1.
The Hub, Bronx
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The Hub is the retail, theater, and restaurant heart of the South Bronx, New York. It is located where four roads converge, East 149th Street and it is primarily located inside the neighborhood of Melrose but also lines the northern border of Mott Haven. The Hub, short for the Hub of the Bronx, has also called the Broadway of the Bronx. It is the site of both traffic and architectural density. In configuration, it resembles a miniature Times Square, a spatial bow-tie created by the geometry of the street intersections. It is a shopping district for Bronx residents, and many new hip hop trends can be found in the Hub long before they spread to the rest of New York City. The area is part of Bronx Community Board 1, the Hub is the oldest major shopping locale in the Bronx. Between 1900 and 1930, the number of Bronx residents increased from 201,000 to 1,265,000. Inhabitants throughout the borough shopped in department stores and boutiques at 149th Street and 3rd Avenue, in the 1930s the Hub had movie palaces and vaudeville theaters. These included the Bronx Opera House, which operates as a boutique hotel. On March 14,2006, Mayor Michael Bloomberg and other elected officials took part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the new Hub Retail. After a year and a half of construction, the Hub Retail, current tenants include Staples, Rite Aid, and Forman Mills, a clothing store opening its first New York store in the Bronx. Upcoming tenants include Nine West and Sleepys, as a result, the Hubs district is extended to East 156th Street in Melrose. Shopping traffic in the Hub is generated via foot, car, the sidewalks in the Hub are often packed with people. Merchants hawk their wares by calling out to the crowd or passing out small handbills, music stores offer a wide selection of hip-hop, reggae, gospel, and Latin music. Craft stores have knitting and sewing supplies, local clothing stores such as Revolution Boutique compete with major chains like Jimmy Jazz and Foot Locker. A new complex with mixed-use office and retail space that is slated to open in the fall of 2015, notable tenants already include Fine Fare Supermarket, Metropolitan College of New York, Vistasite Eye Care and Boston Market. In 1902 a large Grand Union Station was proposed near 138th Street, half a mile from the Hub, the 149th Street elevated station operated from 1887 to 1973
2.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
3.
Boroughs of New York City
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New York City, in the U. S. state of New York, is composed of five county-level administrative entities called boroughs. They are Manhattan, the Bronx, Queens, Brooklyn, each borough is coextensive with a county of New York State. The county governments were dissolved when New York City consolidated in 1898, along all city, town. The term borough was adopted to describe a form of administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city in 1898. Under the 1898 City Charter adopted by the New York State Legislature, the term is also used by politicians to counter a frequent focus on Manhattan and thereby to place all five boroughs on equal footing. In the same vein, the outer boroughs refers to all of the boroughs excluding Manhattan. All of the boroughs were created in 1898 during consolidation, when the current boundaries were established. Ultimately in 1914, the present-day separate Bronx County became the last county to be created in the State of New York, the borough of Queens consists of what formerly was only the western part of a then-larger Queens County. The borough of Staten Island was officially the borough of Richmond until the name was changed in 1975 to reflect its common appellation, there are hundreds of distinct neighborhoods throughout the five boroughs of New York City, many with a definable history and character to call their own. Manhattan is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the citys skyscrapers. Manhattans population density of 72,033 people per mile in 2015 makes it the highest of any county in the United States. Manhattan is often described as the financial and cultural center of the world, most of the borough is situated on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the Hudson River. Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions, Uptown Manhattan is divided by Central Park into the Upper East Side and the Upper West Side, and above the park is Harlem. The borough also includes a neighborhood on the United States mainland. New York Citys remaining four boroughs are collectively referred to as the outer boroughs, Brooklyn, on the western tip of Long Island, is the citys most populous borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, distinct neighborhoods, downtown Brooklyn is the only central core neighborhood in the outer boroughs. The borough has a long beachfront shoreline including Coney Island, established in the 1870s as one of the earliest amusement grounds in the country, marine Park and Prospect Park are the two largest parks in Brooklyn. Historically a collection of towns and villages founded by the Dutch
4.
The Bronx
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The Bronx is the northernmost of the five boroughs of New York City, within the U. S. state of New York. Since 1914, the Bronx has had the boundaries as Bronx County, a county of New York. The Bronx is divided by the Bronx River into a section in the west, closer to Manhattan. East and west street addresses are divided by Jerome Avenue—the continuation of Manhattans Fifth Avenue, the West Bronx was annexed to New York City in 1874, and the areas east of the Bronx River in 1895. Bronx County was separated from New York County in 1914, about a quarter of the Bronxs area is open space, including Woodlawn Cemetery, Van Cortlandt Park, Pelham Bay Park, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Bronx Zoo in the boroughs north and center. These open spaces are situated primarily on land reserved in the late 19th century as urban development progressed north. The name Bronx originated with Jonas Bronck, who established the first settlement in the area as part of the New Netherland colony in 1639, the native Lenape were displaced after 1643 by settlers. This cultural mix has made the Bronx a wellspring of both Latin music and hip hop. The Bronx, particularly the South Bronx, saw a decline in population, livable housing, and the quality of life in the late 1960s. Since then the communities have shown significant redevelopment starting in the late 1980s before picking up pace from the 1990s until today, the Bronx was called Rananchqua by the native Siwanoy band of Lenape, while other Native Americans knew the Bronx as Keskeskeck. It was divided by the Aquahung River, the origin of Jonas Bronck is contested. Some sources claim he was a Swedish born emigrant from Komstad, Norra Ljunga parish in Småland, Sweden, who arrived in New Netherland during the spring of 1639. Bronck became the first recorded European settler in the now known as the Bronx and built a farm named Emmanus close to what today is the corner of Willis Avenue. He leased land from the Dutch West India Company on the neck of the mainland north of the Dutch settlement in Harlem. He eventually accumulated 500 acres between the Harlem River and the Aquahung, which known as Broncks River or the Bronx. Dutch and English settlers referred to the area as Broncks Land, the American poet William Bronk was a descendant of Pieter Bronck, either Jonas Broncks son or his younger brother. More recent research indicates that Pieter was probably Jonas nephew or cousin, the Bronx is referred to with the definite article as The Bronx, both legally and colloquially. The region was named after the Bronx River and first appeared in the Annexed District of The Bronx created in 1874 out of part of Westchester County
5.
Mott Haven, Bronx
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Mott Haven is a primarily residential neighborhood in the southwestern section of the Bronx borough in New York City. Zip codes include 10451,10454, and 10455, the neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 1. East 138th Street is the primary east-west thoroughfare through Mott Haven, the local subway line is the IRT Pelham Line, operating along East 138th Street. The local buses are the Bx1, Bx2, Bx15, Bx17, Bx19, Bx21, Bx32, Mott Haven is served by the Triborough Bridge, the Third Avenue Bridge, the Madison Avenue Bridge, the 145th Street Bridge, and the Willis Avenue Bridge. The closest Metro-North Railroad stops are Harlem – 125th Street and Yankees – East 153rd Street, Mott Haven is a high-density neighborhood with a population of around 52,885. The residents are 72. 3% Hispanic/Latino,24. 7% Black or African American,1. 7% White,0. 4% Asian, like most neighborhoods in New York City, the vast majority of households are renter-occupied. The neighborhood is largely Puerto Rican, with numbers of African Americans, Mexicans and Dominicans present. Mott Haven is dominated by apartment buildings and large public housing complexes. There are three historical districts consisting of brownstone-style rowhouses, in the last two decades, construction of modern 2- and 3-unit rowhouses and apartment buildings has increased the percentage of owner-occupiers. The neighborhood contains one of the highest concentrations of NYCHA projects in the Bronx, the total land area is roughly one square mile. The terrain is low-lying and flat except around St. Marys Park where it is somewhat hilly, three Historic Districts are located in Mott Haven, Mott Haven, Mott Haven East and the Bertine Block. The Mott Haven Historic District is located on Alexander Avenue between East 138th Street and East 141st Street and it also has the 40th Precinct police station, the 1905 neo-renaissance Mott Haven Branch of the New York Public Library, and Saint Jeromes Roman Catholic Church. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980, the Mott Haven East Historic District is located on East 139th and East 140th Street between Brook and Willis Avenues. The Bertine Block Historic District is located on East 136th Street between Brook and Willis Avenues, the district contains yellow-faced brick brownstones designed by Edward Bertine between 1891 and 1895. St. Anns Episcopal Church is located on the west side of St. Anns Avenue between East 139th and East 141st Streets and it is the Bronxs oldest church, having been built in 1841 and dedicated to Gouverneur Morriss mother Ann. Notable figures buried there include Lewis Morris, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, Gouverneur Morris, the seventeen NYCHA developments in Mott Haven illustrate the various types of public housing initiatives in vogue in New York City over the decades. Dr. Ramon E. Betances III,13, two rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 stories tall, one 7-story rehabilitated tenement building Mott Haven is home to Lincoln Hospital on 149 Street between Park and Morris Avenues. The hospital was founded in 1839 and now has 342 beds, Bronx was named after the Swedish sea captain Jonas Bronck
6.
Melrose, Bronx
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Melrose is primarily a residential neighborhood geographically located in the southwestern section of the borough of the Bronx in New York City. Predominantly German-American in the 19th century it is home to the Haffen Building and was home to Haffen Brewing Company, the German population waned especially post-WWII. The neighborhood until the 1960s was mostly Irish and Italian and it adjoins the business and one-time theater area known as the Hub. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 1, Melrose is rectangular-shaped, being bordered by Prospect Avenue on the east, 149th Street on the south, Park Avenue on the west and 161st Street to the north. Melrose Avenue and Third Avenue are the primary thoroughfares through Melrose, ZIP codes include 10451,10455 and 10456. The area is patrolled by the NYPDs 42nd Precinct located at 830 Washington Ave. the 40th Precinct located at 257 Alexander Ave. New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. Grupo TACA operates a Bronx-area TACA Satellite at 570 Melrose Avenue, Melrose is considered part of the socioeconomic South Bronx. Melrose is a high-density neighborhood with a population of around 24,913, the neighborhood has a relatively diverse population consisting primarily of Latin Americans and African Americans. Almost half of the population lives below the poverty line. Melrose is dominated by residential housing complexes of various types, primarily public housing. Most of the housing stock which consisted of older multi-unit homes and tenements were structurally damaged by arson during the citywide fiscal crisis. In the last decade, construction of modern 2 and 3 unit row-houses, the neighborhood contains one of the highest concentrations of NYCHA projects in the Bronx. The Hub-Third Avenue BID is a local retail district located where five major thoroughfares converge, East 149th Street, Westchester, Willis, Melrose. The area is served by the 2 and 5 lines at East 149th Street, one of The Bronxs largest shopping areas. There are five NYCHA developments located in Melrose, East 152nd Street-Courtlandt Avenue, two buildings,11 and 12-stories tall. Morrisania Air Rights, three buildings,19,23, and 29-stories, South Bronx Area, four buildings, 3-stories tall. A mass exodus took place as New York City policy–induced arson soon ravaged the neighborhood throughout the 1960s and 1970s. In 1973, the City of New York dismantled the Third Avenue El due to low ridership, by the 1980s the neighborhood had decayed severely, and much of the original housing stock was lost
7.
Port Morris, Bronx
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Port Morris is a mixed use, primarily industrial neighborhood geographically located in the southwest Bronx, New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 1, the neighborhood is served by the NYPDs 40th Precinct. Oak Point, the tip of the South Bronx is in Port Morris. The area is traversed by the Bruckner Expressway, a major freeway. Most of the neighborhood is walking distance from the Cypress Avenue station of the IRT Pelham Line. Port Morris has a population of around 3,523, the neighborhood predominately consists of Latin Americans, African Americans as well as a small white population concentrated mainly in the western portion of Bruckner Boulevard. Almost half of the population lives below the poverty line. The median income is higher than that of other South Bronx neighborhoods. This is likely due to recent rezoning to commercial and residential activity in the area. The history of Port Morris, as with other neighborhoods, is confused by the lack of fixed official boundaries. Late in the 20th century the name was applied to the area to the west. Mott Haven by older definition lies to the west rather than north of Port Morris, there is some evidence that a British paymaster ship went down off Port Morriss coast during the American Revolutionary War with millions of dollars in gold aboard. The name comes from a water port established along the neighborhoods East River waterfront by Gouverneur Morris Jr. son of Gouverneur Morris. He built a railroad from Melrose to his familys holdings on the waterfront, later called the Spuyten Duyvil and Port Morris Railroad. The area is dominated by factory and warehouse buildings constructed in the mid-to-late 19th century, convenient to the railroad yards, of which the Oak Point Yard is the main survivor. Notable early businesses were the R. Hoe Co. as well as Cutler & Hammer Tool Works, while many of the early industrial buildings remain, they are little used for manufacturing anymore. The area was the site of the Hell Gate generating plant of Consolidated Edison, where George Metesky, plans are afoot to extend the South Bronx Greenway to Randalls Island, crossing Bronx Kill via the Randalls Island Connector under Hell Gate Bridge. The Connector opened on 14 November 2015, a wave of arson during the 1970s destroyed or damaged many residential, commercial, and industrial structures in the area
8.
Hip hop
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Hip hop is a subculture and art movement developed by African-Americans and Latinos from the inner-city South Bronx neighbourhood in New York City in the late 1970s. Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc also played a key role in developing hip hop music, at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, Herc mixed samples of existing records and DJed percussion breaks, mixing this music with his own Jamaican-style toasting to rev up the crowd and dancers. These youths mixed these influences with existing musical styles associated with African Americans prior to the 1970s, Hip hop music became popular outside of the African-American community in the late 1980s, with the mainstream commercial success of gangsta rap. Critic Greg Tate described the hip hop movement as the only avant-garde still around, Hip hop culture has spread to both urban and suburban communities throughout the United States and subsequently the world. These elements were adapted and developed considerably, particularly as the art spread to new continents and merged with local styles in the 1990s. Sampling older culture and re-using it in a new context or a new format is called flipping in hip hop culture. Hip hop music follows in the footsteps of earlier African-American-rooted musical genres such as blues, jazz, rag-time, funk, cowboy later worked the hip hop cadence into his stage performance. The group frequently performed with artists who would refer to this new type of music by calling them hip hoppers. The name was meant as a sign of disrespect, but soon came to identify this new music. The song Rappers Delight, by The Sugarhill Gang, released in 1979, begins with the phrase I said a hip, hop the hippie the hippie to the hip hip hop, and you dont stop. Lovebug Starski, a Bronx DJ who put out a single called The Positive Life in 1981, and DJ Hollywood then began using the term when referring to this new disco rap music. Bill Alder, an independent consultant, once said, There was hardly ever a moment when rap music was underground, one of the very first so-called rap records, was a monster hit. Hip hop pioneer and South Bronx community leader Afrika Bambaataa also credits Lovebug Starski as the first to use the hip hop. Bambaataa, former leader of the Black Spades gang, also did much to popularize the term. In the 1970s, an urban movement known as Hip Hop began to develop in the South Bronx in New York City. It focused on emceeing over breakbeats, house parties and neighbourhood block party events, Hip hop music has been a powerful medium for protesting the impact of legal institutions on minorities, particularly police and prisons. Jamaican-born DJ Clive Kool Herc Cindy Campbell pioneered the use of DJing percussion breaks in hip hop music, beginning at Hercs home in a high-rise apartment at 1520 Sedgwick Avenue, the movement later spread across the entire borough. Herc created the blueprint for hip hop music and culture by building upon the Jamaican tradition of impromptu toasting, on August 11,1973 DJ Kool Herc was the DJ at his sisters back-to-school party
9.
Graffiti
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Graffiti are writing or drawings that have been scribbled, scratched, or painted illicitly on a wall or other surface, often within public view. Graffiti range from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and they have existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, in modern times, paint and marker pens have become the most commonly used graffiti materials. In most countries, marking or painting property without the property owners permission is considered defacement and vandalism, Graffiti may also express underlying social and political messages and a whole genre of artistic expression is based upon spray paint graffiti styles. Within hip hop culture, graffiti have evolved alongside hip hop music, b-boying, unrelated to hip-hop graffiti, gangs use their own form of graffiti to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Controversies that surround graffiti continue to create disagreement amongst city officials, law enforcement, both graffiti and its occasional singular form graffito are from the Italian word graffiato. Graffiti is applied in art history to works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface, a related term is sgraffito, which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was used by potters who would glaze their wares. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, the word originates from Greek γράφειν — graphein — meaning to write. The term graffiti referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, use of the word has evolved to include any graphics applied to surfaces in a manner that constitutes vandalism. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD, the first known example of modern style graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of Ephesus. Local guides say it is an advertisement for prostitution, located near a mosaic and stone walkway, the graffiti shows a handprint that vaguely resembles a heart, along with a footprint and a number. This is believed to indicate that a brothel was nearby, with the handprint symbolizing payment, the ancient Romans carved graffiti on walls and monuments, examples of which also survive in Egypt. Graffiti in the world had different connotations than they carry in todays society concerning content. One inscription gives the address of a woman named Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, another shows a phallus accompanied by the text, mansueta tene. Etched on the surface of the Mirror Wall, they contain pieces of prose, poetry, the majority of these visitors appear to have been from the elite of society, royalty, officials, professions, and clergy. There were also soldiers, archers, and even some metalworkers, the topics range from love to satire, curses, wit, and lament. Many demonstrate a high level of literacy and a deep appreciation of art. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there, one reads, Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems
10.
Belmont, Bronx
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Belmont is a primarily residential neighborhood geographically located in the northwestern corner of the southern Bronx in New York City. Its boundaries, starting from the north and moving clockwise, are Fordham Road to the north, Bronx Park to the east, East 183rd Street to the south and these boundaries give the neighborhood a crescent-like shape. Arthur Avenue, a noted for its prominent local restaurants and markets, is the primary thoroughfare through Belmont. Zip codes include 10457,10458 and 10460, the area is patrolled by the New York City Police Department 48th Precinct located at 450 Cross-Bronx Expressway in East Tremont. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 6, the Belmont section of the Bronx, during colonial times, was covered in farmland much like the rest of the western Bronx, and was the province of the Lorillard family, for whom a street is named. But after the Lorillards decamped for New Jersey in 1870, the city acquired part of their land for Bronx Park, in the mid-1880s, a large influx Irish and German immigrants began moving into the neighborhood. The neighborhood became very dense after the construction of the Third Avenue El, after the construction of the Bronx Zoo and the Jerome Park Reservoir at the turn of the 20th century, a large wave of Italian immigrants moved into the area. With a strong pattern of Italian immigration, it was regarded as the Little Italy of the Bronx. The neighborhood still holds an annual Ferragosto celebration on Arthur Avenue each September, like many other neighborhoods in New York City, Belmont became disenfranchised starting in the mid-20th century. The Third Ave Elevated was dismantled by the city in 1973, housing stock was lost to arson, some of it razed by the city in the late 1970s and 80s. Starting in the mid-1990s into today, the neighborhood has experienced a construction boom, the neighborhood has also maintained its reputation as a thriving business area due to its abundant shops, restaurants, and markets. Albanians and Puerto Ricans have added to the mixture of businesses on Arthur Ave, still, the Italian presence is felt with a number of long Italian-owned small businesses including restaurants, bakeries, delis and other merchants. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Belmont was 27,378, covering an area of 313.34 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 87.4 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 19. 7% White,18. 5% African American,0. 1% Native American,2. 3% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 58. 2% of the population, the neighborhood consists of a diverse mix of races, ethnic groups, religious affiliations, sexual orientations, and national origins. Many Mexican families have moved into the Belmont neighborhood which hosts the annual Bronx Cinco de Mayo Celebration, gradually, there have been more Hispanics and Latinos moving into the neighborhood. Hispanics and Latinos make up the largest ethnic group in the neighborhood, the census reports that 19. 7% of the population is white, and 18. 5% is black or African American. There is an Asian population of 2. 3%, with 1. 4% of the population identifying as other races, like most neighborhoods in New York City the vast majority of households are renter occupied
11.
Castle Hill, Bronx
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Castle Hill is primarily a residential neighborhood geographically located in the South Central section of the borough of the Bronx in New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 9, Castle Hill Avenue runs from East Tremont Avenue in the north to Castle Hill Park in the south. The area is patrolled by the NYPDs 43rd Precinct located at 900 Fteley Avenue, New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. Castle Hill is a density, urban neighborhood. The area has a diverse population, primarily consisting of African Americans. Like most neighborhoods in New York City the vast majority of households are renter occupied, there is significant income diversity on a block by block basis. Castle Hill is dominated by multi-unit,2 and 3 story homes, in the 1990s and 2000s, construction of modern 2 and 3 unit row-houses and apartment buildings have increased the percentage of owners versus renters. There is also a slither of industry located along the Hutchinson River, the area gradually comes to peak elevation along Castle Hill Avenue. The Castle Hill Avenue Business Improvement District was started with the assistance of Councilwoman Annabel Palma, relatively undeveloped, the neighborhood began sprouting along the now defunct Castle Hill Avenue street-car system. Later, the became more dense surrounding the construction of the Westchester Avenue Elevated. Castle Hill soon became home to many European immigrants looking for an alternative to the immigrant communities found in Lower Manhattan. Traditionally an urban neighborhood, an influx of lower-income earners. Like most neighborhoods in NYC, the area went through a period of decay beginning in the 1950s and 1960s with a flight of moderate-income earners, the most severe flight occurred in the areas surrounding the Castle Hill Houses, a massive low-income public housing development. Since the late 1980s, and particularly since the 2000s, significant renewal has taken place, many new residential and mixed use properties have been constructed and formally abandoned properties rehabilitated. For example, a New York City project to change the water throughout the neighborhood has rejuvenated the area by rebuilding all sidewalks. On the southern end of Castle Hill Avenue is Castle Hill Point Park, the renovated greenspace features boat ramps, fishing piers, and spectacular views of the Throgs Neck and Whitestone Bridges. Castle Hill YMCA, which features indoor and outdoor pools, a field, basketball court, gym. The Kips Bay Boys and Girls Club located at 1930 Randall Avenue, the Castle Hill Hall of Fame was officially created on June 9,2006, and announced the sole induction of Jennifer Lopez
12.
Crotona Park East, Bronx
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Crotona Park East, also known as Crotona or East Morrisania, is a residential neighborhood geographically located in the southwest Bronx in New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 3, southern Boulevard is the primary thoroughfare through the area. Zip codes include 10459 and 10460, the area is patrolled by the NYPDs 42nd Precinct located at 830 Washington Ave in Morrisania. NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A,7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx. Crotona Park East is considered part of the socioeconomic South Bronx, Crotona Park East is a low-income neighborhood with a population of around 37,075. The neighborhood predominantly consists of Latin Americans and African Americans, the vast majority of households are renter-occupied,93. 5% of all housing. Almost half of the population lives below the poverty line. Most of the housing stock was structurally damaged by arson. The total land area is less than a square mile, there are eight NYCHA properties located in Crotona Park East. Bryant Avenue-East 174th Street, one, 6-story building, East 173rd Street-Vyse Avenue, seven buildings, 3-stories tall. Hoe Avenue-East 173rd Street, one, 6-story building, west Farms Square Rehab, four rehabilitated tenement buildings, 6-stories tall. West Farms Square, one, 5-story rehabilitated tenement building, two rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 and 6-stories tall. From 1670, the land of the neighborhood was the estate of the Morris family in Westchester County, in the 1970s, Crotona Park East and many other low income sections of the New York City were being ravaged by arson. By the 1980s, the South Bronx had become a symbol of urban decay, Charlotte Street. The area was filled with tenement buildings, empty lots. On October 5,1977, then-President Jimmy Carter visited Charlotte Street, a year later, the city still had not renovated Charlotte Street. The urban decay of Charlotte Street was used as one of the locations for the 1981 film Wolfen. Community groups such as Banana Kelly CIA Inc. the Mid-Bronx Desperadoes and they played a pivotal role in the construction of subsidized multi-family homes and apartment buildings in most of Crotona Park East
13.
Highbridge, Bronx
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Highbridge is a residential neighborhood geographically located in the central-west section of the Bronx, New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 4 and its boundaries, starting from the north and moving clockwise are the Cross-Bronx Expressway to the north, Jerome Avenue to the east, East 161st Street to the south, and the Harlem River to the west. Ogden Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through Highbridge, the area is patrolled by the 44th Precinct located at 2 East 169th Street. NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A,7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Highbridge was 37,727, covering an area of 373.14 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 101.1 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 32. 9% African American,1. 2% White,0. 2% Native American,0. 5% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 64. 3% of the population, prior to the 1960s, Highbridge was a predominately Irish American neighborhood. Today the vast majority of residents in the area are of Dominican, almost half of the population lives below the federal poverty line. Highbridge is dominated by townhouses and 5 and 6-story apartment buildings, the total land area is roughly one square mile. The terrain is elevated and very hilly, stair streets connect areas located at different elevations. The neighborhood has dozens of community gardens occupying lots that were left vacant between the 1970s and 1990s, such as Taqwa Community Farm, there are three NYCHA developments located in Highbridge, Highbridge Gardens, six, 13-story buildings. Highbridge Rehabs, three,5 and 6-story rehabilitated tenement buildings, (Highbridge Rehabs The neighborhood takes its name from the High Bridge built in 1848 by Irish immigrants to carry Croton Aqueduct water across the Harlem River. Up until the late 1960s, the residents of Highbridge were predominantly of Irish, Italian and they have since been replaced by large numbers of Hispanics and African Americans. PS11, High Bridge PS73, Joseph Dellacava PS 114x, Luis Llorens Torres Schools PS126, Dr
14.
Hunts Point, Bronx
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Not to be confused with Hunters Point in Queens, New York. Hunts Point is a located on a peninsula in the South Bronx of New York City. It is the location of one of the largest food distribution facilities in the world, the neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 2. Its boundaries are the Bruckner Expressway to the west and north, the Bronx River to the east, Hunts Point Avenue is the primary street through Hunts Point. The neighborhood is considered to be a district, because of its prostitution. The neighborhood is served by the New York City Police Departments 41st Precinct, europeans first settled Hunts Point in 1663. At this time, Edward Jessup and John Richardson arrived on the peninsula, after Jessup died, his widow Elizabeth, entrusted the land to Thomas Hunt Jr. her son in-law for whom the area is named. In the years between the Hunts inheritance and 1850, several other wealthy landowning families occupied the peninsula, legend has it that George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, preached in the area in 1672. William H. Fox, a descendant of the Quaker leader, as time passed and more New Yorkers became aware of Hunts Point, more City dwellers flocked to the area between 1850 and 1900. Later, the property wound up in the hands of Foxs and Leggetts son-in-law, Tiffany, a member of the family that owned the famous jewelry and decorative arts store Tiffany & Co. now on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan. Fox, Tiffany and Leggett Streets derive their names from these former landowners, in 1909, the Fox mansion was demolished. Hunts Point’s status as a home and vacation spot to the city’s elite came to an abrupt end in the period following World War I. At this time, IRT Pelham Line was built along Southern Boulevard, apartment buildings replaced mansions, streets replaced meadows and Hunts Point became a virtual melting pot for the City’s masses. Aside from being a period of growth for Hunts Point. As more people moved to the area, the business owners began to realize the advantages of locating to Hunts Point. This discovery led to an influx of businesses to the area, as the momentum of incoming businesses increased, the reputation of Hunts Point grew accordingly among business circles. The Hunts Point Industrial Park hosts over 800 businesses providing an array of products, the second half of the 20th century, however, proved a difficult time for the districts residential community. Characterized by frequent arson and mass abandonment from the 1960s through the 1990s, living conditions became so difficult that almost 60,000 residents, approximately two-thirds of the existing population, left the neighborhood during the 1970s
15.
Longwood, Bronx
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Longwood is an urban, mixed use, primarily residential neighborhood geographically located in the southwest Bronx, New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 2, Southern Boulevard is the primary thoroughfare through Longwood. The local subway is the 6 <6> trains, operating along Southern Blvd, ZIP codes include 10455 and 10459. The neighborhood is served by the New York City Police Departments 41st Precinct, NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. 7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx, the Bronx initially began to become urban with the construction of a street-car network. Eventually, the expansion of the elevated and subterranean rapid transit lines from Manhattan rapidly accelerated development, commercial corridors quickly developed in close proximity to rapid transit stations and primary thoroughfares. Early in this boom, Longwood was one of the most dense. For much of the first half of the 20th Century, the borough of the Bronx was home to a middle class, White, European descent. Immigrants of varying socioeconomic status from a number of countries, beginning in the 1950s, the older, more developed parts of the Bronx experienced a socioeconomic shift due to a number of factors. As people with financial means began to leave, poverty stricken often replaced them, White flight and abandonment only accelerated over time. By the late 1970s, many buildings in the greater South Bronx had been burnt out in a wave of arson. Scammers realized they could manipulate the system and collect insurance money after more lucrative tenants had fled, the area was severely run down as the community became increasingly disfranchised. At this time, crime reached such a level that the 41st Precinct Station House at 1086 Simpson Street became known by the police as Fort Apache, as was later immortalized in a 1981 movie named for it. What was left was a wasteland of abandoned buildings, vacant lots, filthy streets, during this period of time, the neighborhood was dealt another blow as violent crime hit historic highs during the crack epidemic. The police seemed to be fighting a battle as thousands of young men in New York City were regularly being killed on the streets over drug turf. The greater South Bronx was one of the hardest hit areas, with a poor population which lacked local jobs. Some of the first federal funding in decades for new investment began in 1986 under the Ed Koch administration, in blighted neighborhoods across the city, various housing experiments were attempted. The NYCHA was one of the first agencies to create and renovate residential units in Longwood, with the building of the South Bronx headquarters of P. A. L
16.
Morrisania, Bronx
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Morrisania is the historical name for the South Bronx in New York City, New York. The name derives from the Manor of Morrisania, the vast 2,000 acre estate of the powerful and aristocratic Morris family, who at one time owned most of the Bronx as well as much of New Jersey. The family includes Lewis Morris, 4th Lord of the Manor, and a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence, both are buried in the crypt at St. Anns Church of Morrisania. Today the name is most commonly associated with the village of Morrisania and it is mostly a low income residential neighborhood geographically located in the southwestern Bronx. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 3, Third Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through Morrisania. ZIP codes include 10456 and 10459, the area is patrolled by the NYPDs 42nd Precinct located at 830 Washington Avenue. NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A,7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx. From 1644 to the early 20th century, the land of the neighborhood was the estate of the Morris family in Westchester County. In 1790, Lewis Morris, owner of the estate and signer of the Declaration of Independence, the area was sparsely populated until 1840, when Gouverneur Morris Jr. son of the famous congressional delegate and nephew of Lewis, allowed a railroad to be built across the property. In 1848, he sold the next to the line for the development of a new town called Morrisania Village. In 1855, additional settlements along the line became the town of Morrisania. In 1874, the area was annexed to New York City as part of the Twenty-Third Ward, in 1887, the Third Avenue Elevated was extended to the area to provide easy and quick access to and from Manhattan. In the 1950s along with changing demographics, Robert Moses destroyed various tenements in favor of a colony of public housing, after the construction of the Cross-Bronx Expressway, the poverty that East Tremont suffered spread into Morrisania. As a result, and also due to the aggressive 1968 Program for Action, during this time period a wave of arson destroyed or damaged many of the residential, commercial, and industrial structures in the area. Many social problems associated with poverty, from crime to drug addiction, have plagued the area for some time, despite crime declines versus their peaks during the crack and heroin epidemics, violent crime continues to be a serious problem in the community. Morrisania has significantly higher rates and incidents of violence in its schools. Other problems in schools include low test scores and high truancy rates. Drug addiction is also a problem in the community
17.
Soundview, Bronx
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Soundview is a working-class neighborhood geographically located in the Clason Point section of the borough of the Bronx in New York City. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 9 and its boundaries, starting from the North and moving clockwise are the Cross-Bronx Expressway to the North, White Plains Road to the East, Lacombe Avenue to the South, and the Bronx River to the West. The Bruckner Expressway bisects the neighborhood horizontally along the center and the Bronx River Parkway runs north to south, Soundview Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through Soundview. The local subway are the 6 <6> trains, operating along Westchester Avenue, zip codes include 10472 and 10473. The area is patrolled by the 43rd Precinct located at 900 Fteley Avenue, New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. 8 at 2794 Randall Avenue in the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx, the studios for News 12 The Bronx is located here. Soundview is a neighborhood at the edge of Bronx Community Board 9. Its total land area is roughly 1.3 square miles, most buildings in this section have the same requirement as buildings in Co-op City. Most of the population in Soundview reside inside large, residential housing complexes of various types and these include public housing, high-rise co-ops and rentals. The neighborhood contains one of the highest concentrations of NYCHA projects in the Bronx, there are also 5 and 6 story, pre-war, apartment buildings primarily concentrated along the IRT Pelham Line El on Westchester Avenue and multi-unit row-houses located throughout the neighborhood. Starting in the 1990s, the construction of modern 2 and 3 unit row-houses, the neighborhoods northern and eastern borders have a heavy concentration of commercial establishments. Westchester Avenue evolved into a use, primarily commercial, district serving the greater area after the completion of the elevated IRT Pelham Line. The total land area is roughly 1.3 square miles, the terrain is low laying and flat. Bruckner Plaza, which expanded throughout the 1990s, divides Soundview from neighboring Castle Hill and contains big box stores like Toys R Us, Kmart. Other primary thoroughfares contain limited but necessary amenities like supermarkets, pharmacies, barbershops, hair salons, fast food, bodegas, the western edge of the built neighborhood along the Bronx River is largely industrial in usage. Parque de los Ninos was recently granted $1. 6M for renovations, the playground at the corner of Morrison and Watson avenues opened in 1956 and was renamed in 1995 to honor six neighborhood children who were killed in the late 80s. There are ten NYCHA developments located in Soundview,1780 Watson Avenue, one 6-story building. 1471 Watson Avenue, one 6-story building, boynton Avenue Rehab, three rehabilitated tenement buildings, either 3 or 6 stories tall
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New York's 15th congressional district
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New Yorks 15th Congressional District is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives located in New York City. The district is represented by Democrat José E. Serrano, in area, the seat is the smallest in the United States. The 15th district is located entirely within The Bronx, including most of the southern and western neighborhoods of the borough, hispanics make up a majority of this districts population. Yankee Stadium and the Bronx Zoo are both located within the district, the district included the neighborhoods of Harlem, Inwood, Marble Hill, Spanish Harlem, Washington Heights, Morningside Heights and portions of the Upper West Side. The Apollo Theater, Columbia University, and Grants Tomb were located within this district, scoring a Cook Partisan Voting Index of D+43 in 2014, the 15th Congressional District is the most Democratic district in the nation. Senator John Kerry won 90% of the vote in the 15th Congressional District in 2004, in 2012, this district had the highest percentage of the vote for President Barack Obama. He received 96. 7% of the vote, the district was a Brooklyn-based seat until 1982, when it was realigned to cover the East Side of Manhattan. Following the 1992 redistricting, it became the upper Manhattan seat previously designated the 19th District, after the 2012 redistricting, the 15th became the Bronxs primary district. From 1813 to 1823, two seats were apportioned to the 15th district, elected at-large on a general ticket, in New York State electoral politics, there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes. List of United States congressional districts New Yorks congressional districts United States congressional delegations from New York Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, clerk of the House of Representatives. Clerk of the House of Representatives, clerk of the House of Representatives. Clerk of the House of Representatives, clerk of the House of Representatives
19.
New York City Police Department
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The New York City Police Department, officially the City of New York Police Department, is the largest municipal police force in the United States. Established in 1845, the agency has primary responsibilities in law enforcement, the NYPD is one of the oldest police departments established in the U. S. tracing its roots back to the nineteenth century. According to the department, its mission is to enforce the laws, preserve the peace, reduce fear, the departments regulations are compiled in title 38 of the New York City Rules. In June 2004, there were about 40,000 sworn officers plus several thousand employees, in June 2005. As of December 2011, that figure increased slightly to over 36,600, the NYPDs current authorized uniformed strength is 34,450. The Patrolmens Benevolent Association of the City of New York, the largest municipal police union in the United States, represents over 50,000 active, the NYPD Intelligence Division & Counter-Terrorism Bureau has officers stationed in 11 cities internationally. In the 1990s the department developed a CompStat system of management which has also since established in other cities. The NYPD is headquartered at 1 Police Plaza, located on Park Row in Lower Manhattan across the street from City Hall, the NYPD has extensive crime scene investigation and laboratory resources, as well as units which assist with computer crime investigations. The NYPD runs a Real Time Crime Center, essentially a search engine. A Domain Awareness System, a joint project of Microsoft and the NYPD, links 6,000 closed-circuit television cameras, license plate readers, members of the NYPD are frequently referred to by politicians, some media and their own police cars by the nickname New Yorks Finest. The Municipal Police were established in 1845, replacing an old night watch system, in 1857, it was tumultuously replaced by a Metropolitan force, which consolidated many other local police departments in 1898. Twentieth-century trends included professionalization and struggles against corruption, Officers begin service with the rank of Probationary Police Officer, also referred to as Recruit Officer. After successful completion of six months of Police Academy training and various academic, physical, There are three career tracks in the NYPD, supervisory, investigative, and specialist. The supervisory track consists of 12 sworn titles, referred to as ranks, promotion to the ranks of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made via competitive civil service examinations. Promotion from the rank of police officer to detective is determined by the current police labor contract, the entry level appointment to detective is third grade or specialist. The commissioner may grant discretionary grades of first or second and these grades offer compensation roughly equivalent to that of supervisors. Specifically, a second grade detectives pay roughly corresponds to a sergeants, Detectives are police officers who have been given a more investigatory position but no official supervisory authority. A Detective First Grade still falls under the command of a sergeant or above, just like detectives, sergeants and lieutenants can receive pay grade increases within their respective ranks
20.
Lewis Morris
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Lewis Morris was an American landowner and developer from Morrisania, New York. Declaration of Independence as a delegate to the Continental Congress from New York, Lewis Morris was born on April 8,1726 at his familys Morrisania estate, in what was then the Province of New York. He was the third Lewis Morris in the Morris family and he was the son of Lewis Morris and Katrintje Catherine Staats. After his mother died, his father married Sarah Gouverneur and he graduated from Yale College in 1746, and upon his fathers death in 1762, he inherited the bulk of the estate. Morris father had seven children, including his siblings, Staats Long Morris and Richard Morris and his uncle was Robert Hunter Morris, the Governor of Pennsylvania. His cousin by marriage was William Paterson, the Governor of New Jersey and father-in-law of Stephen Van Rensselaer, Governor of New York, who was the brother of Philip Schuyler Van Rensselaer, Mayor of Albany, New York. Anthony Walton White, a Continental General, was his cousin through Morris aunt and his great-grandfather, Richard Morris, had immigrated to New York through Barbados after being part of Oliver Cromwells army in the English Civil War of 1648. He purchased the first tract of land in the Bronx that became the basis for the Morrisania manor, when Richard and his young wife died, they left behind an infant son, the also Lewis Morris. Richards brother, Colonel Lewis Morris, also of Barbados, came to Morrisania to help manage the estate belonging to his late-brother. After Col. Morris and his wifes death, who were childless, Lewis Morris, inherited the estate, expanded it and he married a woman named Isabella and went on to serve as the 8th Colonial Governor of New Jersey. As a prominent land owner in colonial New York, Lewis was appointed as a judge of the Admiralty Court for the province in 1760, in 1769, he was elected to the Colonial Assembly. In 1774, as the Revolution drew near, he resigned from the Admiralty Court, when active revolution began, he was a member of the New York Provincial Congress, the revolutionary government, from 1775 until 1777. That body, in turn, sent Morris to the Continental Congress for those same years, while in Congress, he was an active supporter of independence, and signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. When warned by his half-brother, Gouverneur Morris, of the consequences that would follow his signing of the document, Morris stated. He served in the 1st New York State Legislature, which began on September 9,1777, until the end of the 4th Legislature and his eldest three sons served during the Revolutionary war, and had distinguished military careers. Beginning on July 1,1783, he returned to the New York State Senate, in 1788, when the New York convention met to ratify the U. S. Constitution, he was one of the delegates. Morris was a Federalist presidential elector in 1796, and cast his votes for John Adams, in 1784, Morris was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati. On May 1 of the year, he was appointed to the first Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York and served until his death
21.
United States Declaration of Independence
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Instead they formed a new nation—the United States of America. John Adams was a leader in pushing for independence, which was passed on July 2 with no opposing vote cast, a committee of five had already drafted the formal declaration, to be ready when Congress voted on independence. The term Declaration of Independence is not used in the document itself, John Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document, which Congress would edit to produce the final version. The next day, John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail, The Second Day of July 1776, will be the most memorable Epocha, but Independence Day is actually celebrated on July 4, the date that the Declaration of Independence was approved. After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms and it was initially published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The source copy used for printing has been lost. Jeffersons original draft, complete with changes made by John Adams and Benjamin Franklin, the best known version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is popularly regarded as the official document, is displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D. C. This engrossed copy was ordered by Congress on July 19, the sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. Having served its purpose in announcing independence, references to the text of the Declaration were few in the following years. Abraham Lincoln made it the centerpiece of his rhetoric, and his policies and this has been called one of the best-known sentences in the English language, containing the most potent and consequential words in American history. The passage came to represent a standard to which the United States should strive. Believe me, dear Sir, there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose, and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. By the time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, relations had been deteriorating between the colonies and the mother country since 1763. Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase revenue from the colonies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, Parliament believed that these acts were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep them in the British Empire. Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire, the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, and colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliaments authority in the colonies. In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government could violate, after the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all
22.
Gouverneur Morris
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Gouverneur Morris I was an American statesman, a Founding Father of the United States, and a native of New York City who represented Pennsylvania in the Constitutional Convention of 1787. He was a signatory to the Articles of Confederation, Morris was a significant contributor to the Constitution of the United States and one of its signers. He wrote the preamble, and has called the Penman of the Constitution. In an era when most Americans thought of themselves as citizens of their respective states, Morris was born in New York City in January 30,1752, the son of Lewis Morris, Jr. and his second wife, Sarah Gouverneur. Morris first name derived from his mothers surname, she was from a Huguenot family that had first moved to Holland, Morris half-brother, Lewis Morris, was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Another half-brother, Staats Long Morris, was a loyalist and major-general in the British army during the American Revolution and his nephew, Lewis Richard Morris, served in the Vermont legislature and in the United States Congress. His grandnephew was William M. Meredith, United States Secretary of the Treasury under 12th U. S. President Zachary Taylor. Morris father, Lewis Morris, was a landowner and judge, thus allowing Morris. He graduated in 1768, and received a Masters degree in 1771 and he studied law with Judge William Smith, and attained admission to the bar in 1775. On May 8,1775, Morris was elected to represent his family household in southern Westchester County, as a member of the congress, he, along with most of his fellow delegates, concentrated on turning the colony into an independent state. However, his advocacy of independence brought him conflict with his family, as well as with his mentor, William Smith. Morris was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1777–78, after the Battle of Long Island in August 1776, the British seized New York City and his familys estate across the Harlem River from Manhattan. His mother, a loyalist, gave the estate to the British for military use, Morris was appointed as a delegate to the Continental Congress, and took his seat in Congress on 28 January 1778. He was immediately selected to a committee in charge of coordinating reforms of the military with George Washington and he also signed the Articles of Confederation in 1778. In 1778, when the Conway Cabal was at its peak, if it had succeeded, then George Washington would have been court-martialed and dismissed as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. At that time, Gouverneur Morris cast the decisive tie-breaking vote in favor of keeping George Washington as Commander-in-Chief, in 1779, he was defeated for re-election to Congress, largely because his advocacy of a strong central government was at odds with the decentralist views prevalent in New York. Defeated in his state, he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to work as a lawyer. In 1780, Morris had an accident in Philadelphia
23.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
24.
St. Ann's Episcopal Church (Bronx)
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St. Anns Church, also known as St. Anns Church of Morrisania, is a historic Episcopal church in the South Bronx, New York City. It was built in 1840 and donated by Gouverneur Morris Jr. as a family monument and it is a fieldstone building in the Gothic Revival style with a vernacular Greek Revival style tower. The complex includes the parish house added in 1916, late-19th century Sunday School and gymnasium building. Among those whose remains are in the graveyard or crypt are Gouverneur Morris, Lewis Morris, the complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980. It was designated a New York City landmark in 1967
25.
Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
26.
Social work
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Social work is an academic and practice-based professional discipline that seeks to facilitate the welfare of communities, individuals, families, and groups. Social work tries to promote change and grassroots empowerment of people and aids in socioeconomic development, social cohesion. A practicing professional with a degree in social work is called a social worker, the practice and profession of social work has a relatively modern and scientific origin, and is generally considered to have developed out of three strands. The first was individual casework, a strategy pioneered by the Charity Organization Society in the mid-19th century, the second was social administration, which included various forms of poverty relief – relief of paupers. Statewide poverty relief could be said to have its roots in the English Poor Laws of the 17th century and this approach was developed originally by the Settlement House Movement. This was accompanied by an easily defined movement, the development of institutions to deal with the entire range of social problems. All had their most rapid growth during the century, and laid the foundational basis for modern social work. Because poverty was the focus of early social work, it was intricately linked with the idea of charity work. With the decline of feudalism in 16th century England, the indigent poor came to be seen as a direct threat to the social order. The first complete code of poor relief was made in the Act for the Relief of the Poor 1597 and it created a system administered at parish level, paid for by levying local rates on rate payers. Relief for those too ill or old to work, the impotent poor, was in the form of a payment or items of food or clothing also known as outdoor relief. The Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 completely overhauled the system in Britain. This included the forming together of small parishes into Poor Law Unions, the 19th century saw a great leap forward in technological and scientific achievement. There was also a migration to urban areas throughout the Western world. This galvanised the socially active, prosperous middle and upper classes to search for ways to ameliorate the physical and spiritual conditions of the poor underclasses. A new philosophy of scientific charity emerged, which stated charity should be secular, rational and empirical as opposed to sectarian, sentimental, COS had its main focus on individual casework. It supported the concept of self-help and limited government intervention to deal with the effects of poverty, the organisation claimed to use scientific principles to root out scroungers and target relief where it was most needed. Octavia Hill is regarded by many as the founder of social work
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Poverty
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Poverty is general scarcity or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money. It is a concept, which includes social, economic. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the lack of necessary to meet basic needs such as food, clothing. Absolute poverty is meant to be about the independent of location. After the industrial revolution, mass production in factories made producing goods increasingly less expensive, of more importance is the modernization of agriculture, such as fertilizers, to provide enough yield to feed the population. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedoms, Poverty reduction is a major goal and issue for many international organizations such as the United Nations and the World Bank. The World Bank forecasts that 702.1 million people, down from 1.75 billion in 1990, of these, about 347.1 million people lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million lived in South Asia. According to the World Bank, between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the population living in extreme poverty fell from 37. 1% to 9. 6%. Nevertheless, given the current economic model, built on GDP, extreme poverty is a global challenge, it is observed in all parts of the world, including developed economies. UNICEF estimates half the children live in poverty. It has been argued by some academics that the policies promoted by global financial institutions such as the IMF. Another estimate places the true scale of poverty much higher than the World Bank, with an estimated 4.3 billion people living with less than $5 a day and unable to meet basic needs adequately. In 2012 it is estimated that, given a poverty line of $1.25 a day 1.2 billion people lived in poverty, the word poverty comes from old French poverté, from Latin paupertās from pauper. The English word poverty via Anglo-Norman povert, there are several definitions of poverty depending on the context of the situation it is placed in, and the views of the person giving the definition. Income Poverty, a familys income fails to meet a federally established threshold that differs across countries, United Nations, Fundamentally, poverty is the inability of having choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of capacity to participate effectively in society. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and it means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank, Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions and it includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
29.
White flight
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The term has also been used for large-scale post-colonial emigration of whites from Africa, or parts of that continent, driven by levels of violent crime and anti-colonial state policies. In the 1970s, attempts to achieve effective desegregation by means of forced busing in some areas led to families moving out of former areas. However, some historians have challenged the white flight as a misnomer whose use should be reconsidered. Such conditions are considered to have contributed to the emigration of other populations, according to the environmental geographer Laura Pulido, the historical processes of suburbanization and urban decentralization contribute to contemporary environmental racism. The result was severe urban decay that, by the 1960s, prior to national data available in the 1950 US census, a migration pattern of disproportionate numbers of whites moving from cities to suburban communities was easily dismissed as merely anecdotal. Because American urban populations were still growing, a relative decrease in one racial or ethnic component eluded scientific proof to the satisfaction of policy makers. In essence, data on urban population change had not been separated into what are now familiarly identified its components, the first data set potentially capable of proving white flight was the 1950 census. But original processing of data, on older-style tabulation machines by the US Census Bureau. It was not simply a more powerful calculating instrument that placed the reality of white flight beyond a high hurdle of proof required for policy makers to consider taking action. In other words, central cities had been bringing back their new suburbs, real estate prices often fall in areas of economic erosion, allowing persons with lower income to establish homes in such areas. Since the 1960s and changed immigration laws, the United States has received immigrants from Mexico, Central and South America, Asia, immigration has changed the demographics of both cities and suburbs, and the US has become a largely suburban nation, with the suburbs becoming more diverse. In addition, Latinos, the fastest growing minority group in the US, began to migrate away from traditional entry cities and to cities in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, in 2006, the increased number of Latinos had made whites a minority group in some western cities. Blacks were effectively barred from pursuing homeownership, even when they were able to afford it, after World War II, aided by the construction of the Interstate Highway System, many White Americans began leaving industrial cities for new housing in suburbs. The roads served to transport suburbanites to their city jobs, facilitating the development of suburbs and this may have exacerbated urban decay. In Birmingham, Alabama, the government used the highway system to perpetuate the racial residence-boundaries the city established with a 1926 racial zoning law. Constructing interstate highways through majority-black neighborhoods eventually reduced the populations to the poorest proportion of people unable to leave their destroyed community. The real estate business practice of blockbusting was a for-profit catalyst for white flight, the remaining white inhabitants, fearing devalued residential property, would quickly sell, usually at a loss. Losses happened when they sold en masse, and would sell the properties to the black families, profiting from price arbitrage
30.
Morris Heights, Bronx
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Morris Heights is a residential neighborhood located in the West Bronx. The neighborhood is part of Bronx Community Board 5, university Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through Morris Heights. The local subway is the IRT Jerome Avenue Line, operating along Jerome Avenue, ZIP codes include 10453 and 10452. The area is patrolled by the 46th Precinct located at 2120 Ryer Avenue in Fordham, New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. 7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx, Morris Heights has a population of around 36,779. Almost half the population lives below the poverty line and receives public assistance, the vast majority of residents in the area are of Puerto Rican, Dominican, or African American descent. The majority of households are renter occupied, Morris Heights is dominated by 5 and 6-story tenement buildings, older multi-unit homes, vacant lots, and newly constructed subsidized attached multi-unit townhouses and apartment buildings. A significant percentage of the early 20th century housing stock was damaged by arson. The neighborhood contains one of the highest concentrations of NYCHA projects in the Bronx, the total land area is less than half one square mile. The terrain is elevated and very hilly, stair streets connect areas located at different elevations. Ten NYCHA developments are located in Morris Heights, harrison Avenue Rehab, one, 5-story rehabilitated tenement building. Harrison Avenue Rehab, four rehabilitated buildings,5 and 6-stories tall, macombs Road, two rehabilitated buildings,5 and 6-stories tall. Morris Heights Rehab, three rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 and 6-stories tall Sedgewick Houses, seven buildings,14, university Avenue Rehab, four, 6-story rehabilitated tenement buildings. West Tremont Avenue-Sedgwick Avenue Area, one, 12-story building, West Tremont Rehab, two rehabilitated tenement buildings,5 and 6-stories tall. West Tremont Rehab, one, 5-story rehabilitated tenement building, West Tremont Rehab, two, 6-story rehabilitated tenement buildings. After a wave of arson ravaged the low-income communities of New York City throughout the 1970s, the city began to rehabilitate many formerly abandoned tenement-style apartment buildings and designate them low-income housing beginning in the late 1970s. Also many subsidized attached multi-unit townhouses and newly constructed apartment buildings have been or are being built on vacant lots across the neighborhood, Morris Heights is believed to be the site where Hip Hop culture originated in the 1970s
31.
Landlord
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A landlord is the owner of a house, apartment, condominium, land or real estate which is rented or leased to an individual or business, who is called a tenant. When a juristic person is in position, the term landlord is used. Other terms include lessor and owner, the term landlady may be used for women owners, and lessor applies to both genders. The medieval system ultimately continues the system of villas and latifundia of the Roman Empire, in modern times, landlords provide housing for persons who cannot afford or dont want to own their own homes. This can be both a lucrative and challenging occupation, the term slumlord is sometimes used to describe landlords in those circumstances. In Minneapolis, such landlords rose up against city officials and, in the 2001 election, succeeded in defeating the incumbent mayor, but such situations are quite unusual. Many owners hire a property management company to care of all the details of renting their property out to a tenant. In the United States, residential homeowner–tenant disputes are primarily governed by state law regarding property, state law and, in some places, city law or county law, sets the requirements for eviction of a tenant. Some cities, counties, and States have laws establishing the maximum rent a landlord can charge, known as rent control, or rent regulation, and related eviction. There is also an implied warranty of habitability, whereby a landlord must maintain safe, decent and habitable housing, meeting minimum safety requirements such as smoke detectors, in the Canada, residential homeowner–tenant disputes are primarily governed by provincial law regarding property and contracts. Provincial law sets the requirements for eviction of a tenant, generally, there are a limited number of reasons for which a landlord can evict a tenant. Some provinces have laws establishing the maximum rent a landlord can charge, known as rent control, or rent regulation, there is also an implied warranty of habitability, whereby a landlord must maintain safe, decent and habitable housing, meeting minimum safety requirements. A landlord can also decide to collect a security deposit or move-in fee which can also be a consideration for the tenant, many factors including city/state regulations can drive the landlord to choose one over the other. In a more formal situations, the term used is licensed victualler or simply licensee, a female landlord can either be called a landlady or simply landlord. The charity also runs three schools in Ascot and Reading in Berkshire and Sayers Common in Sussex. As well as having normal full fee paying students, Licensed Victuallers School in Ascot provides discounted education prices for the children of landlords, there are significant associations of landlords in Australia
32.
Cross Bronx Expressway
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The Cross Bronx Expressway is a major freeway in the New York City borough of the Bronx, conceived by Robert Moses and built between 1948 and 1972. It carries traffic on Interstate 95 through the city, and serves as a portion of I-295 toward Long Island, the Cross Bronx begins at the Alexander Hamilton Bridge over the Harlem River, where the Trans-Manhattan Expressway continues west across Upper Manhattan to the George Washington Bridge. The highway has traffic problems, and its construction has been blamed for negatively affecting a number of low-income neighborhoods in the South Bronx. The Cross Bronx Expressway begins at the end of the Alexander Hamilton Bridge as a continuation of the Trans-Manhattan Expressway. Immediately after coming off the bridge, there is an interchange with the Major Deegan Expressway for Yankee Stadium, the highway soon intersects with Webster Avenue at a partial interchange allowing eastbound vehicles to exit and westbound ones to enter. Northbound US1 leaves the Cross Bronx Expressway at this exit, about one and half miles later, comes a pair of closely spaced interchanges for the Sheridan Expressway and the Bronx River Parkway. The exit for the Sheridan Expressway is an interchange and allows access from northbound. The Cross Bronx Expressway reaches the Bruckner Interchange two miles later, going eastbound, the interchange allows access to southbound I-678, northbound I-95 and southbound I-295. I-95 leaves the Cross Bronx Expressway here and continues north along the Bruckner Expressway, the Cross Bronx Expressway continues east of the interchange as I-295, which begins here. The Cross Bronx ends 1.5 miles later at the Throgs Neck Expressway, a Cross-Bronx Route along 161st and 163rd Streets was one of two proposed facilities, along with the Nassau Boulevard, picked by borough engineers as examples of important projects. Though it would not be built to standards, it would be 60 feet wide with grade separations where considered necessary. The George Washington Bridge, then under construction, was cited among reasons to build the highway which would help connect New Jersey to Long Island via the bridges, in late 1940, the New York City Planning Commission adopted a plan for a network of highways. Except for the Bronx and Pelham Parkway, which lay to the north, the cost was estimated at $17,000,000, higher than most improvements because of the topographical conditions, high land values, and heavily built-up areas. Robert Moses proposed an expressway to run through the middle of the Bronx in 1945. This project proved to be one of the most difficult expressway projects at the time, construction required blasting through ridges, crossing valleys, in doing so, minimal disruption to the apartment buildings that topped the ridges in the area of Grand Concourse was a priority. Construction of the began in 1948. A 112-foot embankment was carefully dug to accommodate six 12-foot-wide traffic lanes, in 1963, the last of the three sections of roadway between the Alexander Hamilton and Throgs Neck Bridges were finished, completing the Cross Bronx Expressway. The first portion, from the Bronx River Parkway east to the Bruckner Interchange, opened on November 5,1955, at the time as parts of the Queens Midtown
33.
Robert Moses
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Robert Moses was a city planner who worked mainly in the New York metropolitan area. One of his contributions to urban planning was New York States large parkway network. Robert Moses simultaneously held twelve titles, but was never elected to any public office, nevertheless, he created and led numerous public authorities that gave him autonomy from the general public and elected officials. Moses projects were considered by many to be necessary for the development after the Great Depression. During the height of his powers, New York City built campuses to host two Worlds Fairs, one in 1939 and the other in 1964. Moses also helped persuade the United Nations to locate its headquarters in Manhattan, instead of Philadelphia, by helping the state secure the money, Moses was born in New Haven, Connecticut, to assimilated German Jewish parents, Bella and Emanuel Moses. He spent the first nine years of his living at 83 Dwight Street in New Haven. In 1897, the Moses family moved to New York City, Mosess father was a successful department store owner and real estate speculator in New Haven. In order for the family to move to New York City, he sold his estate holdings and store. Mosess mother was active in the settlement movement, with her own love of building, Robert Moses and his brother Paul attended several schools for their elementary and secondary education, including the Dwight School and the Mohegan Lake School, a military academy near Peekskill. After graduating from Yale University and Wadham College, Oxford, and earning a Ph. D. in political science from Columbia University, Moses became attracted to New York City reform politics. A committed idealist, he developed plans to rid New York of patronage hiring practices. None went very far, but Moses, due to his intelligence, caught the notice of Belle Moskowitz, when the state Secretary of States position became appointive rather than elective, Smith named Moses, Moses served from 1927 to 1929. Moses rose to power with Smith, who was elected as governor in 1922, during that period Moses began his first foray into large scale public work initiatives, while drawing on Smiths political power to enact legislation. This helped create the new Long Island State Park Commission and the State Council of Parks and this centralization allowed Smith to run a government later used as a model for Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal federal government. Moses also received numerous commissions that he carried out extraordinarily well, displaying a strong command of law as well as matters of engineering, Moses became known for his skill in drafting legislation, and was called the best bill drafter in Albany. At a time when the public was accustomed to Tammany Hall corruption and incompetence, shortly after President Franklin D. Roosevelts inauguration in 1933, the federal government found itself with millions of New Deal dollars to spend, yet states and cities had few projects ready. Moses was one of the few officials who had projects shovel ready
34.
East Tremont, Bronx
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East Tremont is a residential neighborhood located in west Bronx, New York City. It is part of Bronx Community Board 6 and it borders, from the north and moving clockwise, East 183rd Street, Crotona Avenue, the Cross-Bronx Expressway and Webster Avenue. East Tremont Avenue is the primary thoroughfare through the neighborhood, ZIP codes include 10457 and 10460. The area is patrolled by the NYPDs 48th Precinct located at 450 Cross Bronx Expressway, New York City Housing Authority property in the area is patrolled by P. S. A. 8 at 2794 Randall Avenue in the Throggs Neck section of the Bronx, based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of East Tremont was 43,423, an increase of 4,143 from the 39,280 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 445.31 acres, the neighborhood had a density of 97.5 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 1. 4% White,29. 4% African American,0. 3% Native American,0. 5% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 0. 8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 67. 3% of the population, the neighborhood predominately consists of Latin Americans and African Americans. There is a small but growing Dominican population, almost half the population lives below the poverty line and receives public assistance. East Tremont is dominated by five and six story tenement buildings, older homes, vacant lots. Most of the housing stock was structurally damaged by arson. The land area, somewhat hilly, is less than one square mile, there are two NYCHA developments located in East Tremont. Twin roads East, one, 14-story building, East 180th Street-Monterey Avenue, one, 10-story building
35.
Rent regulation
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Rent regulation is a system of laws, administered by a court or a public authority, which aim to ensure the quality and affordability of housing and tenancies on the rental market for land. Comprehensive rent regulation is common in Commonwealth and European Union countries, including Canada, Germany, Ireland, Cyprus and Sweden, and also some states in the United States. However, many US states maintain rent controls, and a majority of OECD countries maintain rent regulation laws, which enjoy considerable popular support, in Canada there are rent regulation laws in each province. For example, in Ontario the Residential Tenancies Act 2006 requires that prices for rented properties do not rise more than 2.5 percent each year, or a lower figure fixed by a government minister. German rent regulation is found in the Civil Code in §§535 to 580a, rental price increases are required to follow a rental mirror, which is a database of local reference rents. This collects all rents for the past four years, and landlords may only increase prices on their property in line with rents in the same locality, usury rents are prohibited altogether, so that any price rises above 20 per cent over three years are unlawful. Tenants may be evicted against their will through a procedure for a good reason. Tenants receive unlimited duration of their rental agreement unless the duration is explicitly halted, in practice, landlords have little incentive to change tenants as rental price increases beyond inflation are constrained. During the period of the tenancy, a persons tenancy may only be terminated for very good reasons, a system of rights for the rental property to be maintained by the landlord is designed to ensure quality of housing. Many states, such as Berlin, have a right to adequate housing. Rent regulation covered the whole of the UK private sector rental market from 1915 to 1980, however, from the Housing Act 1980, it became the Conservative Partys policy to deregulate and dismantle rent regulation. Regulation for all new tenancies was abolished by the Housing Act 1988, Rent regulations survive among a small number of council houses, and often the rates set by local authorities mirror escalating prices in the non-regulated private market. Rent regulation in the United States is an issue for each state, after the New Deal, the Supreme Court ceased to interfere with social and economic legislation, and a growing number of states adopted rules. For example, in New York City only some properties continue to have the protection of rent regulation, fisher v. City of Berkeley,475 U. S.260 held there was no incompatibility with rent control and the Sherman Act. Price controls remain the most controversial element of a system of rent regulation, historically, economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo viewed landlords as producing very little that was valuable, and so regarded rents as an exploitative concept. Sometimes called rent leveling or rent stabilization, rent regulation is argued to promote social stability by slowing displacement in booming economic cycles and this analysis targeted nominal rent freezes, and the studies conducted were mainly focused on rental prices in Manhattan or elsewhere in the United States. A view at the time was that a well-designed rent control can be beneficial, the Swedish economist Assar Lindbeck, a housing expert, says that rent control appears to be the most efficient technique presently known to destroy a city – except for bombing. English land law R Arnott, ‘Time for Revisionism on Rent Control
36.
Mayor of New York City
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The Mayor of the City of New York is head of the executive branch of New York Citys government. The mayors office administers all city services, public property, police and fire protection, most public agencies, the budget overseen by the mayors office is the largest municipal budget in the United States at $70 billion a year. The city employs 325,000 people, spends about $21 billion to more than 1.1 million students, levies $27 billion in taxes. The mayors office is located in New York City Hall, it has jurisdiction over all five boroughs of New York City, Manhattan, Brooklyn, the mayor appoints a large number of officials, including commissioners who head city departments, and his deputy mayors. The mayors regulations are compiled in title 43 of the New York City Rules, according to current law, the mayor is limited to two consecutive four-year terms in office. It was changed two to three terms on October 23,2008, when the New York City Council voted 29–22 in favor of passing the term limit extension into law. However, in 2010, a referendum reverting the limit to two terms passed overwhelmingly, the current mayor is Democrat Bill de Blasio, who was elected on November 5,2013. In 1665, Governor Richard Nicolls appointed Thomas Willett as the first mayor of New York, for 156 years, the mayor was appointed and had limited power. Between 1783 and 1821 the mayor was appointed by the Council of Appointments in which the governor had the loudest voice. In 1821 the Common Council, which included elected members, gained the authority to choose the mayor, an amendment to the New York State Constitution in 1834 provided for the direct popular election of the mayor. Cornelius W. Lawrence, a Democrat, was elected that year, gracie Mansion has been the official residence of the mayor since Fiorello La Guardias administration in 1942. Its main floor is open to the public and serves as a small museum, the mayor is entitled to a salary of $225,000, but early 21st century mayor Michael Bloomberg, the 16th-richest man in the world, declined the salary and instead was paid $1 yearly. Bloomberg had a net worth of $33 billion as of 2014. In 2000 direct control of the public school system was transferred to the mayors office. In 2003 the reorganization established the New York City Department of Education, tammany Hall, which evolved from an organization of craftsmen into a Democratic political machine, gained control of Democratic Party nominations in the state and city in 1861. It played a role in New York City politics into the 1960s and was a dominant player from the mayoral victory of Fernando Wood in 1854 through the era of Robert Wagner. The mayor of New York City may appoint several deputy mayors to help oversee major offices within the branch of the city government. The powers and duties, and even the number of deputy mayors, are not defined by the City Charter, the post was created by Fiorello La Guardia to handle ceremonial events that the mayor was too busy to attend
37.
John Lindsay
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John Vliet Lindsay was an American politician, lawyer, and broadcaster who was a U. S. congressman, mayor of New York City, candidate for U. S. president, and regular guest host of Good Morning America. During his political career, he served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from January 1959 to December 1965 and he died from Parkinsons disease and pneumonia in Hilton Head Island, South Carolina on December 19,2000. Lindsay was born in New York City on West End Avenue, to George Nelson Lindsay and he grew up in an upper-middle-class family of English and Dutch descent. Lindsays paternal grandfather migrated to the United States in the 1880s from the Isle of Wight, Lindsays father was a successful lawyer and investment banker. Lindsay attended the Buckley School, St. Pauls School and Yale, with the outbreak of World War II, Lindsay completed his studies early and in 1943 joined the United States Navy as a gunnery officer. He obtained the rank of lieutenant, earning five battle stars through action in the invasion of Sicily, in 1949, he began his legal career at the law firm of Webster, Sheffield, Fleischmann, Hitchcock & Chrystie. Back in New York City, Lindsay met his wife, Mary Anne Harrison, at the wedding of Nancy Bush. A native of Richmond, Virginia and a resident of Greenwich, Connecticut, Harrison was a distant relative of William Henry Harrison and Benjamin Harrison. That same year Lindsay was admitted to the bar, and rose to become a partner in his law firm four years later. Like Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, who redecorated the White House, Mary Lindsay, an educator, renovated Gracie Mansion. She died of cancer at the age of seventy-seven, four years after the passing of her husband, Lindsay began gravitating toward politics as one of the founders of the Youth for Eisenhower club in 1951 and as president of the New York Young Republican club in 1952. He went on to join the United States Department of Justice in 1955 as executive assistant to Attorney General Herbert Brownell, There he worked on civil liberties cases as well as the 1957 Civil Rights Act. While in Congress, Lindsay established a voting record increasingly at odds with his party. He was a member of a group of liberal and moderate Republicans in the House who voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1965, Lindsay was elected Mayor of New York City as a Republican with the support of the Liberal Party of New York in a three-way race. He defeated Democratic mayoral candidate Abraham D. Beame, then City Comptroller, as well as National Review magazine founder William F. Buckley, the unofficial motto of the campaign, taken from a Murray Kempton column, was He is fresh and everyone else is tired. On his first day as mayor, January 1,1966, as New Yorkers endured the transit strike, Lindsay remarked, I still think its a fun city, and walked four miles from his hotel room to City Hall in a gesture to show it. Dick Schaap, then a columnist for the New York Herald Tribune, in the article, Schaap sardonically pointed out that it wasnt
38.
Urban decay
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Urban decay is the process whereby a previously functioning city, or part of a city, falls into disrepair and decrepitude. Since the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay has been associated with Western cities, especially in North America, since then, major structural changes in global economies, transportation, and government policy created the economic and then the social conditions resulting in urban decay. In contrast, North American and British cities often experience population flights to the suburbs and exurb commuter towns, another characteristic of urban decay is blight—the visual, psychological, and physical effects of living among empty lots, buildings and condemned houses. Such desolate properties are socially dangerous to the community because they attract criminals and street gangs, however, subsequent economic change left many cities economically vulnerable. Changes in means of transport, from the public to the private—specifically, the manufacturing sector has been a base for the prosperity of major cities. When the industries have relocated outside of cities, some have experienced population loss with associated urban decay, cut backs on police and fire services may result, while lobbying for government funded housing may increase. Increased city taxes encourage residents to move out, rent controls are often enacted due to public pressure and complaint regarding the cost of living. Proponents of rent controls argue that rent controls combat inflation, stabilize the economic characteristics of a population, prevent rent gouging. Rent control contributes to urban blight by reducing new construction and investment in housing and deincentivizing maintenance, if a landlords costs to perform maintenance consume too large a proportion of revenue from rent, the landlord will feel pressure to drastically reduce or eliminate maintenance entirely. This effect has been observed in New York City as 29% of rent-controlled buildings were categorized as either deteriorated or dilapidated in contrast with 8% of non-rent-controlled housing, some historians differentiate between the first Great Migration, numbering about 1. Between 1910 and 1970, Blacks moved from 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, more townspeople with urban skills moved during the second migration. By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population, more than 80 percent lived in cities. A majority of 53 percent remained in the South, while 40 percent lived in the North and 7 percent in the West. Later urban centers were drained further through the advent of car ownership, the marketing of suburbia as a location to move to. In North America this shift manifested itself in strip malls, suburban retail and employment centers, large areas of many northern cities in the United States experienced population decreases and a degradation of urban areas. Inner-city property values declined and economically disadvantaged populations moved in, in the U. S. the new inner-city poor were often African-Americans that migrated from the South in the 1920s and 1930s. As they moved into traditional neighborhoods, ethnic frictions served to accelerate flight to the suburbs. Britain experienced severe urban decay in the 1970s and 1980s exemplified by The Specials 1981 hit single Ghost Town, some seaside resort towns have also experienced urban decay towards the end of the 20th Century, due to the popularity of Package holidays to the continent
39.
Howard Cosell
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Howard William Cosell was an American sports journalist who was widely known for his blustery, cocksure personality. Cosell said of himself, Arrogant, pompous, obnoxious, vain, cruel, verbose, theres no question that Im all of those things. In 1993, TV Guide named Howard Cosell The All-Time Best Sportscaster in its issue celebrating 40 years of television, in 1996, Howard Cosell was ranked #47 on TV Guides 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time. Cosell was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, to accountant Isidore Cohen, the grandson of a rabbi, he was raised in Brooklyn, New York. He graduated with a degree in English from New York University. He then earned a degree at New York University School of Law, Cosells grandfathers name had been changed by immigration authorities when he entered the United States. Howard Cosell said he changed his name from Cohen to Cosell while a law student as a way to honor his father and grandfather by reverting to a version of his familys original Polish name. Cosell was admitted to the New York State Bar in 1941, but when the U. S. entered World War II, Cosell entered the United States Army Transportation Corps, where he was promoted to the rank of major. During his time in the service, he married Mary Edith Abrams in 1944 in a judges chambers in Brooklyn and he left the service in 1945. After the war, Cosell began practicing law in Manhattan, primarily union law, some of his clients were actors, and some were athletes, including Willie Mays. Cosells own hero in athletics was Jackie Robinson, who served as a personal and professional inspiration to him in his career. Cosell also represented the Little League of New York, when in 1953 an ABC Radio manager asked him to host a show on New York flagship WABC featuring Little League participants. The show marked the beginning of a relationship with WABC and ABC Radio that would last his entire broadcasting career, Cosell hosted the Little League show for three years without pay, and then decided to leave the law field to become a full-time broadcaster. He approached Robert Pauley, President of ABC Radio, with a proposal for a weekly show, Pauley told him the network could not afford to develop untried talent, but he would be put on the air if he would get a sponsor. To Pauleys surprise, Cosell came back with a relatives shirt company as a sponsor and he pulled no punches in taking members of the hapless expansion team to task. Cosell then became an anchor at WABC-TV in New York. He expanded his commentary beyond sports to a show entitled Speaking of Everything. Cosell rose to prominence covering boxer Muhammad Ali, starting when he fought under his birth name
40.
1977 World Series
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The 1977 World Series was the 74th edition of Major League Baseballs championship series. The Yankees defeated the Dodgers, four games to two, to win the franchises 21st World Series championship, their first since 1962, the Series was played between October 11 and 18, broadcast on ABC. During this Series, Reggie Jackson earned his nickname Mr. October for his heroics, Billy Martin won what would be his only World Series title as a manager after guiding the Yankees to a second straight pennant. The New York Yankees returned to the Fall Classic after being swept by the Cincinnati Reds the previous year. In free agency, the Yankees signed slugging right fielder Reggie Jackson for US$2.96 million over five years, two other key players were acquired by the Yankees through trades. Shortstop Bucky Dent was picked up from the Chicago White Sox for outfielder Oscar Gamble, pitcher LaMarr Hoyt, and after only one year with the Oakland Athletics, pitcher Mike Torrez was acquired in exchange for pitcher Dock Ellis and utilitymen Marty Perez and Larry Murray. After a lackluster first half, the Yankees finished strong, winning 38 of their last 51 games edging both the Boston Red Sox and the Baltimore Orioles by 2 1⁄2 games, in amongst the star-laden lineup was an emerging superstar in the left arm of Ron Guidry. Early in the season Guidry was moved from the bullpen into the starting rotation, the National League champion Los Angeles Dodgers were skippered by Tommy Lasorda who was in his first full season as manager. The 1977 Dodgers became the first team to have four players hit thirty or more runs in one season, as Steve Garvey hit 33, Reggie Smith hit 32, Ron Cey hit 30. The deep pitching staff led the National League in ERA,3.22, were led by twenty-game winner, Tommy John. The matchup of the Yankees and the Dodgers hearkened back to the World Series matchups between the two teams of the 1950s, Ron Cey made it 2–0 on a sacrifice fly. In the bottom of the inning, the Yankees responded with consecutive two-out singles by Thurman Munson, Reggie Jackson, and Chris Chambliss, scoring Munson. In the top of the sixth, Steve Garvey beat out a bunt and, with one out, mickey Rivers, who did not possess a strong throwing arm, threw home. Replays showed Garvey clearly beat the tag but he was called out at the plate, the Yankees tied it in their half of the sixth when Willie Randolph hit a home run off Don Sutton. The Yankees took the lead in the eighth when Munson doubled home Randolph, later in the inning, the Yankees loaded the bases with one out, but Dodger reliever Elías Sosa struck out Lou Piniella and retired Bucky Dent on a forceout to end the threat. The Dodgers tied it at 3–3 in the ninth, Dusty Baker led off with a single and was almost picked off first when pinch-hitter Manny Mota failed on a bunt attempt. Mota flied out, but Steve Yeager walked and pinch-hitter Lee Lacy drove Baker home with a single, in extra innings, the Yankees got their leadoff hitters on in both the tenth and eleventh innings, but couldnt score due to failure to lay down sacrifice bunts. Finally, in the twelfth, Randolph led off and doubled, with aces Ron Guidry and Mike Torrez having both pitched in Game 5 of the ALCS, Billy Martin was forced to use a sore-shouldered Catfish Hunter in Game 2
41.
New York Yankees
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The Essendon Football Club is a professional Australian rules football club which plays in the Australian Football League, the sports premier competition. Formed in 1871 as a club and playing as a senior club since 1878. It is historically associated with Essendon, a suburb in the north-west of Melbourne, dyson Heppell is the current team captain. A founding member club of both the Victorian Football Association, in 1877, and the Victorian Football League, in 1896, the club claims to have over at least one million supporters Australia wide. Essendon has won 16 VFL/AFL premierships which, along with Carlton, is the most of any club in the competition, the club was founded by members of the Royal Agricultural Society, the Melbourne Hunt Club and the Victorian Woolbrokers. The Essendon Football Club is thought to have formed in 1872 at a meeting it the home of a well-known brewery family, the McCrackens, whose Ascot Vale property hosted a team of local junior players. Robert McCracken, the owner of several city hotels, was the founder and first president of the Essendon club and his son, Alex, Alex would later become president of the newly formed VFL. Alexs cousin, Collier, who had played with Melbourne, was the teams first captain. The club played its first recorded match against the Carlton second twenty on 7 June 1873, Essendon played 13 matches in its first season, winning seven, with four draws and losing two. The club was one of the junior members of the Victorian Football Association in 1877. During its early years in the Association, Essendon played its matches at Flemington Hill. In 1878, Essendon played in the first match on what would be considered by modern standards to be a field at Flemington Hill. In 1879 Essendon played Melbourne in one of the earliest night matches recorded when the ball was painted white, in 1883 the team played four matches in Adelaide. In 1891 Essendon won their first VFA premiership, which they repeated in 1892,1893 and 1894, one of the clubs greatest players, Albert Thurgood played for the club during this period. Essendon was undefeated in the 1893 season, at the end of the 1896 season Essendon along with seven other clubs formed the Victorian Football League. Essendons first VFL game was in 1897 was against Geelong at Corio Oval in Geelong, Essendon won its first VFL premiership by winning the 1897 VFL finals series. Essendon again won the premiership in 1901, defeating Collingwood in the Grand Final, the club won successive premierships in 1911 and 1912 over Collingwood and South Melbourne respectively. The nickname first appeared in print in the local North Melbourne Advertiser in 1889 and it was known firstly as Essendon Town and, after 1905, as Essendon
42.
Los Angeles Dodgers
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The Los Angeles Dodgers are an American professional baseball team based in Los Angeles, California. The Dodgers compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the National League West division. Established in 1883 in Brooklyn, New York, the moved to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. They played for four seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum before moving to their current home of Dodger Stadium in 1962, the Dodgers as a franchise have won six World Series titles and 21 National League pennants. 11 NL MVP award winners have played for the Dodgers, winning a total of 13 MVP Awards, Eight Cy Young Award winners have pitched for the Dodgers, winning a total of twelve Cy Young Awards. The team has also produced 17 Rookie of the Year Award winners, including four consecutive from 1979 to 1982 and five consecutive from 1992 to 1996. In the 20th century, the team, then known as the Robins, won pennants in 1916 and 1920. In the 1930s, the changed its name to the Dodgers. In 1941, the Dodgers captured their third National League pennant and this marked the onset of the Dodgers–Yankees rivalry, as the Dodgers would face them in their next six World Series appearances. Following the 1957 season the team left Brooklyn, in just their second season in Los Angeles, the Dodgers won their second World Series title, beating the Chicago White Sox in six games in 1959. The 1963 sweep was their victory against the Yankees. The Dodgers won four pennants in 1966,1974,1977 and 1978. They went on to win the World Series again in 1981, the early 1980s were affectionately dubbed Fernandomania. The Dodgers share a rivalry with the San Francisco Giants. Both teams moved west for the 1958 season, the Giants have won two more World Series, the Dodgers have won 21 National League pennants, while the Giants hold the record with 23. When the two teams were based in New York, the Giants won five World Series championships, after the move to California, the Dodgers have won five in Los Angeles, the Giants have won three in San Francisco. The Dodgers were founded in 1883 as the Brooklyn Atlantics, taking the name of a team that had played in Brooklyn before them. The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890 and they promptly won the NL Championship their first year in the League
43.
Yankee Stadium (1923)
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Yankee Stadium was a stadium located in the Bronx, a borough of New York City. It was the home ballpark of the New York Yankees, one of the citys Major League Baseball franchises, from 1923 to 1973, the stadium hosted 6,581 Yankees regular season home games during its 85-year history. It was also the home of the New York Giants football team from 1956 through the first part of the 1973–74 football season. It has also known as The Big Ballpark in The Bronx, The Stadium. The stadium was built from 1922 to 1923 for $2.4 million, Yankee Stadium opened for the 1923 MLB season and at the time, it was hailed as a one-of-a-kind facility in the country for its size. Over the course of its history, it one of the most famous venues in the United States, having hosted a variety of events. The stadium went through many alterations and playing surface configurations over the years, the condition of the facility worsened in the 1960s and 1970s, prompting its closing for renovation from 1974 to 1975. The renovation significantly altered the appearance of the venue and reduced the distance of the outfield fences, in 2006, the Yankees began building a new $2.3 billion stadium in public parkland adjacent to the stadium. The price included $1.2 billion in public subsidies, the design includes a replica of the frieze along the roof that was in Yankee Stadium. Monument Park, a Hall of Fame for prominent former Yankees, was relocated to the new stadium, Yankee Stadium closed following the 2008 baseball season and the new stadium opened in 2009, adopting the Yankee Stadium moniker. The original Yankee Stadium was demolished in 2010, two years after it closed, and the 8-acre site was converted into a park called Heritage Field, the new Yankee stadium opened in 2009 and is currently used by the NY Yankees. The Yankees had played at the Polo Grounds in upper Manhattan since 1913, however, relations between the two teams were rocky, with the Giants harboring resentment towards the Yankees. For the 1920 season, the Yankees acquired star slugger Babe Ruth and in his first year with his new team, by the middle of 1920, the Giants had issued an eviction notice to the Yankees, which was soon rescinded. In 1921, the Yankees won their first American League pennant and this exacerbated Giants owner Charles Stonehams resentment of the Yankees and reinforced his insistence that the Yankees find another place to play their home games. The Giants derisively suggested that the Yankees relocate to Queens or some other out-of-the-way place, tillinghast LHommedieu Huston and Jacob Ruppert, the Yankees owners since January 1915, decided to build their own stadium. They did so at considerable financial risk and speculation, Baseball teams typically played in 30, 000-seat facilities, but Huston and Ruppert invoked Ruths name when asked how the Yankees could justify a ballpark with 60,000 seats. The total bill for construction of the stadium was $2.5 million, Huston and Ruppert explored many areas for Yankee Stadium. Of the other sites being considered, the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, consideration was also given to building atop railroad tracks on the West Side of Manhattan and to Long Island City, in Queens
44.
Virtuous circle and vicious circle
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The terms virtuous circle and vicious circle refer to complex chains of events which reinforce themselves through a feedback loop. A virtuous circle has favorable results, while a circle has detrimental results. Both circles are complexes of events with no tendency towards equilibrium, both systems of events have feedback loops in which each iteration of the cycle reinforces the previous one. These cycles will continue in the direction of their momentum until an external factor intervenes, the prefix hyper- is sometimes used to describe these cycles if they are extreme. The best-known example of a circle is hyperinflation. The contemporary subprime mortgage crisis is a complex of vicious circles, a specific example is the circle related to housing. As housing prices decline, more homeowners go underwater, when the value of a home drops below the mortgage on it. This provides an incentive to walk away from the home, increasing defaults and this, in turn, lowers housing values further from over-supply, reinforcing the cycle. The foreclosures reduce the cash flowing into banks and the value of mortgage-backed securities widely held by banks, banks incur losses and require additional funds, also called “recapitalization”. If banks are not capitalized sufficiently to lend, economic activity slows and unemployment increases, economist Nouriel Roubini described the vicious circles within and across the housing market and financial markets during interviews with Charlie Rose in September and October 2008. Other examples include the poverty cycle, sharecropping, and the intensification of drought, in climate change science, feedback loops involve positive feedbacks and negative feedbacks that respectively serve to intensify or dampen the effects of global warming. And Heskett, J. Breaking the cycle of failure in services, Sloan Management Review,31, spring 1991, pp.17 –28. Http, //william-king. www. drexel. edu/top/prin/txt/gro/gro21b. html – An introduction to 20th century virtuous circle theory, china, A Stabilizing or Deflationary Influence in East Asia. The Problem of Conflicted Virtue – In this link the author is using virtue in the sense of an outcome that conflicts with long term regional growth. Http, //www. bioenergycentres. com/resources. shtml – an essay in 3 parts by Polarity Therapist Andrew Harry, Bath, defining The Virtuous Cycle as an integrated healing process
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Gang
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Some criminal gang members are jumped in or have to prove their loyalty by committing acts such as theft or violence. A member of a gang may be called a gangster or a thug, in early usage, the word gang referred to a group of workmen. In the United Kingdom, the word is often used in this sense. In current usage, it denotes a criminal organization or else a criminal affiliation. The word gang often carries a connotation, however, within a gang which defines itself in opposition to mainstream norms. The word gang derives from the past participle of Old English gan and it is cognate with Old Norse gangster, meaning journey. In discussing banditry in American history Barrington Moore, Jr, according to some estimates the Thuggee gangs in India murdered 1 million people between 1740 and 1840. The 17th century saw London terrorized by a series of organized gangs, some of known as the Mims, Hectors, Bugles. These gangs often came into conflict with each other, the members dressed with colored ribbons to distinguish the different factions. Chicago had over 1,000 gangs in the 1920s, Gang involvement in drug trafficking increased during the 1970s and 1980s, but some gangs continue to have minimal involvement in the trade. In the United States, the history of gangs began on the East Coast in 1783 following the American Revolution, the emergence of the gangs was largely attributed to the vast rural population immigration to the urban areas. The first street-gang in the United States, the 40 Thieves, the gangs in Washington D. C. had control of what is now Federal Triangle, in a region then known as Murder Bay. In 2007, there were approximately 785,000 active street gang members in the United States, approximately 230,000 gang members were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2011. According to the Chicago Crime Commission publication, The Gang Book 2012, traditionally Los Angeles County has been considered the Gang Capital of America, with an estimated 120,000 gang members. There were at least 30,000 gangs and 800,000 gang members active across the USA in 2007, about 900,000 gang members lived within local communities across the country, and about 147,000 were in U. S. prisons or jails in 2009. By 1999, Hispanics accounted for 47% of all members, Blacks 31%, Whites 13%. A December 13,2009 The New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. There are between 25,000 and 50,000 gang members in Central Americas El Salvador, more than 1,800 gangs were known to be operating in the UK in 2011
46.
Illegal drug trade
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The illegal drug trade is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs that are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws. A UN report has stated that the drug trade generated an estimated US$321.6 billion in 2003. With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year, consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally. Chinese edicts against opium smoking were made in 1729,1796 and 1800, addictive drugs were prohibited in the west in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In the early 19th century, a drug trade in China emerged and as a result. The Chinese government responded by enforcing a ban on the import of opium that led to the First Opium War between the United Kingdom and Qing dynasty China, the United Kingdom won and forced China to allow British merchants to trade opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking opium had become common in the 19th century, the Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time by the French. In 1868, as a result of the use of opium. Between 1920 and 1933, by the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the beginning of the 21st century saw a drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime such as the Sinaloa Cartel. Another illicit drug with increased demand in Europe is hashish, Drug trafficking is widely regarded by lawmakers as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug, the quantity trafficked, if the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be harsher than in other circumstances. Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries, sentencing may include lengthy periods of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty. In December 2005, Van Tuong Nguyen, a 25-year-old Australian drug smuggler, was hanged in Singapore after being convicted in March 2004, in 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking 1 kilogram of cannabis into the country. The countries of production and transit are some of the most affected by the drug trade. For example, Ecuador has absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries, while some applied for asylum, others are still illegal immigrants. The drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic, Honduras, through which an estimated 79% of cocaine passes on its way to the United States, has the highest murder rate in the world