1.
Saskatoon
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Saskatoon is the largest city in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. The City of Saskatoon has estimated its population to be 265,300 as of the end of 2016, the Rural Municipality of Corman Park No. 344, the most populous municipality in Saskatchewan, surrounds the city and contains many of the developments associated with it. Saskatoon is named after the berry of the name, which is native to the region. The city has a significant Indigenous population and several urban Reserves and it is known for its diverse and vibrant culture and its eight river crossings that give it the nicknames Paris of the Prairies and Bridge City. Historic neighbourhoods of Saskatoon include Nutana and Riversdale, which were separate towns before amalgamating with the town of Saskatoon, Sutherland, the rail town the city annexed in 1956 that lies beyond the University lands, is now another historic neighbourhood. The name Saskatoon comes from the Cree inanimate noun misâskwatômina saskatoon berries, in 1882, the Toronto-based Temperance Colonization Society was granted 21 sections of land straddling the South Saskatchewan River, between what is now Warman and Dundurn. The aim of the group was to escape the liquor trade in that city, the following year settlers, led by John Neilson Lake, arrived on the site of what is now Saskatoon and established the first permanent settlement. The settlers travelled by railway from Ontario to Moose Jaw and then completed the leg via horse-drawn cart as the railway had yet to be completed to Saskatoon. In 1885 the Northwest Rebellion affected the community in a variety of ways. Chief Whitecap and Charles Trottier passed through the present day University campus on their way to join Louis Riels armed forces at Batoche, Saskatchewan. Following the fighting at the Battle of Fish Creek, and the Battle of Batoche, a few died in care and were buried in the Pioneer Cemetery near the Exhibition Grounds. A town charter for the west side of the river was obtained in 1903, in 1906 Saskatoon became a city with a population of 4,500, which included the communities of Saskatoon, Riversdale and Nutana. In 1955 Montgomery Place and in 1956 the neighbouring town of Sutherland were annexed by the fast-growing City of Saskatoon, the economy of Saskatoon has been associated with potash, oil and agriculture, resulting in the moniker POW City. Various grains, livestock, oil and gas, potash, uranium, gold, diamond, coal, the worlds largest publicly traded uranium company, Cameco, and the worlds largest potash producer, PotashCorp, have corporate headquarters in Saskatoon. Saskatoon is also the new home of BHP Billitons Diamonds and Specialty Products business unit, nearly two-thirds of the worlds recoverable potash reserves are in the Saskatoon region. Saskatoon is also home to the Canadian Light Source, Canadas national synchrotron facility, saskatoon’s digital media scene is growing with start-up tech companies such as Noodlecake, OneStory, Point2, Vendasta Technologies, and Zu. Another of Saskatoons nicknames, Hub City, refers to its central location within Canada for distribution
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
4.
Saskatchewan
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Saskatchewan is a prairie and boreal province in west-central Canada, the only province without natural borders. It has an area of 651,900 square kilometres, nearly 10 percent of which is water, composed mostly of rivers, reservoirs. As of December 2013, Saskatchewans population was estimated at 1,114,170, residents primarily live in the southern prairie half of the province, while the northern boreal half is mostly forested and sparsely populated. Of the total population, roughly half live in the provinces largest city, Saskatoon, or the provincial capital, other notable cities include Prince Albert, Moose Jaw, Yorkton, Swift Current, North Battleford, and the border city Lloydminster. Saskatchewan is a province with large distances to moderating bodies of waters. As a result, its climate is continental, rendering severe winters throughout the province. Southern areas have very warm or hot summers, Midale and Yellow Grass near the U. S. border are tied for the highest ever recorded temperatures in Canada with 45 °C observed at both locations on July 5,1937. In winter, temperatures below −45 °C are possible even in the south during extreme cold snaps, Saskatchewan has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups, and first explored by Europeans in 1690 and settled in 1774. It became a province in 1905, carved out from the vast North-West Territories, in the early 20th century the province became known as a stronghold for Canadian social democracy, North Americas first social-democratic government was elected in 1944. The provinces economy is based on agriculture, mining, and energy, Saskatchewans current premier is Brad Wall and its lieutenant-governor is Vaughn Solomon Schofield. In 1992, the federal and provincial governments signed a land claim agreement with First Nations in Saskatchewan. The First Nations received compensation and were permitted to buy land on the market for the tribes, they have acquired about 3,079 square kilometres. Some First Nations have used their settlement to invest in urban areas and its name derived from the Saskatchewan River. The river was known as kisiskāciwani-sīpiy in the Cree language, as Saskatchewans borders largely follow the geographic coordinates of longitude and latitude, the province is roughly a quadrilateral, or a shape with four sides. However the 49th parallel boundary and the 60th northern border appear curved on globes, additionally, the eastern boundary of the province is partially crooked rather than following a line of longitude, as correction lines were devised by surveyors prior to the homestead program. S. States of Montana and North Dakota, Saskatchewan has the distinction of being the only Canadian province for which no borders correspond to physical geographic features. Along with Alberta, Saskatchewan is one of only two land-locked provinces, the overwhelming majority of Saskatchewans population is located in the southern third of the province, south of the 53rd parallel. Saskatchewan contains two natural regions, the Canadian Shield in the north and the Interior Plains in the south
5.
Oldman River
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The Oldman River is a river in southern Alberta, Canada. Oldman River has a length of 362 kilometres and a drainage area of 26,700 square kilometres. In 1991, the Alberta government finished construction of the Oldman River Dam, the Piikani renegade, led by Milton Born With A Tooth, had attempted to divert the Oldman River away from the Lethbridge Northern Irrigation District canal intake, leading to an armed standoff. The dam was constructed where the Oldman, Crowsnest, and Castle river systems converge, the Peigan Timber Limit B and Peigan 147 Indian reserves of the Piikani Nation. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose, downstream it flows through Bob Creek Wildland Park and Black Creek Heritage Rangeland. Oldman Dam and Oldman River are other Provincial Recreation Areas established along the river, the river and some of its tributaries have formed coulees in Southern Alberta, and the strata revealed by these formations guide local prospectors to ammolite deposits. Oldman River valley parks system List of rivers of Alberta Oldman Watershed Council, www. oldmanwatershed. ca
6.
Bow River
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The Bow River is a river in the Canadian province of Alberta. It begins in the Rocky Mountains and winds through the Alberta foothills onto the prairies where it meets the Oldman River and these waters ultimately flow through the Nelson River into Hudson Bay. The Bow River runs through the city of Calgary, taking in the Elbow River at the site of Fort Calgary near downtown. The Bow River pathway, developed along the banks, is considered a part of Calgarys self-image. First Nations peoples made varied use of the river for sustenance before settlers of European origin arrived, such as using its valleys in the buffalo hunt. The name Bow refers to the reeds that grew along its banks and were used by the local First Nations peoples to make bows, the river is an important source of water for irrigation and drinking water. Between the years 1910 and 1960, the Bow River and its tributaries were engineered to provide hydroelectric power and this significantly altered the rivers flow and certain ecosystems. The rivers source is from the Bow Glacier, which is part of the Wapta Icefield, the outflow from this source flows into Bow Lake in the Canadian Rockies. It flows south to the village of Lake Louise then turns east, the Ghost Lake reservoir is formed upstream from the town of Cochrane. The Bow then flows eastward to the city of Calgary, it continues on to form the South Saskatchewan River when the Bow joins with the Oldman River near Grassy Lake in southern Alberta. Its waters are shed in the Hudson Bay through the Saskatchewan River, Lake Winnipeg. Communities along the Bow include Lake Louise, Banff, Canmore, Cochrane, Calgary, the Bow Falls are on the rivers course, near Banff. The Bow River has a length of 587 km and a drainage area of 26,200 km2. The fur trader James Gaddy and the Hudsons Bay Company explorer David Thompson are traditionally considered to be the first people of European origin to discover the Bow River and they camped along the Bow with a group of Piikani during the 1787–88 winter. Before they arrived, First Nations populations had lived in the Bow region for thousands of years, among them were the Nakoda, Tsuu Tina, and the Blackfoot Confederacy, consisting of the Kainai, Piikanai, and Siksika peoples. The Kutenai had migrated westwards, possibly in the eighteenth century. First Nations used the valleys for the buffalo hunt, in which herds of buffalo were driven over cliffs or into valleys where they could be killed more easily with bows and arrows. Of all the First Nations groups that lived in the Bow River area, while other groups likely caught fish during harder times, they primarily hunted buffalo during the summer season when fishing would have been most plentiful
7.
Municipal District of Taber
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The Municipal District of Taber is a municipal district in southern Alberta, Canada. It is located in Census Division 2, with a land area of 4,201.65 km2, it had a population density of 1. 7/km2 in 2016. The population of the Municipal District of Taber according to its 2016 municipal census is 7,173, a 0. 8% change from its 2013 municipal census population of 7,116. In the 2011 Census, the MD of Taber had a population of 6,851 living in 1,834 of its 2,022 total dwellings, a 9. 2% change from its 2006 adjusted population of 6,275. With a land area of 4,203.79 km2, in 2006, the MD of Taber had a population of 6,280 living in 1,852 dwellings, a 4. 5% increase from 6,012 in 2001. The MD of Taber had an area of 4,204.38 km2. List of communities in Alberta List of municipal districts in Alberta Official website
8.
Saskatchewan River
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The Saskatchewan River is a major river in Canada, about 550 kilometres long, flowing roughly eastward across Saskatchewan and Manitoba to empty into Lake Winnipeg. It reaches 1,939 kilometres to its farthest headwaters on the Bow River, both source rivers originate from glaciers in the Alberta Rockies. The St. Mary River, draining the Hudson Bay Divide region of Glacier National Park, the combined stream flows east-northeast, into Codette Lake formed by the Francois Finlay Dam at Nipawin then into Tobin Lake, formed by the E. B. It then flows northeast, passing through a region of marshes, where it is joined from the northwest by the Torch River and the Mossy River. At the northern edge of the marshes it flows east, twisting between a series of lakes into west-central Manitoba to The Pas, where it is joined from the southwest by the Carrot River. The waters of Lake Winnipeg eventually drain into Hudson Bay, via the Nelson River, the river, like the province of Saskatchewan, takes its name from the Cree word kisiskāciwani-sīpiy, meaning swift flowing river. The river and its tributaries provided an important route of transportation for First Nations, hydroelectric power plants are built on the river at Nipawin, and E. B. Campbell Dam in Saskatchewan and at Grand Rapids in Manitoba, in 2008 the presence of reproducing Prussian carp were found in the Red Deer River drainage basin which flows into the Saskatchewan River. Illegal introductions of non native species can have wide ranging negative impacts on the ecosystem. While the exact species is not yet determined the genus is Carassius, the Blue Ribbon Bow River Trout fishery may be at risk as a result of this introduction. Illegal introductions of Carassius can be very harmful, another map from 1774 shows a fairly accurate course of the river. The Saskatchewan River and its two major tributaries formed an important transportation route during the precontact, fur trade, and early settlement periods in the Canadian West. In early fur trading days the South Saskatchewan tributary was known as La Fourche des Gros Ventres, First Nations inhabiting the area of the rivers included at one time or another the Atsina, Cree, Saulteaux, Blackfoot Confederacy, Assiniboine, and Sioux. In addition to this the Hudsons Bay Company and North West Company both ran numerous fur posts up the river and its two branches throughout the late 18th to late 19th centuries, york boats and canoes formed the primary means of travel during the fur trade period. In the mid-19th century Metis settlements became important along stretches of the rivers, riverboats were introduced from the Red River of the North in the 19th century and remained an important means of transportation until the 1890s and the coming of railways to the area. The earliest settlements in Saskatchewan and Alberta generally were established around the rivers, examples include Fort Edmonton, Fort Battleford, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and Cumberland House, Saskatchewan. Fur trade on the river, The first European to ascended the river as far as the forks was Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye in spring 1739. There were also a number of posts that have left few records
9.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
10.
Medicine Hat
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Medicine Hat is a city in southeast Alberta, Canada. It is approximately 169 km east of Lethbridge and 295 km southeast of Calgary and this city and the adjacent Town of Redcliff to the northwest are surrounded by Cypress County. Medicine Hat was the sixth-largest city in Alberta in 2016 with a population of 63,230, Medicine Hat is situated on the Trans-Canada Highway, the eastern terminus of the Crowsnest Highway, and the South Saskatchewan River. Nearby communities considered part of the Medicine Hat area include the Town of Redcliff and the hamlets of Desert Blume, Dunmore, Irvine, Seven Persons, the Cypress Hills is a relatively short distance to the southeast of the city. Historically, Medicine Hat has been known for its natural gas fields. Because of these reserves, the city is known as The Gas City, the name Medicine Hat is the English translation of Saamis – the Blackfoot word for the eagle tail feather headdress worn by medicine men – or Medicine Hat. Another legend tells of a long ago between the Blackfoot and the Cree in which a retreating Cree Medicine Man lost his headdress in the South Saskatchewan River. A number of factors have always made Medicine Hat a natural gathering place, before Europeans arrived, the Blackfoot, Cree and Assiniboine nations used the area for hundreds of years. The gently sloping valley with its waterways and hardy native cottonwood trees attracted both humans and the migratory bison herds which passed through the area. In 1883, when the Canadian Pacific Railway reached Medicine Hat, as the west developed, Medicine Hat became instrumental with the development of the first hospital past Winnipeg in 1889 and as a CPR divisional point. It was incorporated as a town on October 31,1898, Medicine Hat is halfway between Winnipeg and Vancouver. Rich in natural resources including natural gas, coal, clay, and farmland, a number of large industries located here, under the inducement of cheap and plentiful energy resources. Coal mines, brick works, pottery and glass bottle manufacturing plants, flour mills, the agricultural potential of the surrounding area, both in crop and livestock, also made the town a viable service centre with a well established transportation route. An economic boom was experienced between 1909–1914 bringing the population to over 10,000, little growth occurred between the World Wars, although the population swelled in the mid-1940s due to the town hosting one of the largest Second World War P. O. W. It was not until the 1950s that the town experienced significant commercial development. Today, Medicine Hat prides itself as one of the most economical places to live in Canada, with its unique city-owned gas utility and power generation plant being predominant factors. Major industries have included chemical plants, a Goodyear tire and rubber plant, greenhouses, numerous oil and gas related companies, the Medicine Hat landscape is dominated by the South Saskatchewan River valley. In addition to this river, both the Seven Persons Creek and Ross Creek empty into the South Saskatchewan River within the City of Medicine Hat boundary
11.
Gardiner Dam
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The Gardiner Dam on the South Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan is the third largest embankment dam in Canada and one of the largest embankment dams in the world. The dam rises 64 metres in height, is almost 5 km long and has a width of 1.5 km at its base with a volume of 65,000,000 cubic meters, the dam is owned and operated by the Saskatchewan Watershed Authority. Danielson Provincial Park has property on both sides of the dam, on the northeast end is the RV park and on the southwest end is a beach, restaurant and guided tours of the Coteau Creek Hydroelectric Station. The park was named after Gustaf Herman Danielson, an integrated power generating plant, SaskPowers Coteau Creek Hydroelectric Station, produces a net 186 MW of electricity from three 62 MW generators. Highway 44 crosses the river atop the dam, the dam is named for a former Premier of Saskatchewan and longtime federal cabinet minister, James G. Gardiner. QuAppelle River Dam Danielson Provincial Park
12.
Qu'Appelle River
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With the construction of the QuAppelle River Dam and Gardiner Dam upstream water flow was significantly increased and regulated. Most of the QuAppelles present flow is actually water diverted from the South Saskatchewan River, the river also passes four provincial parks, Buffalo Pound Provincial Park, Echo Valley Provincial Park, Katepwa Point Provincial Park and Crooked Lake Provincial Park. The other tributaries include the Moose Jaw River, Wascana Creek, Loon Creek, Jumping Deer Creek, Pheasant Creek, Kaposvar Creek and Lanigan Creek. Last Mountain Lake, also known as Long Lake, the largest natural lake in southern Saskatchewan, drains into the QuAppelle near the town of Craven, in 1787, the North West Company established a fur trading post at Fort Espérance on the lower river. After it was abandoned in 1819, the Hudsons Bay Company established a post at Fort QuAppelle in 1852 immediately adjacent to the site of what became the town of the same name. The QuAppelle River and Valley derive their name from a Cree legend of a spirit that travels up, the aboriginal people told the North West Company trader Daniel Harmon in 1804 that they often heard the voice of a human being calling, Kâ-têpwêt. They would respond, and the call would echo back, in her version, a young Cree swain heard his name while crossing one of the lakes and replied, Who calls. Only his echo could be heard, and he realized it had been his bride-to-be calling out his name at the instant of her death, despite its evidently fictional nature, it is the trumped-up romantic version that holds sway today. Pilots commonly travel from Manitoba and Alberta and of other locations in Saskatchewan to fly this natural wonder of the prairies. The river valley contains relatively undisturbed grassland and coulees which provide habitat for plant and animal species, such as the loggerhead shrike. The easternmost slopes contain bur oaks, the natural occurrence of oak trees in Saskatchewan. Rock bass are Saskatchewans only native bass, the folksinger and activist Buffy Sainte-Marie was born on the Piapot Cree Reserve in the QuAppelle Valley. One of her songs is entitled QuAppelle Valley, Saskatchewan
13.
Shoal
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Often it refers to those submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise near enough to the surface of a body of water as to constitute a danger to navigation. Shoals are also known as sandbanks, sandbars, or gravelbars, two or more shoals that are either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by past and or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes are referred to as a shoal complex. The term shoal is also used in a number of ways that can be similar or quite different from how it is used in the geologic, geomorphic. Shoals are characteristically long and narrow ridges and they can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current promotes deposition of sediment and granular material, resulting in localized shallowing of the water. Marine shoals also develop either by the in place drowning of barrier islands as the result of sea level rise or by the erosion. Shoals can appear as a coastal landform in the sea, where they are classified as a type of bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers, streams. A shoal–sandbar may seasonally separate a smaller body of water from the sea, such as, Marine lagoons Brackish water estuaries Freshwater seasonal stream and river mouths and deltas. They are typically composed of sand, although they could be of any matter that the moving water has access to and is capable of shifting around. Wave shoaling is the process when surface waves move towards shallow water, such as a beach, they slow down, their wave height increases and this behavior is called shoaling, and the waves are said to shoal. The waves may or may not build to the point where they break, depending on how large they were to begin with, in particular, waves shoal as they pass over submerged sandbanks or reefs. This can be treacherous for boats and ships, shoaling can also diffract waves, so the waves change direction. For example, if waves pass over a bank which is shallower at one end than the other. Thus the wave fronts will refract, changing direction like light passing through a prism, refraction also occurs as waves move towards a beach if the waves come in at an angle to the beach, or if the beach slopes more gradually at one end than the other. Sandbars, also known as a trough bars, form where the waves are breaking, sometimes this occurs seaward of a trough. Sand carried by the moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the point of even larger waves. A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at an entrance or river mouth by. Where beaches are suitably mobile, or the river’s suspended and/or bed loads are large enough, deposition can build up a sandbar that completely blocks a river mouth and damming the river
14.
Montana
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Montana /mɒnˈtænə/ is a state in the Western region of the United States. The states name is derived from the Spanish word montaña, Montana has several nicknames, although none official, including Big Sky Country and The Treasure State, and slogans that include Land of the Shining Mountains and more recently The Last Best Place. Montana has a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It also borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, Montana is ranked 4th in size, but 44th in population and 48th in population density of the 50 United States. The western third of Montana contains numerous mountain ranges, smaller island ranges are found throughout the state. In total,77 named ranges are part of the Rocky Mountains, the eastern half of Montana is characterized by western prairie terrain and badlands. The economy is based on agriculture, including ranching and cereal grain farming. Other significant economic activities include oil, gas, coal and hard rock mining, lumber, the health care, service, and government sectors also are significant to the states economy. Millions of tourists annually visit Glacier National Park, the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, the name Montana comes from the Spanish word Montaña and the Latin word Montana, meaning mountain, or more broadly, mountainous country. Montaña del Norte was the name given by early Spanish explorers to the mountainous region of the west. The name was changed by Representatives Henry Wilson and Benjamin F. Harding, when Ashley presented a bill to establish a temporary government in 1864 for a new territory to be carved out of Idaho, he again chose Montana Territory. This time Rep. Samuel Cox, also of Ohio, objected to the name, Cox complained that the name was a misnomer given most of the territory was not mountainous and that a Native American name would be more appropriate than a Spanish one. Other names such as Shoshone were suggested, but it was decided that the Committee on Territories could name it whatever they wanted, with an area of 147,040 square miles, Montana is slightly larger than Japan. It is the fourth largest state in the United States after Alaska, Texas, and California, the largest landlocked U. S. state, and the worlds 56th largest national state/province subdivision. To the north, Montana shares a 545-mile border with three Canadian provinces, British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, the state to do so. It borders North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, the states topography is roughly defined by the Continental Divide, which splits much of the state into distinct eastern and western regions. Most of Montanas 100 or more named mountain ranges are in the western half. The Absaroka and Beartooth ranges in the states south-central part are part of the Central Rocky Mountains
15.
Glacier
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A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
16.
Rocky Mountains
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The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
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British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
18.
Red Deer River
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The Red Deer River is a river in Alberta and a small portion of Saskatchewan, Canada. It is a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River and is part of the larger Saskatchewan-Nelson system that empties into Hudson Bay. Red Deer River has a length of 724 kilometres and a drainage area of 45,100 square kilometres. Its mean discharge is 70 cubic metres per second, the river got its name from the translation of Was-ka-soo which means elk river in the Cree. Communities located along the Red Deer River include Sundre, Red Deer, Drumheller, a glacial flood about 18,000 years ago eroded out a portion of this basin and apparently all or most of the scenic badlands bearing the dinosaur and other Cretaceous fossils. Joseph Tyrrell discovered a coal seam here in 1883, besides large dinosaur skeletons. Twenty-four municipalities declared local states of emergency as water levels rose, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police stated four people may have drowned near High River. Over 100,000 people have been displaced throughout the region, at Drumheller it has a south-east direction, and while it flows through Dinosaur Provincial Park it turns east and flows to the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, which it crosses at Empress. It flows for 16 kilometres through Saskatchewan before it merges into the South Saskatchewan River, the waters of Ewing Lake, Little Fish Lake also flow into the Red Deer River. Sport fish include, northern pike, sauger, lake whitefish, yellow perch, burbot, lake sturgeon, mountain whitefish, goldeye, brown trout, bull trout, rainbow trout, brook trout, and cutthroat trout. The Red Deer River is the source for the City of Red Deer, Alberta. Pipelines cross under the river and there have been leaks disrupting access to potable water, about 75 to 125 barrels of crude oil flowed upstream from the breakpoint under a Red Deer River channel, leaving an oily sheen on Gleniffer Reservoir and 6800 kilograms of oil-soaked debris. The remediation was not completed until 2011, List of crossings of the Red Deer River List of longest rivers of Canada List of rivers of Alberta List of rivers of Saskatchewan Glacial Lake Bassano
19.
Tributary
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A tributary or affluent is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river or a lake. A tributary does not flow directly into a sea or ocean, tributaries and the main stem river drain the surrounding drainage basin of its surface water and groundwater, leading the water out into an ocean. A confluence, where two or more bodies of water together, usually refers to the joining of tributaries. The opposite to a tributary is a distributary, a river or stream that branches off from, distributaries are most often found in river deltas. Right tributary and left tributary are terms stating the orientation of the relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream, where tributaries have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks. These are typically designated by compass direction, for example, the American River receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago Rivers North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork, the South Branch has its South Fork, forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the handedness is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream, for instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek. Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river, the Strahler Stream Order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third, and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary, another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure, stored as a tree data structure
20.
Lake Diefenbaker
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Lake Diefenbaker is a reservoir and bifurcation lake in Southern Saskatchewan, Canada. It was formed by the construction of Gardiner Dam and the QuAppelle River Dam across the South Saskatchewan, construction began in 1959 and the lake was filled in 1967. The lake is 225 kilometres long with approximately 800 kilometres of shoreline and it has a maximum depth of 66 metres, while the water levels regularly fluctuate 3–9 metres each year. Lake Diefenbaker provides water for irrigation and town water supplies. The flow of the two rivers is now regulated with a portion of the South Saskatchewan diverted into the QuAppelle. Lake Diefenbaker is the largest body of water in southern Saskatchewan, Lake Diefenbaker was named after John G. Diefenbaker, former Prime Minister of Canada. Recreational activities include fishing, boating and camping, the town of Elbow, Saskatchewan contains a marina for boat storage and house boat rental. The only remaining ferry on the lake is the Riverhurst Ferry, Lake Diefenbaker is home to 26 native and stocked fish species. Both the current world-record rainbow trout and world-record burbot were caught in the lake, the lake itself along with Battle Creek are the only two bodies of water in Saskatchewan that support a reproducing population of rainbow trout. The lakes sandy beaches provide habitat for the endangered piping plover. The long stretches of water and poorly consolidated shore materials makes the shores vulnerable to erosion. Between 1968 and 1992 bank recession rates have ranged up to 3 metres a year with higher rates in exposed areas. List of lakes of Saskatchewan Gardiner Dam QuAppelle River Dam Elbow Lake Diefenbaker, water Management Fish Species of Saskatchewan Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan
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Reservoir
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A reservoir is a storage space for fluids. These fluids may be water, hydrocarbons or gas, a reservoir usually means an enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment created using a dam or lock to store water. Reservoirs can be created by controlling a stream that drains a body of water. They can also be constructed in river valleys using a dam, alternately, a reservoir can be built by excavating flat ground or constructing retaining walls and levees. Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that may be elevated, at grade level, tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns. Underground reservoirs are used to store liquids, principally either water or petroleum, a dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. Dams are typically located at a part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as walls, with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength. In many reservoir construction projects, people have to be moved and re-housed, construction of a reservoir in a valley will usually need the river to be diverted during part of the build, often through a temporary tunnel or by-pass channel. In hilly regions, reservoirs are constructed by enlarging existing lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs the new top water level exceeds the height on one or more of the feeder streams such as at Llyn Clywedog in Mid Wales. In such cases additional side dams are required to contain the reservoir, where water is pumped or siphoned from a river of variable quality or quantity, bank-side reservoirs may be built to store the water. Such reservoirs are usually formed partly by excavation and partly by building a complete encircling bund or embankment, the water stored in such reservoirs may stay there for several months, during which time normal biological processes may substantially reduce many contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of reservoirs also allows water abstraction to be stopped for some time. Service reservoirs store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution, many service reservoirs are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the landscape is relatively flat. Other service reservoirs can be almost entirely underground, especially in hilly or mountainous country. In the United Kingdom, Thames Water has many underground reservoirs, sometimes called cisterns, built in the 1800s. A good example is the Honor Oak Reservoir in London, constructed between 1901 and 1909, when it was completed it was said to be the largest brick built underground reservoir in the world and it is still one of the largest in Europe
22.
Qu'Appelle River Dam
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The Quappelle River Dam is the smaller of two embankment dams, which created Lake Diefenbaker in Saskatchewan, Canada. The larger dam is Gardiner Dam, the biggest embankment dam in Canada, construction of both dams began in the 1959 and was completed in 1967. This along with Buffalo Pound Dam at Buffalo Pound Lake, which supplies water to Regina, Moose Jaw, the Canadian Pacific Railway crosses the river atop of the dam. The dam is 3100 metres long and 27 metres high, douglas Provincial Park extends from the dam to Mistusinne. Highway 19 crosses the QuAppelle Valley about 1 km southeast of the dam, and provides access to a point of the dam Lake Diefenbaker. During the time of glaciation on North America, the glacier would block the flow north. When the glaciers retreated further, water would then flow north, before the Gardiner Dam was built, spring flows were high enough to allow water down the QuAppelle but would dry up later in the fall. Now as the QuAppelle Dam always retains the water of Lake Diefenbaker, water is released into the QuAppelle to maintain flows all year long and this serves the farmers along the QuAppelle who use it for irrigation and watering their livestock
23.
Dam
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A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity, a dam can also be used to collect water or for storage of water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English, and before that, from Middle Dutch, the first known appearance of dam occurs in 1165. However, there is one village, Obdam, that is mentioned in 1120. The word seems to be related to the Greek word taphos, so the word should be understood as dike from dug out earth. The names of more than 40 places from the Middle Dutch era such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, early dam building took place in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. Dams were used to control the level, for Mesopotamias weather affected the Tigris. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan,100 kilometres northeast of the capital Amman and this gravity dam featured an originally 9-metre-high and 1 m-wide stone wall, supported by a 50 m-wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC, the Ancient Egyptian Sadd-el-Kafara Dam at Wadi Al-Garawi, located about 25 km south of Cairo, was 102 m long at its base and 87 m wide. The structure was built around 2800 or 2600 BC as a dam for flood control. During the Twelfth Dynasty in the 19th century BC, the Pharaohs Senosert III, Amenemhat III, two dams called Ha-Uar running east-west were built to retain water during the annual flood and then release it to surrounding lands. The lake called Mer-wer or Lake Moeris covered 1,700 km2 and is today as Berkat Qaroun. One of the wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen. Repairs were carried out during various periods, most important around 750 BC and these extensive works were not actually finalized until 325 AD and allowed the irrigation of 25,000 acres. By the mid-late 3rd century BC, an intricate water-management system within Dholavira in modern-day India was built, the system included 16 reservoirs, dams and various channels for collecting water and storing it. Eflatun Pınar is a Hittite dam and spring temple near Konya and it is thought to be from the time of the Hittite empire between the 15th and 13th century BC
24.
North Saskatchewan River
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The North Saskatchewan River is a glacier-fed river that flows east from the Canadian Rockies to central Saskatchewan. It is one of two rivers that join to make up the Saskatchewan River. The Saskatchewan River system is the largest shared between the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and it includes most of southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan, before crossing into central Manitoba. North Saskatchewan River has a length of 1,287 kilometres, at its end point at Saskatchewan River Forks it has a mean discharge of 245 cubic metres per second. The yearly discharge at the Alberta–Saskatchewan border is more than 7 cubic kilometres, the river begins above 1,800 metres at the toe of the Saskatchewan Glacier in the Columbia Icefield, and flows southeast through Banff National Park alongside the Icefields Parkway. At the junction of the David Thompson Highway, it turns northeast for 10 kilometres before switching to a more direct eastern flow for about 30 kilometres. At this point, it turns north where it arrives at Abraham Lake. Bighorn Dam constricts the north end of Abraham Lake, where the North Saskatchewan emerges to track eastward to Rocky Mountain House, at Rocky Mountain House, the river abruptly turns north again for 100 kilometres where it switches east towards Edmonton, Alberta. From the border, the river flows southeast between North Battleford and Battleford and on in the direction of Saskatoon, about 40 kilometres northwest of Saskatoon, near Langham, the river veers to the northeast where it passes through the City of Prince Albert. About 30 kilometres downstream of Prince Albert, the North Saskatchewan River joins the South Saskatchewan River at Saskatchewan River Forks to become the Saskatchewan River, from there, the river flows east to Tobin Lake and into Manitoba, eventually emptying into Lake Winnipeg. The river course can be divided into five distinct sections, the first, the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, is the smallest area geographically, although the largest in terms of run-off and contributed water flow. The glaciers and perpetual snows of the mountain feed the river year-round. Mountains, with vegetation, experience fast-melting snow cover. The second section of the river comprises the foothills region, the terrain is hilly and rough, with a deeper and more defined valley. This area is covered with forest and muskeg, and run-off into the river is much more constant. From Edmonton to the mouth of the Vermilion River, the North Saskatchewan flows through the plains-parkland divide, the North Saskatchewan River valley parks system, the largest expanses of urban parkland in Canada. Cutting across Edmonton and the Capital Region, the valley of the river is much wider, and the river itself spreads out across shallow water and flows over many shifting sand bars. Low-lying, flat areas, border the river for much of this section, the final section of the river, from Prince Albert to the Saskatchewan River Forks, has many rapids
25.
Prince Albert, Saskatchewan
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Prince Albert is the third-largest city in Saskatchewan, Canada, after Saskatoon and Regina. It is situated near the centre of the province on the banks of the North Saskatchewan River, the city is known as the Gateway to the North because it is the last major centre along the route to the resources of northern Saskatchewan. Prince Albert National Park is located 51 km north of the city and contains a wealth of lakes, forest. The city itself is located in a zone between the aspen parkland and boreal forest biomes. Prince Albert is bordered by the Rural Municipality of Prince Albert No.461, the area was named kistahpinanihk by the Cree, which translates to sitting pretty place, a great meeting place. Or meeting place The first white man to travel through the area that is now Prince Albert was Henry Kelsey in 1692, the first establishment in the area was a trading post set up in 1776 by Peter Pond. James Isbister, an Anglo-Métis employee of the Hudsons Bay Company and he farmed there until 1866, and had been joined by a number of families who called the site Isbisters Settlement. The community received a boost in 1866 when Reverend James Nisbet, Nisbet named the mission after Albert, Prince Consort, husband of Queen Victoria, who had died in 1861, from which the present city derives its name. In 1879 the Presbyterian Church brought out Lucy Margaret Baker to run the mission school. During the same year, the local Freemasons established the first lodge in what is now the province of Saskatchewan, Kinistino Lodge No. The Mission, the settlement centrally located, and Porter Town, the settlement east of Prince Albert was termed Goschen before finally amalgamated, however East Prince Albert still appears on a 1924 map. In 1884, Honore Jaxon and James Isbister were involved in the movement which brought Louis Riel back to Canada, Riel returned from the United States following a political exile resulting from the Red River Rebellion that had occurred in 1869–1870. Five hundred people gathered to hear Riel speak one month after his return, in the Northwest Rebellion of the 1885, Prince Albert Volunteers bore the heaviest casualties of the fighting at the Battle of Duck Lake. Surrounding settlers took refuge with the North-West Mounted Police in an improvised stockade at Prince Albert, fearing an attack by Gabriel Dumont. After the Battle of Batoche, Major General Frederick Middleton marched to Prince Albert to relieve the town, Prince Albert, with a population of about 800 people, was incorporated as a town the same year under its first mayor, Thomas McKay. In 1904, the settlement was incorporated as the City of Prince Albert and its government is of a council-mayor type. Prince Albert was the capital of the District of Saskatchewan, an administrative division of what then constituted the Northwest Territories. The District of Saskatchewan was formed on May 8,1882 and this ended in 1905 when Saskatchewan became a province and Regina was designated the new provincial capital
26.
Meewasin Valley Authority
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The authoritys activities include education, development and conservation. The authority is involved in the River Landing redevelopment.5 km of which are paved. Meewasin is governed by a 12 member board with four each from the three participating parties, City of Saskatoon, Province of Saskatchewan, and University of Saskatchewan. The Conservation Zone covers approximately 25 square miles, Meewasin is the means by which the three participating parties have chosen to manage their lands, through one common authority. Meewasin is a conservation organization as it has statutory authority to control development in the Conservation Zone along the river valley. Meewasin has three mandates that focus on conservation, development, and education, Conservation, Protection of natural and heritage resources in the valley is one of Meewasins primary goals. The goal of the Resource Conservation Department is to protect, conserve, development, The Meewasin Valley Trail follows the South Saskatchewan River through Saskatoon. Cross-country skiing is popular during the months, along with skating in Kiwanis Memorial Park. Access points are found throughout the city with interpretive signage and washrooms located along the route, in the winter the Meewasin Skating Rink is free to the public, it is located in Kiwanis Memorial Park beside the Delta Bessborough hotel. The rink has been open since 1980, the Centre also provides tourist information and a gift shop. The MVC staff delivers a cultural program to most grade 3 students in Saskatoon. The Centre partnered with organizations to host such events as the annual Heritage Festival of Saskatoon, National Rivers Day. The Meewasin Valley Center is located along the riverbank in Friendship Park, Beaver Creek Conservation Area, Beaver Creek Conservation Area is located 13 km south of Saskatoon. A sheltered creek, river valley, and prairie habitat offer a diversity of flora and it is the microcosm of the Meewasin Valley, and contains one of the few uncultivated short grass prairie sites in Saskatchewan. Public programs are Moon Hikes, Perseid Meteor Showers, Heritage Hoopla, approximately 54% of its budget for 2006–07 came from non statutory sources to support conservation, development and education initiatives
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Oxbow lake
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An oxbow lake is a U-shaped body of water that forms when a wide meander from the main stem of a river is cut off, creating a free-standing body of water. This landform is so named for its curved shape, resembling the bow pin of an oxbow. In Australia, a lake is known as a billabong. In south Texas, oxbows left by the Rio Grande are called resacas, the word oxbow can also refer to a U-shaped bend in a river or stream, whether or not it is cut off from the main stream. An oxbow lake forms when a river creates a meander, due to the rivers eroding the bank through hydraulic action, abrasion and erosion, when a river reaches a low-lying plain, often in its final course to the sea or a lake, it meanders widely. In the vicinity of a bend, deposition occurs on the convex bank. The narrow neck of land between the two neighboring concave banks is finally cut through, either by lateral erosion of the two concave banks or by the currents of a flood. When this happens, a new river channel is created. When deposition finally seals off the cutoff from the river channel and this process can occur over a time scale from a few years to several decades and may sometimes become essentially static. Gathering of erosion products near the bank and transporting them to the convex bank is the work of the secondary flow across the floor of the river in the vicinity of a river bend. The process of deposition of silt, sand and gravel on the bank is clearly illustrated in point bars. River flood plains that contain rivers with a highly sinuous platform are populated by longer oxbow lakes than those with low sinuosity and this is because rivers with high sinuosity have larger meanders, and greater opportunity for longer lakes to form. Rivers with lower sinuosity are characterized by fewer cutoffs and shorter oxbow lakes due to the distance of their meanders. The effect of the flow can be demonstrated using a circular bowl. Partly fill the bowl with water and sprinkle dense particles such as sand or rice into the bowl, set the water into circular motion with one hand or a spoon. The dense particles quickly sweep into a pile in the center of the bowl. This is the mechanism that leads to the formation of point bars, the primary flow of water in the bowl is circular and the streamlines are concentric with the side of the bowl. However, the flow of the boundary layer across the floor of the bowl is inward toward the center
28.
Hydroelectricity
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Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015 hydropower generated 16. 6% of the total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013, China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013, representing 16.9 percent of domestic electricity use. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a source of renewable electricity. The hydro station consumes no water, unlike coal or gas plants, the average cost of electricity from a hydro station larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U. S. cents per kilowatt-hour. With a dam and reservoir it is also a source of electricity since the amount produced by the station can be changed up or down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, by the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well, in 1878 the worlds first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power an arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No.1 near Niagara Falls in the U. S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30,1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, by 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the U. S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U. S. alone, at the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors, by 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land, as the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century, Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty. Hoover Dams initial 1,345 MW power station was the worlds largest hydroelectric station in 1936
29.
Leader, Saskatchewan
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Leader is a town in southwestern Saskatchewan, Canada, located approximately 350 kilometres directly east of Calgary, Alberta and is near the border between Saskatchewan and Alberta. It has a population of 881 as of 2006, before settlement, the Leader area was a hunting ground of prehistoric humans. A Midland Folsom point was discovered that the University of Saskatchewan dated back 8,000 to 9,000 years before present, Leader lies in the traditional territory of the Nekaneet First Nation, who were signatories to Treaty 4. Homesteaders began arriving in numbers in 1907, most were German immigrants from southern Russia. An RCMP detachment opened in 1909, and ensured all the settlers had adequate supplies to last the winter, by 1911, the Canadian Pacific Railway purchased a quarter section of land as the prospective site for a settlement. The railway arrived in 1913 and the village of Prussia was incorporated in September of that year, by 1917, anti-German sentiment surrounding the events of World War I prompted the community to change its name, as well as its German street names to numbers. The new name was chosen after a contest won by two girls, Bertha Keller and Muriel Legault. They were inspired by the arrival of the Regina Morning Leader newspaper on the passenger train, the village name was officially changed to Leader on September 27,1917, soon after, it incorporated as a town on November 1. W. T. Smith, a rancher, had the distinction of building North Americas largest barn. The Smith Barn was completed in 1914, having taken 100 men five months to complete its construction, Smith died in 1918, and his massive barn was dismantled down to the concrete foundation in 1921. The concrete foundation remains there to this day, following World War II the towns population grew, reaching a peak of 1236 in 1966. Since then the population has decreased, following Saskatchewans overall trend of rural flight. In 1995, American aviator Steve Fossett landed near Leader after taking off from South Korea, in the 2008-2009 provincial budget, the Ministry of Highways committed to rebuild Highway 32 between the villages of Shackleton and Prelate. The project was completed in November 2010 at a cost of $44.4 million, Leader is located in Saskatchewans mixed grassland ecoregion. The southern landscape is dominated by plains, with rolling hills by the South Saskatchewan River located 10 km north of Leader. The Great Sand Hills, a 1900 square kilometre region of arid plains, the town is located at the junction of highways 21 and 32, and is approximately 30 km east of the border with Alberta. Like much of southwestern Saskatchewan, Leader experiences a semi-arid climate, winters are long, cold and dry, while summers are short but very warm. Average precipitation is 10 inches of rain per year and 31 inches of snow per annum, mean temperatures in the area range from a January low of -19 °C to a summer high in July of +26 °C
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Outlook, Saskatchewan
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Outlook is a town in west central Saskatchewan, Canada about 80 km south-southwest of Saskatoon. It is located along the South Saskatchewan River downstream from Gardiner Dam, settlement of the area began in the early 1900s with farmers and immigrants moving into the area looking for farmland. Outlook officially started as a settlement on August 26,1908 when the Canadian Pacific Railway commenced the auction of lots, on November 23,1908 the citizens of Outlook welcomed the first train which arrived from Moose Jaw. Within the month the CPR was running a train service carrying huge piles of lumber, however the supply of workers. The Outlook CPR Station building was built in 1909 and a later, on November 1,1910. Outlooks arts program includes the Equinox Theatre, who in conjunction with LCBI Theatre Group put up throughout the year. The Outlook and District Community Arts Council recently opened an art gallery in the Town Office Building, Outlook & District Regional Park is situated along the South Saskatchewan River. It has 50 electrified campsites, an outdoor heated junior size Olympic swimming pool and paddling pool for toddlers, hiking trails, the Skytrail bridge is an old railway bridge, converted for pedestrian use, it is 3000 feet long and stands 156 ft above the South Saskatchewan River. The skytrail bridge is closed to the public due to unsafe conditions. Outlook railway station building is home to the Outlook & District Heritage Museum The museum has over 2500 artifacts from the Outlook area, the Centre has many tours during the summer as well as a field day in July. Danielson Provincial Park is 50 km south on Highway 219 and Highway 44 provides access to Gardiner Dam, the highest temperature ever recorded in Outlook was 41.1 °C on June 16,1933 and July 4,1937. The coldest temperature recorded was −52.2 °C on February 25,1919. The Outlook Recreation Complex has a skating rink, a 4-sheet curling rink, a 4-lane bowling alley, the Jim Kook Arena in the Complex is home to many sports programs throughout the year, including the Outlook Minor Sports program. It is home to the Outlook Ice Hawks senior hockey team, the Outlook Stock Car Association maintains a stock car 1/3 mile high banked clay oval track. The track runs 10 or more races a season, Outlook is home of the Maniberta Baseball League draft. Outlook Airport is located South East of Outlook, Outlook has an award-winning recycling program that has been recognized across North America. The Town of Outlook has recycled nearly three million lbs of cardboard as of 2003, and nearly 2 million lbs of newspaper, Outlook is located within the Sun West School Division. Outlook high school is full of fins and bullys Outlook High School - a public school offering grades 6-12 which also houses the Wheatland Library Outlook Branch, Outlook High School is home to the Blues athletics program
31.
Slump (geology)
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A slump is a form of mass wasting that occurs when a coherent mass of loosely consolidated materials or rock layers moves a short distance down a slope. Movement is characterized by sliding along a concave-upward or planar surface, causes of slumping include earthquake shocks, thorough wetting, freezing and thawing, undercutting, and loading of a slope. Translational slumps occur when a detached landmass moves along a planar surface, common planar surfaces of failure include joints or bedding planes, especially where a permeable layer overrides an impermeable surface. Block slumps are a type of translational slump in which one or more related block units move downslope as a coherent mass. Rotational slumps occur when a block, composed of sediment or rock. Rotational movement causes the surface of the block to become less steep. This results in internal deformation of the mass consisting chiefly of overturned folds called sheath folds. The cut which forms as the landmass breaks away from the slope is called the scarp and is often cliff-like, in rotational slumps, the main slump block often breaks into a series of secondary slumps and associated scarps to form stairstep pattern of displaced blocks. The upper surface of the blocks are rotated backwards, forming depressions which may accumulate water to create ponds or swampy areas, the surface of the detached mass often remains relatively undisturbed, especially at the top. However, hummocky ridges may form near the toe of the slump, addition of water and loss of sediment cohesion at the toe may transform slumping material into an earthflow. Transverse cracks at the head scarp drain water, possibly killing vegetation, transverse ridges, transverse cracks and radial cracks form in displaced material on the foot of the slump. Slumps frequently form due to removal of a base, either from natural or manmade processes. Stream or wave erosion, as well as road construction are common instigators for slumping and it is the removal of the slopes physical support which provokes this mass wasting event. Thorough wetting is a cause, which explains why slumping is often associated with heavy rainfall, storm events. Rain provides lubrication for the material to slide, and increases the self-mass of the material, both factors increase the rate of slumping. Earthquakes also trigger massive slumps, such as the fatal slumps of Turnagain Heights Subdivision in Anchorage and this particular slump was initiated by a magnitude 8.4 earthquake that resulted in liquefaction of the soil. Around 75 houses were destroyed by the Turnagain Slump, power lines, fences, roads, houses, and other manmade structures may be damaged if in the path of a slump. The speed of slump varies widely, ranging from meters per second, sudden slumps usually occur after earthquakes or heavy continuing rains, and can stabilize within a few hours
32.
Fish
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A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
33.
Walleye
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Walleye is a freshwater perciform fish native to most of Canada and to the Northern United States. It is a North American close relative of the European Zander, walleyes show a fair amount of variation across watersheds. In general, fish within a watershed are quite similar and are distinct from those of nearby watersheds. The common name, walleye, comes from the fact that the fishs eyes point outward and this eyeshine is the result of a light-gathering layer in the eyes called the tapetum lucidum, which allows the fish to see well in low-light conditions. In fact, many look for walleyes at night since this is when major feeding patterns occur. The fishs eyes also allow them to see well in turbid waters, thus, walleye anglers will commonly look for locations where there is a good walleye chop. This excellent vision also allows the fish to populate the regions in a lake. Walleyes are largely olive and gold in color, the dorsal side of a walleye is olive, grading into a golden hue on the flanks. The olive/gold pattern is broken up by five darker saddles that extend to the upper sides, the color shades to white on the belly. The mouth of a walleye is large and is armed with sharp teeth. The first dorsal and anal fins are spinous, as is the Operculum, walleyes are distinguished from their close cousin the sauger by the white coloration on the lower lobe of the caudal fin which is absent on the sauger. In addition, the two dorsals and the fin of the sauger are marked with distinctive rows of black dots which are absent from or indistinct on the same fins of walleyes. Walleyes grow to about 80 cm in length, and weigh up to about 9 kg, the maximum recorded size for the fish is 107 cm in length and 13 kilograms in weight. The rate depends partly on where in their range they occur, in general, females grow larger than males. Walleyes may live for decades, the recorded age is 29 years. In heavily fished populations, however, few walleye older than five or six years of age are encountered, in North America, where they are highly prized, their typical size when caught is on the order of 30 to 50 cm, substantially below their potential size. As walleye grow longer, they increase in weight, for walleye, b =3.180 and c =0.000228. The relationship described in this section suggests a 50 cm walleye will weigh about 1.5 kg, in most of the species range, male walleyes mature sexually between three and four years of age
34.
Sauger
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The sauger is a freshwater perciform fish of the family Percidae which resembles its close relative the walleye. They are members of the largest vertebrate order, Perciformes and they are the most migratory percid species in North America. Saugers obtain two dorsal fins, the first is spiny and the dorsal fin is a soft-rayed fin. Their paired fins are in the position and their caudal fin is truncated which means squared off at the corners. Another physical characteristic of Saugers are their ctenoid scales which is common in advanced fishes, Saugers have a fusiform body structure, and as a result saugers are well adapted predatory fishes and are capable of swimming into fast currents with minimal drag on their bodies. The average sauger in an anglers creel is 300 to 400 g in weight, Saugers are a widely distributed fish species. Their historical range consisted of eastern U. S west of the Appalachian Mountains, mostly southern, central, Sauger distribution and range has decreased from historical ranges because of degraded and fragmented habitat conditions. Sauger distribution within its range varies by time of year because they are a migratory fish species. Saugers are more typical of rivers whereas walleyes are more common in lakes, in many parts of their range, saugers are sympatric with walleyes. Hybridization between saugers and walleyes is not unknown, the hybrids, referred to as saugeyes, exhibit traits of both species, being intermediate in appearance between the two species, saugeyes are sometimes difficult to differentiate, but they generally carry the dark blotches characteristic of the sauger. Saugers, however, are smaller and will better tolerate waters of higher turbidity than the walleye. Saugers require warmer summer temperatures of 20-28 degrees Celsius. The need for water temperatures is thought to affect the northern and western boundaries of their range. Saugers generally move upstream to spawn during March–May depending on where their home locations are and they move downstream to their home locations from April–July after their spawning period is over. Saugers have been known to travel between 10 and 600 km from their home to spawning location downstream, habitat at spawning sites are less complex and diverse than home locations. Females prefer rocky substrate and pools to deposit their eggs, as females increase in length, egg quality and fecundity increase. However, it is thought that egg production begins to decline after age 6 in female sauger, sexual maturity is reached between 2 and 5 years old. Other measures of sexual maturity are related to size, a sauger is considered to be an adult when it reaches 250–300 mm
35.
Yellow perch
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The yellow perch, commonly referred to as perch, is a freshwater perciform fish native to much of North America. The yellow perch was described in 1814 by Samuel Latham Mitchill from New York, yellow perch are closely related, and morphologically similar to the European perch, however, the two are recognized as independent species based on anatomical and genetic differences. Other common names for yellow perch include American perch, coontail, lake perch, raccoon perch, ring-tail perch, ringed perch, and striped perch. Latitudinal variability in age, growth rates, and size have been observed among populations of perch, likely resulting from differences in day-length. Typically, northern populations of yellow perch live longer and grow to larger sizes, however, southern populations of yellow perch generally grow much faster. In many populations, yellow perch often live from 9–10 years, the world record yellow perch was caught in 1865 from New Jersey, and is the longest standing record for freshwater fish in North America. The yellow perch has a yellow to brass-colored body and distinct pattern, consisting of five to nine olive-green, vertical bars, triangular in shape and its fins are lighter in coloration, with an orange hue on the margins. The anterior portion of the body is deep, gradually tapering into a slender caudal peduncle, the opercle is partially scaled, and a single spine is present on the posterior margin. As with all percid fishes, yellow perch have two dorsal fins, the anterior is convex in shape and consists of 11–15 spines. The posterior dorsal fin has a margin, consisting of one or two spines and 12–16 rays. The nape, breast, and belly of yellow perch are all fully scaled, a complete lateral line is present. The anal fin consists of two spines and six to nine rays, a single spine and five rays make up the pelvic fins, and the pectoral fins consist of 13–15 rays. The caudal fin of the perch is forked. Yellow perch are found in North America, they are native to the Arctic, Atlantic, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River. In Canada, its range extends throughout Nova Scotia and Quebec north to the Mackenzie River. It also is common in the northwest to Great Slave Lake and it is not native to any other areas of Canada. In the United States, the range extends south into Ohio, Illinois. It is also considered native to the Atlantic Slope basin, extending south to the Savannah River, the yellow perch has also been widely introduced for sport and commercial fishing purposes
36.
Northern pike
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The northern pike, known simply as a pike in Britain, Ireland, most of Canada, and most parts of the United States, is a species of carnivorous fish of the genus Esox. They are typical of brackish and fresh waters of the Northern Hemisphere, Pike can grow to a relatively large size, the average length is about 40–55 cm, with maximum recorded lengths of up to 150 cm and published weights of 28.4 kg. The IGFA currently recognizes a 25 kg pike caught by Lothar Louis in Lake on Grefeern, Germany, on 16 October 1986, the northern pike gets its common name from its resemblance to the pole-weapon known as the pike. Toothy, and other names as long head and pointy nose. Numerous other names can be found in Field Museum Zool and its earlier common name, the luci, was used to form its taxonomic name and is used in heraldry. Northern pike are most often green, shading from yellow to white along the belly. The flank is marked with short, light spots and a few to many dark spots on the fins. Younger pike have yellow stripes along a body, later, the stripes divide into light spots. The lower half of the gill cover lacks scales, and it has large pores on its head. A hybrid between northern pike and muskellunge is known as a tiger muskellunge, in the hybrids, the males are invariably sterile, while females are often fertile, and may back-cross with the parent species. Another form of northern pike, the pike, is not a subspecies. Silver pike, sometimes called silver muskellunge, lack the rows of spots and appear silver, white, when ill, silver pike have been known to display a somewhat purplish hue, long illness is also the most common cause of male sterility. In Italy, the newly identified species Esox cisalpinus was long thought to be a variation of the northern pike. Northern pike in North America seldom reach the size of their European counterparts and it was caught in Great Sacandaga Lake on 15 September 1940 by Peter Dubuc. As northern pike grow longer, they increase in weight, for northern pike, b =3.096 and c =0.000180. The relationship described in this section suggests a 20-inch northern pike will weigh about 2 lb, Pike are found in sluggish streams and shallow, weedy places in lakes, as well as in cold, clear, rocky waters. They are typical ambush predators, they lie in wait for prey, holding perfectly still for long periods, in short, they inhabit any water body that contains fish, but suitable places for spawning are essential for their numbers. Because of their nature, young pike need places where they can take shelter between plants so they are not eaten
37.
Lake trout
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Lake trout is a freshwater char living mainly in lakes in northern North America. Other names for it include mackinaw, lake char, touladi, togue, in Lake Superior, it can also be variously known as siscowet, paperbelly and lean. The lake trout is prized both as a fish and as a food fish. From a zoogeographical perspective, lake trout have a narrow distribution. They are native only to the parts of North America, principally Canada, but also Alaska and, to some extent. Lake trout have been introduced into non-native waters in North America and into many other parts of the world, mainly Europe. Lake trout are the largest of the chars, the record weighed almost 46.3 kilograms with a length of 50 inches, the average length is 24–36 inches. The largest caught on a rod and reel according to the IGFA was 72 pounds, when hooked, especially the big ones will make a short run and just thump and twist and turn. Lake trout inhabit cold, oxygen-rich waters and they are pelagic during the period of summer stratification in dimictic lakes, often living at depths of 20–60 m. The lake trout is a fish, typical of oligotrophic waters. It is also late to mature. Populations are extremely susceptible to overfishing, many native lake trout populations have been severely damaged through the combined effects of hatchery stocking and over harvest. Three subspecies of trout are accepted. There is the lake trout, the siscowet lake trout. Some lakes do not have pelagic forage fish during the period of summer stratification, in these lakes, lake trout take on a life history known as planktivory. Lake trout in planktivorous populations are abundant, grow very slowly. In those lakes that do contain deep-water forage, lake trout become piscivorous, piscivorous lake trout grow much more quickly, mature at a larger size and are less abundant. In Lake Superior, common lake trout and siscowet lake trout live together, Common lake trout tend to stay in shallower waters, while siscowet lake trout stay in deeper water
38.
Rainbow trout
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The rainbow trout is a trout and species of salmonid native to cold-water tributaries of the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America. The steelhead is a form of the coastal rainbow trout or Columbia River redband trout that usually returns to fresh water to spawn after living two to three years in the ocean. Freshwater forms that have been introduced into the Great Lakes and migrate into tributaries to spawn are also called steelhead, adult freshwater stream rainbow trout average between 1 and 5 lb, while lake-dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb. Coloration varies widely based on subspecies, forms and habitat, adult fish are distinguished by a broad reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail, which is most vivid in breeding males. Wild-caught and hatchery-reared forms of species have been transplanted and introduced for food or sport in at least 45 countries. Introductions to locations outside their range in the United States, Southern Europe, Australia, New Zealand. Some local populations of subspecies, or in the case of steelhead. The steelhead is the state fish of Washington. The scientific name of the trout is Oncorhynchus mykiss. The species was named by German naturalist and taxonomist Johann Julius Walbaum in 1792 based on type specimens from the Kamchatka Peninsula in Siberia. Walbaums original species name, mykiss, was derived from the local Kamchatkan name used for the fish, the name of the genus is from the Greek onkos and rynchos, in reference to the hooked jaws of males in the mating season. In 1855, William P. Gibbons, the curator of Geology and Mineralogy at the California Academy of Sciences, found a population and named it Salmo iridia and these names faded once it was determined that Walbaums description of type specimens was conspecific and therefore had precedence. Thus, in 1989, taxonomic authorities moved the rainbow, cutthroat, Walbaums name had precedence, so the species name Oncorhynchus mykiss became the scientific name of the rainbow trout. The previous species names irideus and gairdneri were adopted as subspecies names for the rainbow and Columbia River redband trout. Anadromous forms of the rainbow trout or redband trout are commonly known as steelhead. Subspecies of Oncorhynchus mykiss are listed below as described by fisheries biologist Robert J. Behnke, resident freshwater rainbow trout adults average between 1 and 5 lb in riverine environments, while lake-dwelling and anadromous forms may reach 20 lb. Coloration varies widely between regions and subspecies, adult freshwater forms are generally blue-green or olive green with heavy black spotting over the length of the body. Adult fish have a reddish stripe along the lateral line, from gills to the tail
39.
Lake whitefish
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The lake whitefish is a species of freshwater whitefish from North America. Lake whitefish are found much of Canada and parts of the northern United States. The lake whitefish is sometimes referred to as a humpback fish due to the size of the head in relation to the length of the body. It is a commercial fish, and also occasionally taken by sport fishermen. Smoked, refrigerated, vacuum-packed lake whitefish fillets are available in North American grocery stores, other vernacular names used for this fish include Sault whitefish, gizzard fish, common whitefish, eastern whitefish, Great Lakes whitefish, humpback whitefish, inland whitefish and whitefish. The scientific genus name Coregonus means angle eye in Greek and the species name clupeaformis means herring-shaped in Latin, Lake whitefish are similar in appearance to other whitefishes in the Coregoninae subfamily of the salmon family Salmonidae, such as the northern cisco. As with all salmonids, they have an adipose fin, to the distinction from cisco, the lake whitefish has a snout which overhangs the short lower jaw, so that the mouth opens in a slightly inferior position. Thus the fish can feed on the bottom of beds or grab food particulates out of the water or from the surface of a water body. The cisco in turn has a snout with a lower jaw that extends beyond the snout. Both the cisco and lake whitefish are discernible from the due to the small posterior dorsal adipose fin. Another notable feature of the whitefish is the presence of two small flaps in each nostril. Their coloration is silver to white with an olive to pale-green or brown dorsal hues. The ventral fins are white and the tail has a dark posterior edge, the tail fin of the lake whitefish is severely forked, making it a fast swimmer. Lake whitefish from inland lakes can reach a weight upwards of 5 pounds, on average, the lake whitefish weighs only 4 pounds. They can grow to 31 inches and commonly reach 20 inches, Lake whitefish are cool water fish. They are found in a number of inland lakes. The lake whitefish is distributed from Alaska and western Canada to the Atlantic coastal drainage of Maine, Lake whitefish spawn from September through January in water two to four metres in depth during the night. In the autumn, mature lake whitefish enter the shallows to lay their eggs on shoals of rubble, there is no parental care of the young
40.
Cisco (fish)
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The ciscoes are salmonid fish of the genus Coregonus that differ from other members of the genus in having upper and lower jaws of approximately equal length and high gill raker counts. These species have been the focus of much study recently, as researchers have sought to determine the relationships among species that appear to have evolved very recently, the term cisco is also specifically used of the North American species Coregonus artedi, also known as lake herring. In previous taxonomic classifications, the ciscoes have been identified as a subgenus Leucichthys of the genus Coregonus, based on molecular data this is not a natural classification however, as the ciscoes are polyphyletic, comprising two different lineages within the freshwater whitefishes. Eight taxa of cisco have been recognized in the Laurentian Great Lakes and they exhibit different habitat distributions, feeding and breeding habits and morphological adaptations e. g. in their gill raker numbers. In the Great Lakes, at least five ciscoes coexist, therefore, it has been suggested that they should not be recognized formally as distinct taxa, but all considered members of a single species, Coregonus artedi. or Coregonus artedi complex. Nevertheless, for conservation and management purposes the sympatric morphs in each lake should be considered ESUs and this taxonomic view is not widely accepted however, which has complicated discussions of the conservation status of some species. Ciscoes have been exploited in commercial fisheries, particularly in the Laurentian Great Lakes where the forms were the basis of the so-called chub fishery. The chub fishery had nothing to do with the various fish species known as chubs but was exclusively based on the various species of ciscoes. The fishery continued as cisco stocks fell and non-native species such as sea lamprey, rainbow smelt and alewife spread through the system, alewife, in particular, have been implicated as a predator of cisco eggs and larvae, and as a competitor with ciscoes. The fishery shifted focus from species to species as cisco numbers declined and has been defunct for some years. Three species of cisco inhabit waters of the northwestern North America and these have been found to represent distinct evolutionary lineages, by genetic data. Arctic cisco – Coregonus autumnalis Bering cisco – Coregonus laurettae Least cisco – Coregonus sardinella The ranges of the three cisco species above extend across Beringia to the Asian coasts, of those the Arctic cisco and least cisco are widespread through northern Siberia. In the inland waters of northern Europe, the European cisco or vendace replaces the Siberian sardine cisco, some of the cisco lineages are genetically very close, such as the European and sardine ciscoes. Within some species, geographically separated populations have been treated as distinct taxa, despite close genetic relationships, such as the vendace, laurettae and C. autumnalis lineages The Coregonus sardinella complex, including C. peled and C. albula. This group is closely related to the true whitefishes than to the C. artedi complex ciscoes. Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds
41.
Lake sturgeon
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The lake sturgeon, also called rock sturgeon, is a North American temperate freshwater fish, one of about 25 species of sturgeon. The fish uses its elongated, spadelike snout to stir up the substrate and sediments on the beds of rivers, the lake sturgeon has four purely sensory organs that dangle near its mouth. These organs, called barbels, help the sturgeon to locate bottom-dwelling prey, Lake sturgeons can grow to a relatively large size, topping 7.25 ft long and weighing over 240 lb. The lake sturgeon has taste buds on and around its barbels near its rubbery and it extends its lips to vacuum up soft live food, which it swallows whole due to its lack of teeth. Its diet consists of insect larvae, worms, and other organisms it finds in the mud. Fish are rarely found in its diet and are likely incidental items only, given that it is a large species surviving by feeding on very small species, its feeding ecology has been compared to that of large marine animals, like some whales, which survive by filter-feeding. This species occurs in the Mississippi River drainage basin south to Alabama and it occurs in the Great Lakes and the Detroit River, east down the St. Lawrence River to the limits of fresh water. In the west, it reaches Lake Winnipeg and the North Saskatchewan, in the north, it is found in the Hudson Bay Lowland. This distribution makes sense in all these areas were linked by the large lakes that formed as the glaciers retreated from North America at the end of the last ice age. Several populations of Lake sturgeon have experienced levels of recovery with help of USFWS, there are fisheries located in North Carolina to the Great Lakes that not only restore Lake sturgeon populations they also monitor striped bass and blue catfish. The USFWS is going through measures to restore the species of Lake sturgeon by recording, abundance, distribution, age, Lake sturgeon are tagged and released by the USFWS to capture a better understanding of their life cycle. While strict regulations have put in place to monitor harvests. Lake sturgeon are also extremely long-lived fish, and may live some 55 years, the lake sturgeon does not reach sexual maturity until its first decade of life. These fish were killed as a nuisance bycatch because they damaged fishing gear. When their meat and eggs became prized, commercial fishermen targeted them, between 1879 and 1900, the Great Lakes commercial sturgeon fishery brought in an average of 4 million lb per year. Such unsustainable catch rates were coupled with environmental challenges such as pollution, Sturgeon, which return each spring to spawn in the streams and rivers in which they were born, found tributaries blocked and spawning shoals destroyed by silt from agriculture and lumbering. In the 20th century, drastic drops in sturgeon catches, increased regulations, currently,19 of the 20 states within the fishs original U. S. range list it as either threatened or endangered. This sturgeon is a gourmet food fish, as well as a source of specialty products including caviar
