DAWs started to emerge from such as IQS Innovative Quality Software, Soundscape Digital Technology, SADiE, Echo Digital Audio. All the systems at this point used dedicated hardware for their audio processing, in 1993, German company Steinberg released Cubase Audio on Atari Falcon 030. This version brought DSP built-in effects with 8-track audio recording & playback using only native hardware, the first Windows based software-only product, introduced in 1993, was Samplitude Studio. In 1996, Steinberg introduced Cubase VST, which could record, Cubase not only modelled a tape-like interface for recording and editing, but also modelled the entire mixing desk and effects rack common in analog studios. This revolutionised the DAW world, both in features and price tag, and was imitated by most other contemporary DAW systems. An integrated DAW consists of a console, control surface, audio converter. Integrated DAWs were more popular before commonly available personal computers became powerful enough to run DAW software, as computer power and speed increased and price decreased, the popularity of costly integrated systems with console automation dropped. Systems such as the Orban Audicy became standard equipment at radio. This could be as simple as a mouse or as sophisticated as a piano-style MIDI controller keyboard or automated fader board for mixing track volumes, the computer acts as a host for the sound card/audio interface, while the software provides the interface and functionality for audio editing. The software controls all related components and provides a user interface to allow for recording, editing
35.
Sound design
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Sound design is the process of specifying, acquiring, manipulating or generating audio elements. Sound design most commonly involves the manipulation of previously composed or recorded audio, such as sound effects, in some instances it may also involve the composition or manipulation of audio to create a desired effect or mood. A sound designer is one who practices the art of sound design, the use of sound to evoke emotion, reflect mood and underscore actions in plays and dances began in prehistoric times. At its earliest, it was used in religious practices for healing or recreation, in ancient Japan, theatrical events called kagura were performed in Shinto shrines with music and dance. Plays were performed in times in a form of theatre called Commedia dellarte. The use of music and sound in the Elizabethan Theatre followed, in music and sound effects were produced off stage using devices such as bells, whistles. Cues would be written in the script for music and sound effects to be played at the appropriate time, italian composer Luigi Russolo built mechanical sound-making devices, called intonarumori, for futurist theatrical and music performances starting around 1913. These devices were meant to simulate natural and man-made sounds, such as trains, russolos treatise, The Art of Noises, is one of the earliest written documents on the use of abstract noise in the theatre. After his death, his intonarumori were used in more conventional theatre performances to create sound effects. Possibly the first use of recorded sound in the theatre was a phonograph playing a baby’s cry in a London theatre in 1890, sixteen years later, Herbert Beerbohm Tree used recordings in his London production of Stephen Phillips’ tragedy NERO. The article states, “these sounds are all realistically reproduced by the gramophone”, as cited by Bertolt Brecht, there was a play about Rasputin written in by Alexej Tolstoi and directed by Erwin Piscator that included a recording of Lenins voice. A great deal of care and attention was paid to the construction and performance of these effects, but even though the sound designer has basically assumed these roles, time and technology have not ruled out non-sound designers having a hand in sound production. It was subsequently provided to both the ADC and David Goodman at the Florida USA local when they were planning to represent sound designers in the 1990s. MIDI and digital audio technology helped to drive the evolution of sound design during the 1980s and 1990s. These features were incorporated into the MIDI Show Control specification, a communications protocol used to interact with diverse devices. The first show to utilize the MSC specification was the Magic Kingdom Parade at Walt Disney Worlds Magic Kingdom in September,1991. Also, the World Wide Web has greatly enhanced the ability of designers to acquire source material quickly, easily and cheaply. In addition, software innovation has enabled sound designers to take more of a DIY approach
36.
Show control
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Show control is the use of automation technology to link together and operate multiple entertainment control systems in a coordinated manner. It is distinguished from entertainment control, which elements within a single entertainment discipline such as lighting, sound, video. An example of control would be linking a video segment with a number of lighting cues. Shows with or without live actors almost invariably incorporate entertainment control technology, the MIDI Show Control standard is an open, industry wide international communications protocol through which all types of show devices may easily communicate. This Forum created the MSC standard between January and September,1990 and it was ratified by the MIDI Manufacturers Association in January,1991, and the Japan MIDI Standards Committee later that year, becoming a part of the standard MIDI specification in August,1991. The first show to utilize the MSC specification was the Magic Kingdom Parade at Walt Disney Worlds Magic Kingdom in September,1991. Generally, there are two kinds of control systems, PC based and embedded systems. Manufacturers of embedded control systems use their own micro controller designs. They have to develop the software and hardware, PC based show control systems use standard PCs, enhanced by standard interfaces. John Huntingtons Show Control Web Page has further definitions and links to many Show Control resources, Show Networks & Control Systems by John Huntington, Published by Zircon Designs Press,2012, ISBN 978-0615655901 The MIDI Show Control standard The Show Control Mailing List subscription page. Index of Books and Articles related to Show Control
37.
Walt Disney World
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The Walt Disney World Resort is an entertainment complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, near Orlando and Kissimmee, Florida. The resort is the destination of Disneys worldwide corporate enterprise. Opened on October 1,1971, Walt Disney World is the most visited vacation resort in the world, the resort is owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, a division of The Walt Disney Company. It was initially operated by Walt Disney World Company, Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex, in 1971, followed by Epcot in 1982, Disneys Hollywood Studios in 1989, and the most recent, Disneys Animal Kingdom in 1998. Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the Florida Project, as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of rides. Walt Disneys original plans called for the inclusion of an Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow. Walt Disney died on December 15,1966, before construction began, without Disney spearheading the construction, the company created a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning experimental concepts for a planned community. In 1959, Walt Disney Productions began looking for land to house a second resort to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955. Market surveys at the revealed that only 5% of Disneylands visitors came from east of the Mississippi River. Additionally, Walt Disney disliked the businesses that had sprung up around Disneyland, Walt Disney flew over a potential site in Orlando, Florida – one of many – in November 1963. To avoid a burst of land speculation, Walt Disney World Company used various dummy corporations to acquire 30,500 acres of land, in May 1965, some of these major land transactions were recorded a few miles southwest of Orlando in Osceola County. In addition, two tracts totaling $1. Some are now memorialized on a window above Main Street, U. S. A. in Magic Kingdom, the smaller parcels of land acquired were called outs. They were 5-acre lots platted in 1912 by the Munger Land Company, most of the owners in the 1960s were happy to get rid of the land, which was mostly swamp at the time. Another issue was the rights to the land, which were owned by Tufts University. Without the transfer of rights, Tufts could come in at any time. Eventually, Disneys team negotiated a deal with Tufts to buy the rights for $15,000. Working strictly in secrecy, real estate agents unaware of their clients identity began making offers to landowners in April 1964 in parts of southwest Orange and northwest Osceola counties
38.
Disney's Hollywood Studios
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Disneys Hollywood Studios, originally Disney-MGM Studios, is a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, near Orlando. It is owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks, based on an idea by Marty Sklar, Randy Bright, and Michael Eisner, the park opened on May 1,1989, and was the third of four theme parks built at Walt Disney World. To increase public interest and the variety of representation within the park, Disney entered into a licensing agreement with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The parks current name took effect in 2008, with the removal of the MGM-branding throughout the park, the parks icon was originally the Earffel Tower from the parks opening until 2001 when the Sorcerers Hat—a stylized version of the magical hat from Fantasia—was erected in the parks central hub. It then served as the icon until its removal in January 2015. The tower was removed in April 2016. Currently, the park remains without an official designated icon, although both the Great Movie Ride and the Twilight Zone Tower of Terror are represented as such in marketing materials. In 2015, the park hosted approximately 10.8 million guests, ranking it the fifth most-visited theme park in North America and we welcome you to a Hollywood that never was—and always will be. A team of Walt Disney Imagineers led by Marty Sklar and Randy Bright had been given an assignment to two new pavilions for Epcots Future World section. The brainstorming sessions led to Wonders of Life and Great Movie Ride pavilions, the latter was to look like a soundstage backdrop, with a movie theater-style entrance in the middle and would have sat between the Land and Journey Into Imagination pavilions. In 1988, MGM/UA responded by filing a lawsuit that claimed Disney violated the agreement by operating a working movie, when the park first opened, the only two attractions were the Studio Backlot Tour and The Great Movie Ride. Disney later filed a countersuit, claiming that MGM/UA and MGM Grand, on October 23,1992, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge Curtis B. The 33-acre MGM Grand Adventures Theme Park opened in 1993 at the Las Vegas site, on August 9,2007, Walt Disney World President Meg Crofton announced that Disney-MGM Studios would be re-branded as Disneys Hollywood Studios, effective January 7,2008. On March 12,2015, during a shareholders meeting. Disneys Hollywood Studios is divided into six themed areas, the parks original layout featured a large Hidden Mickey, which was visible in aerial photographs of the park and on the parks early guide maps. Construction and other changes have eliminated much of this image. Hollywood Boulevard, inspired by the street in Los Angeles, serves as the main entrance and operates in the same vein as Main Street. It is lined with themed streetscape facades and venues selling Disney merchandise, guests enter through the main entrance gate, which resembles the Pan-Pacific Auditorium
39.
Communications protocol
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These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both, Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has a meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses pre-determined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is independent of how it is to be implemented. Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved, to reach agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication, a group of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite, when implemented in software they are a protocol stack. Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communication, the ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the PSTN. As the PSTN and Internet converge, the two sets of standards are also being driven towards convergence, the nature of a communication, the actual data exchanged and any state-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by algorithms, expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language makes the protocol software operating-system independent. Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate each other. This communication is governed by protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems, to implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machines operating system. This framework implements the functionality of the operating system. The best known frameworks are the TCP/IP model and the OSI model and this gave rise to the concept of layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design. Systems typically do not use a protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a family or protocol suite. Some of the best known protocol suites are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, X.25, AX.25, the protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance there is a group of transport protocols
40.
Magic Kingdom Parade
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The Magic Kingdom Parade is a large theatrical presentation at the Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World which dates back to the beginning of the theme park. As of March 27,2017, the parade is called Festival of Fantasy. The theme song was Disney World Is Your World and this parade was the first interactive parade, and featured seven, later reduced to five, show stops along the parade route. Share A Dream Come True Parade, Renamed the Disney Dreams Come True Parade in 2006, rainy Day Character Cavalcade, A viable alternate to the regularly scheduled daytime parade in the case of inclement weather, and utilizes the Main Street vehicles. Main Street Trolley Parade Move It, Street Party, Formerly named Move It. Mickeys Very Merry Christmas Parade reused some of the music and made new float theme, Fantasy On Parade featured new parade music with a regal flair - and enjoy the beauty, all the joy and beauty. Formerly known as The Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade until 2009, Festival of Fantasy official site Festival of Fantasy Photo Gallery
41.
Magic Kingdom
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Magic Kingdom is a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, near Orlando. Owned and operated by The Walt Disney Company through its Parks and Resorts division, initialized by Walt Disney and designed by WED Enterprises, its layout and attractions are based on Disneyland Park in Anaheim, California, and is dedicated to fairy tales and Disney characters. The park is represented by Cinderella Castle, inspired by the fairy tale castle seen in the 1950 film, Walt Disney World is a tribute to the philosophy and life of Walter Elias Disney. And to the talents, the dedication, and the loyalty of the entire Disney organization that made Walt Disneys dream come true, may Walt Disney World bring Joy and Inspiration and New Knowledge to all who come to this happy place. A Magic Kingdom where the young at heart of all ages can laugh and play, although Walt Disney had been highly involved in planning the Florida Project, Walt Disney Productions began construction on Magic Kingdom and the entire resort in 1967 after his death. The park was built as a larger, improved version of Disneyland Park in California, there are several anecdotes relating to reasons for some of the features of Walt Disney World, and Magic Kingdom specifically. According to one story, Walt Disney once saw a Frontierland cowboy walking through Tomorrowland at Disneyland and he disliked that the cowboy intruded on the futuristic setting of Tomorrowland and wanted to avoid situations like this in the new park. The area around the utilidors was filled in with dirt removed from the Seven Seas Lagoon, the utilidors were built in the initial construction and were not extended as the park expanded. The tunnels were intended to be designed into all subsequent Walt Disney World parks, future World at Epcot and Pleasure Island each have a smaller network of utilidors. Magic Kingdom opened as the first part of the Walt Disney World Resort on October 1,1971, commencing concurrently with Disneys Contemporary Resort, the Walt Disney Company promised to increase this number with a combination of replicas and unique attractions. While there is no dedication to Magic Kingdom, the dedication by Roy O. Disney for the entire resort was placed within its gates. The first, and as of today, only added to the original roster of lands in the park was Mickeys Toontown Fair. The land originally opened in 1988 as Mickeys Birthdayland to celebrate Mickey Mouses 60th birthday, later the land was renovated as Mickeys Starland and eventually to Mickeys Toontown Fair. The land was home to such as Mickeys Country House, Minnies Country House, The Barnstormer at Goofys Wiseacre Farm. It closed on February 12,2011, to make way for the expansion of Fantasyland, the Walt Disney World Railroad station in Mickeys Toontown Fair, which opened with Mickeys Birthdayland in 1988, was closed for the duration of the construction. In 2012, the space where Mickeys Toontown Fair sat reopened as a part of Fantasyland, in a called the Storybook Circus. The Barnstormer was retained and was re-themed to The Great Goofini, since opening day, Magic Kingdom has been closed temporarily because of six hurricanes, Floyd, Frances, Charley, Jeanne, Wilma, and Matthew. It was also closed in the middle of the day on September 11,2001, in addition, there are four phases of park closure when Magic Kingdom exceeds capacity, ranging from restricted access for most guests to full closure for everyone, even cast members
42.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
43.
Do it yourself
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Do it yourself is the method of building, modifying, or repairing things without the direct aid of experts or professionals. DIY behavior can be triggered by various motivations previously categorized as marketplace motivations, the term do-it-yourself has been associated with consumers since at least 1912 primarily in the domain of home improvement and maintenance activities. Subsequently, the term DIY has taken on a meaning that covers a wide range of skill sets. DIY is associated with the alternative rock, punk rock, and indie rock music scenes, indymedia networks, pirate radio stations. In this context, DIY is related to the Arts and Crafts movement, italian archaeologists unearthed the ruins of a 6th-century BC Greek structure in southern Italy that came with detailed assembly instructions and is being called an ancient IKEA building. Professor Christopher Smith, director of the British School at Rome and it looks as if someone was instructing others how to mass-produce components and put them together in this way. Much like the instruction booklets, various sections of the building were inscribed with coded symbols showing how the pieces slotted together. The characteristics of these inscriptions indicate they date back to around the 6th century BC, the building was built by Greek artisans coming from the Spartan colony of Taranto in Apulia. The philosopher Alan Watts reflected a sentiment, In the 1970s, DIY spread through the North American population of college-. In part, this movement involved the renovation of affordable, rundown older homes, but it also related to various projects expressing the social and environmental vision of the 1960s and early 1970s. The first Catalog, and its successors, used a definition of the term tools. There were informational tools, such as books, professional journals, courses, classes, there were specialized, designed items, such as carpenters and masons tools, garden tools, welding equipment, chainsaws, fiberglass materials and so on, even early personal computers. The designer J. Baldwin acted as editor to include such items, the Catalogs publication both emerged from and spurred the great wave of experimentalism, convention-breaking, and do-it-yourself attitude of the late 1960s. Often copied, the Catalog appealed to a wide cross-section of people in North America and had a broad influence, for decades, magazines such as Popular Mechanics and Mechanix Illustrated offered a way for readers to keep current on useful practical skills and techniques. DIY home improvement books began to flourish in the 1970s, first created as collections of magazine articles, an early, extensive line of DIY how-to books was created by Sunset Books, based upon previously published articles from their magazine, Sunset, based in California. Time-Life, Better Homes and Gardens, and other publishers soon followed suit, in the mid-1990s, DIY home-improvement content began to find its way onto the World Wide Web. HouseNet was the earliest bulletin-board style site where users could share information, homeTips. com, established in early 1995, was among the first Web-based sites to deliver free extensive DIY home-improvement content created by expert authors. Since the late 1990s, DIY has exploded on the Web through thousands of sites, in the 1970s, when home video came along, DIY instructors quickly grasped its potential for demonstrating processes by audio-visual means
44.
Director of audiography
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The director of audiography, within Indian-style filmmaking, is the head of the sound department and the person responsible for planning the audiography and managing the audiographers of a film. The title is not used professionally in most of the world, the role of audiographer and the title director of audiography derives from Bollywood-style filmmaking in India, where it is an established title credit. Since the onset of the talkies, a creative and professional conflict has emerged from the tension between the visual and aural dimensions of film. Production sound crews often complain about the lack of consideration given to sound on film productions, having a DA in pre-production helps to exert a powerful presence to defend the dimension of sound in film. In practice, the industry sees both roles as equivalent, the DA should not be confused with a production supervisor or post-production supervisor - both are administrative roles in the production department. In many ways the DoA role is a extension of the more limited post-production role of supervising sound editor. The term director of sound has also proposed as an alternative title to that of DA
45.
Film crew
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A film crew is a group of people hired by a production company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. The crew is distinguished from the cast as the cast are understood to be the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. The crew is also separate from the producers as the producers are the ones who own a portion of either the company or the films intellectual property rights. A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in an aspect of the production. Motion picture projects have three stages, development, production and distribution. Television crew positions are derived from those of film crew, the director is considered to be a separate entity, not within the film crews departmental structure. Though directors wield a great deal of power, they are subordinate to the films producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, second unit director The second unit director is responsible for overseeing the photography assigned to the second unit, which can range from minor insert shots to large stunt sequences. The second unit director position is filled by a member of the production. Music director In India-based movie productions, many of which are musicals, the role involves supervising the arrangement, recording and mastering of film music along with conducting and orchestration. Writer Person or persons who write a film script, either an original script or adapted from another written work, in which case the original work and author may also be credited. Production is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups, producer A film producer creates the conditions for film-making. The producer initiates, coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as raising, hiring key personnel. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the making process from development to completion of a project. There may be producers on a film who may take a role in a number of areas, such as development. Today, however, the title has become ambiguous, particularly in feature films, since the 1980s, it has become increasingly common for the line producer to be given the title of executive producer, while the initiating producer takes the produced by credit. On other projects, the reverse happens, with the producer taking the produced by credit. So the two credits have become effectively interchangeable, with no precise definition, line producer The line producer is the liaison between the studio or producer and the production manager, responsible for managing the production budget
46.
Cinema of the United States
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The cinema of the United States, often metonymously referred to as Hollywood, has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20th century. The dominant style of American cinema is Classical Hollywood Cinema, which developed from 1917-1960, while the French Lumière Brothers are generally credited with the birth of modern cinema, it is American cinema that soon became the most dominant force in an emerging industry. Since the 1920s, the American film industry has grossed more money every year than that of any other country, in 1878, Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated the power of photography to capture motion. In 1894, the worlds first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City, the United States was in the forefront of sound film development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U. S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, Los Angeles, director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar. Orson Welless Citizen Kane is frequently cited in critics polls as the greatest film of all time. T, the Extra-Terrestrial, Jurassic Park, Titanic, Avatar, The Avengers, Furious 7, Jurassic World, and Star Wars, The Force Awakens. Today, American film studios collectively generate several hundred movies every year, muybridges accomplishment led inventors everywhere to attempt to make similar devices that would capture such motion. In the United States, Thomas Edison was among the first to produce such a device, the history of cinema in the United States can trace its roots to the East Coast where, at one time, Fort Lee, New Jersey was the motion picture capital of America. The industry got its start at the end of the 19th century with the construction of Thomas Edisons Black Maria, in 1909, a forerunner of Universal Studios, the Champion Film Company, built the first studio. They were quickly followed by others who either built new studios or who leased facilities in Fort Lee, such notables as Mary Pickford got their start at Biograph Studios. In New York, the Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens, was built during the silent film era, was used by the Marx Brothers, the Edison Studios were located in the Bronx. Chelsea, Manhattan was also frequently used, other major centers of film production also included Chicago, Florida, Texas, California, and Cuba. The film patents wars of the early 20th century led to the spread of film companies across the U. S and they started filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in downtown Los Angeles. While there, the decided to explore new territories, traveling several miles north to Hollywood. Griffith then filmed the first movie shot in Hollywood, In Old California, a Biograph melodrama about California in the 19th century. Griffith stayed there for months and made several films before returning to New York, after hearing about Griffiths success in Hollywood, in 1913, many movie-makers headed west to avoid the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who owned patents on the movie-making process. Nestor Studios of Bayonne, New Jersey, built the first studio in Hollywood in 1911, Californias more hospitable and cost-effective climate led to the eventual shift of virtually all filmmaking to the West Coast by the 1930s. In Los Angeles, the studios and Hollywood grew, before World War I, movies were made in several U. S. cities, but filmmakers gravitated to southern California as the industry developed
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