1.
Mpumalanga
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Mpumalanga /əmˌpuːməˈlɑːŋɡə/, is a province of South Africa. The name means east, or literally the place where the sun rises in the Swazi, Xhosa, Ndebele, Mpumalanga lies in eastern South Africa, bordering Swaziland and Mozambique. It constitutes 6. 5% of South Africas land area and it shares borders with the South African provinces of Limpopo to the north, Gauteng to the west, the Free State to the southwest, and KwaZulu-Natal to the south. Before 1994, Mpumalanga was part of Transvaal Province, the southern half of the Kruger National Park is in the latter region. The Drakensberg exceeds heights of 2000 m in most places, with this region of Mpumalanga being very mountainous. These regions have alpine grasslands and small pockets of Afromontane forest, the Lowveld is relatively flat with interspersed rocky outcrops. The Lebombo Mountains form a low range in the far east, some of the oldest rocks on earth have been found in the Barberton area, these ancient greenstones and metamorphosed granites form the Crocodile River Mountains in the southeast of the province. The Lowveld is underlaid by African Cratonic Basement rocks of ages in excess of 2 billion years, the Highveld is mostly Karoo Sequence sedimentary rock of a younger, Carboniferous to Permian age. Mpumalanga is the only South African province to border two provinces of Mozambique, as well as all four districts of Swaziland, the Lowveld is subtropical, due to its latitude and proximity to the warm Indian Ocean. The Highveld is comparatively cooler, due to its altitude of 2300 m to 1700 m above sea level. The Drakensberg Escarpment receives the most precipitation, with all other areas being moderately well-watered by mostly summer thunderstorms, the Highveld often experiences severe frost, while the Lowveld is mostly frost-free. Winter rainfall is rare, except for drizzle on the escarpment. The differences in climate are demonstrated below by the capital, Nelspruit, which is in the Lowveld and this international game park brings together some of the best and most established wildlife areas in southern Africa. The park is managed as an integrated unit across an unprecedented three international boundaries which includes the Kruger National Park, Limpopo National Park and Gonarezhou National Park, lists of and the original texts of this legislation are available through South African governmental websites. Amended and updated versions of the legislation is available through commercial vendors on subscription, see External links for more information. More than 68% of Mpumalanga is used by agriculture, crops include maize, wheat, sorghum, barley, sunflower seed, soybeans, macadamias, groundnuts, sugar cane, vegetables, coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, citrus, subtropical and deciduous fruit. Forestry is extensive around Sabie in the far north east of the province, located near the forests, Ngodwana is the site of one of South Africas largest paper mills. Natural grazing covers approximately 14% of Mpumalanga, the main products are beef, mutton, wool, poultry and dairy
Mpumalanga
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2.
Limpopo
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Limpopo is the northernmost province of South Africa. It is named after the Limpopo River, which forms the western and northern borders. The name Limpopo has its origin in the Northern Sotho language word diphororo tša meetse. The capital is Polokwane, formerly called Pietersburg, the province was formed from the northern region of Transvaal Province in 1994, and was initially named Northern Transvaal. An alternate name considered for the province was Mapungubwe, the area where its most ancient gold-using civilization had been discovered a few years earlier. Limpopo has the highest level of poverty of any South African province, in 2011,74. 4% of local dwellings were located in a tribal or traditional area, compared to a national average of 27. 1%. The Northern Sotho language is spoken by more than half of Limpopos population, Limpopo is the link between South Africa and countries further afield in sub-Saharan Africa. On its southern edge, from east to west, it borders with the South African provinces of Mpumalanga, Gauteng. Its border with Gauteng includes that provinces Johannesburg-Pretoria axis, the most industrialized metropole on the continent, the province is at the centre of regional, national, and international developing markets. Limpopo contains much of the Waterberg Biosphere, a massif of approximately 15,000 km2 which is the first region in the part of South Africa to be named a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The massif was shaped by hundreds of millions of years of riverine erosion yielding diverse bluff, the Waterberg ecosystem can be characterized as a dry deciduous forest or Bushveld. Within the Waterberg, archaeological finds date to the Stone Age, nearby are early evolutionary finds related to the origin of humans. The current premier of Limpopo Province is Stanley Mathabatha, representing the African National Congress and it is also one of the poorest regions of South Africa with a big gap between poor and rich residents, especially in rural areas. However, Limpopos economy and standard of living have shown great improvement, a recent border shift with Limpopos wealthier neighbour, Mpumalanga, was effected to try and bring some wealth into the province. The bushveld is beef cattle country, where extensive ranching operations are often supplemented by controlled hunting, about 80% of South Africas game hunting industry is found in Limpopo. Sunflowers, cotton, maize and peanuts are cultivated in the Bela-Bela, Modimolle is also known for its table grapes. Tropical fruit, such as bananas, litchis, pineapples, mangoes and pawpaws, as well as a variety of nuts, are grown in the Tzaneen, Tzaneen is also at the centre of extensive citrus, tea and coffee plantations, and a major forestry industry. Commodities such as granite, corundum, and feldspar are also found
Limpopo
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Ajoite in
quartz, from the Messina mine, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Scale at bottom is one inch, with a rule at one cm. [
citation needed]
Limpopo
3.
North West Province (South Africa)
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North West is a province of South Africa. The province is located to the west of the population centre of Gauteng. North West was created after the end of Apartheid in 1994, merafong has since been transferred to Gauteng province in 2009. The provincial government consists of a premier, a council of ten ministers. The provincial assembly and premier are elected for terms, or until the next national election. Political parties are awarded assembly seats based on the percentage of each party receives in the province during the national elections. The assembly elects a premier, who appoints the members of the executive council. The premier of North West Province as of 21 May 2014 is Supra Mahumapelo of the African National Congress and he replaced Thandi Modise as premier after the 2014 general election. Much of the consists of flat areas of scattered trees. The Magaliesberg mountain range in the northeast extends about 130 km from Pretoria to Rustenburg, the Vaal River flows along the southern border of the province. Temperatures range from 17° to 31 °C in the summer and from 3° to 21 °C in the winter, annual rainfall totals about 360 mm, with almost all of it falling during the summer months, between October and April. The North West province has 4 district municipalities and 19 local municipalities, the chief minerals are gold, mined at Orkney and Klerksdorp, uranium, mined at Klerksdorp, platinum, mined at Rustenburg and Brits, and diamonds, mined at Lichtenburg, Christiana, and Bloemhof. The northern and western parts of the province have many farms and cattle. The eastern and southern parts are crop-growing regions that produce maize, sunflowers, tobacco, cotton, the entertainment and casino complex at Sun City and Lost City also contributes to the provincial economy. The majority of the residents are the Tswana people who speak Tswana. Smaller groups include Afrikaans, Sotho, and Xhosa speaking people, english is spoken primarily as a second language. Most of the population belong to Christian denominations, according to the 2007 community survey 90. 8% of the provinces population was Black,7. 2% as White,1. 6% as Coloured and 0. 4% as Asian. The 2007 community survey showed the province had a population of just over 3 million, the provinces white population is very unevenly distributed
North West Province (South Africa)
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Hamerkop Kloof between Rustenburg and Pretoria on north-facing slopes of Magaliesberg
North West Province (South Africa)
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North West Province (South Africa)
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The Bridge of Time facing the Entertainment Centre
4.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
Language family
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Principal language families of the world (and in some cases geographic groups of families). For greater detail, see
Distribution of languages in the world.
5.
Bantu languages
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The Bantu languages, technically the Narrow Bantu languages, constitute a traditional branch of the Niger–Congo languages. There are about 250 Bantu languages by the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Bantu languages are spoken largely east and south of present-day Cameroon, that is, in the regions commonly known as Central Africa, Southeast Africa, and Southern Africa. Parts of the Bantu area include languages from other language families, the Bantu language with the largest total number of speakers is Swahili, however, the majority of its speakers know it as a second language. According to Ethnologue, there are over 180 million L2 speakers, other major languages include Zulu with 27 million speakers and Shona with about 11 million speakers. Ethnologue separates the largely mutually intelligible Kinyarwanda and Kirundi, which, the Bantu languages descend from a common Proto-Bantu language, which is believed to have been spoken in what is now Cameroon in West Africa. This Bantu expansion came to dominate Sub-Saharan Africa east of Cameroon, the technical term Bantu, meaning human beings or simply people, was first used by Wilhelm Bleek, as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. Bleek, and later Carl Meinhof, pursued extensive studies comparing the structures of Bantu languages. In recent times, the distinctiveness of Narrow Bantu as opposed to the other Southern Bantoid groups has been called into doubt, a coherent classification of Narrow Bantu will likely need to exclude many of the Zone A and perhaps Zone B languages. There is no true genealogical classification of the Bantu languages, the most widely used classification, the alphanumeric coding system developed by Guthrie, is mainly geographic. The two groups have described as having mirror-image tone systems, where Northwest Bantu has a high tone in a cognate, Central Bantu languages generally have a low tone. Northwest Bantu is clearly not a coherent family, but even for Central Bantu the evidence is lexical, another attempt at a detailed genetic classification to replace the Guthrie system is the 1999 Tervuren proposal of Bastin, Coupez, and Mann. This has been criticized for sowing confusion in one of the few ways to distinguish Bantu languages. Nurse & Philippson evaluate many proposals for low-level groups of Bantu languages, glottolog has incorporated many of these into their classification. The languages that share Dahls Law may also form a valid group, the infobox at right lists these together with various low-level groups that are fairly uncontroversial, though they continue to be revised. The development of a rigorous genealogical classification of many branches of Niger–Congo, Guthrie reconstructed both the phonemic inventory and the vocabulary of Proto-Bantu. The most prominent grammatical characteristic of Bantu languages is the use of affixes. Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have several numbered classes, the class is indicated by a prefix that is part of the noun, as well as agreement markers on verb and qualificative roots connected with the noun. Plural is indicated by a change of class, with a change of prefix
Bantu languages
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Map showing the distribution of Bantu vs. other
African languages.
6.
Nguni languages
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The Nguni languages are a group of Bantu languages spoken in southern Africa by the Nguni people. Nguni languages include Xhosa, Zulu, Swati, Hlubi, Phuthi, Bhaca, Lala, Nhlangwini, the appellation Nguni derives from the Nguni cattle type. Ngoni is an older, or a shifted, variant and it is sometimes argued that use of Nguni as a generic label suggests a historical monolithic unity of the peoples in question, where in fact the situation may have been more complex. The linguistic use of the label is relatively stable, within a subset of Southern Bantu, the label Nguni is used both genetically and typologically. On more than one occasion, proposals have been put forward to create a unified Nguni language, in scholarly literature on southern African languages, the linguistic classificatory category Nguni is traditionally considered to subsume two subgroups, Zunda Nguni and Tekela Nguni. Spreading of high tones to the antepenultimate syllable, a distinction between high and low tones on noun prefixes, indicating different grammatical roles, accompanied in some cases by an overt pre-prefix called the augment. Development breathy-voiced consonants, acting as depressor consonants, compare the following sentences, Note, Xhosa ⟨tsh⟩ = Phuthi ⟨tjh⟩ = IPA, Phuthi ⟨tsh⟩ =, Zulu ⟨sh⟩ = IPA, but in the environment cited here /ʃ/ is nasally permuted to. Phuthi ⟨jh⟩ = breathy voiced = Xhosa, Zulu ⟨j⟩, proto-Nguni is the reconstructed ancestor of the Nguni languages. The sintu writing system, Isibheqe Sohlamvu, for Southern Bantu languages, is used to represent all Nguni languages consistently under one orthography and this includes Tekela languages, which, with the exception of Swati, are unstandardised in the Latin alphabet. Ngoni separated from all other Nguni languages subsequent to the political and social upheaval within southern Africa. IsiNgqumo is a spoken by the homosexuals of South Africa who speak Bantu languages, as opposed to Gayle. IsiNgqumo is based on a Nguni lexicon, aspects of Tone and Voice in Phuthi. Some features of the phonetic and grammatical structure of Baca, early Nguni History, The Linguistic Evidence and Its Correlation with Archeology and Oral Tradition. Wright, J. Politics, ideology, and the invention of the nguni, resistance and ideology in settler societies. Shaw, E. M. and Davison, P, the Southern Nguni South African Museum, Cape Town Ndlovu, Sambulo
Nguni languages
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0–20%
7.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
Writing system
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Writing systems
Writing system
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Predominant national and selected regional or minority scripts
Writing system
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Chinese characters (漢字) are morpho-syllabic. Each one represents a syllable with a distinct meaning, but some characters may have multiple meanings or pronunciations
Writing system
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A Specimen of typefaces and styles, by
William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728
Cyclopaedia
8.
Latin script
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Latin script is used as the standard method of writing in most Western and Central European languages, as well as in many languages in other parts of the world. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the most widely adopted writing system in the world, Latin script is also the basis of the International Phonetic Alphabet. The 26 most widespread letters are the contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. The script is either called Roman script or Latin script, in reference to its origin in ancient Rome, in the context of transliteration, the term romanization or romanisation is often found. Unicode uses the term Latin as does the International Organization for Standardization, the numeral system is called the Roman numeral system, and the collection of the elements, Roman numerals. The numbers 1,2,3. are Latin/Roman script numbers for the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the Latin alphabet spread, along with Latin, from the Italian Peninsula to the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea with the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Latin script also came into use for writing the West Slavic languages and several South Slavic languages, the speakers of East Slavic languages generally adopted Cyrillic along with Orthodox Christianity. The Serbian language uses both scripts, with Cyrillic predominating in official communication and Latin elsewhere, as determined by the Law on Official Use of the Language and Alphabet. As late as 1500, the Latin script was limited primarily to the languages spoken in Western, Northern, the Orthodox Christian Slavs of Eastern and Southeastern Europe mostly used Cyrillic, and the Greek alphabet was in use by Greek-speakers around the eastern Mediterranean. The Arabic script was widespread within Islam, both among Arabs and non-Arab nations like the Iranians, Indonesians, Malays, and Turkic peoples, most of the rest of Asia used a variety of Brahmic alphabets or the Chinese script. It is used for many Austronesian languages, including the languages of the Philippines, Latin letters served as the basis for the forms of the Cherokee syllabary developed by Sequoyah, however, the sound values are completely different. In the late 19th century, the Romanians returned to the Latin alphabet, under French rule and Portuguese missionary influence, a Latin alphabet was devised for the Vietnamese language, which had previously used Chinese characters. In 1928, as part of Mustafa Kemal Atatürks reforms, the new Republic of Turkey adopted a Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Iranian-speaking Tajikistan, and the breakaway region of Transnistria kept the Cyrillic alphabet, chiefly due to their close ties with Russia. In the 1930s and 1940s, the majority of Kurds replaced the Arabic script with two Latin alphabets, although the only official Kurdish government uses an Arabic alphabet for public documents, the Latin Kurdish alphabet remains widely used throughout the region by the majority of Kurdish-speakers. In 2015, the Kazakh government announced that the Latin alphabet would replace Cyrillic as the system for the Kazakh language by 2025. In the course of its use, the Latin alphabet was adapted for use in new languages, sometimes representing phonemes not found in languages that were written with the Roman characters. These new forms are given a place in the alphabet by defining an alphabetical order or collation sequence, a digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. Examples are ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨sh⟩ in English, a trigraph is made up of three letters, like the German ⟨sch⟩, the Breton ⟨c’h⟩ or the Milanese ⟨oeu⟩
Latin script
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Latin Roman
9.
Guthrie classification of Bantu languages
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The 250 or so Narrow Bantu languages are conventionally divided up into geographic zones first proposed by Malcolm Guthrie. These were assigned letters A–S and divided into decades, individual languages were assigned unit numbers, only Guthries Zone S is considered to be a genealogical group, since then a Zone J has been set up as another possible genealogical group bordering the Great Lakes. The list is first summarized, with links to articles on accepted groups of Bantu languages, Following that is the complete 1948 list, as updated by Guthrie in 1971 and by Maho in 2009. The list below reflects Guthrie as updated by Maho, not included in detail are the Northeast Bantu languages characterized by Dahls Law, which is thought to be a genealogical group, cuts across the Guthrie system, and is covered at Northeast Bantu. Other groups with dedicated articles, such as Southern Bantu are also only summarized here, so that the listing is only a summary. Note that Ethnologue made multiple changes to Guthrie in an attempt to make the more historically accurate. However, the changes are inconsistent, and Ethnologue has not been followed here, thus a code may mean different things depending on whether Guthrie or SIL is being followed. The updates in Maho, on the hand, are designed to be compatible with the original values of the codes. Accepted genealogical groups within the Guthrie zones are boldfaced, S Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, N Gabon A10 Lundu–Balong, Oroko, the other languages apart from A15 Manenguba may be Sawabantu as well. Guthries A60 and part of his A40 have been removed to the Southern Bantoid Mbam languages, Sawabantu may include some of the A10 languages apart from Manenguba, whereas Bube may belong in Mbam. Southern Bantoid Jarawan was assigned to Zone A by Gerhardt and Blench, specifically to A60, according to several scholars, including Blench, there can be no coherent concept of Bantu as long as many of the Zone A and perhaps Zone B languages are included. B10–30 may belong together as Kele–Tsogo, B40 with Kongo–Yaka, there are proposals for three larger clades, Mboshi–Buja covering C10–20 and C37+41, and Bangi–Tetela covering C30 with C50–80, and C40a together with D20–30 in Boan. Most of D40–60 has been moved to Great Lakes Bantu languages, lengola, Bodo, and Nyali may belong together as Lebonya, and Beeke in Boan. F10 Tongwe-Bende F30 Mbugwe–Rangi languages. Isanzu Much of F20 and F30, including the major language Sukuma, have been reclassified as Northeast Bantu, Mbugwe–Rangi, however, form a valid node by themselves. Isanzu is sometimes classified as F30, as a variety of Nilamba, E Tanzania, Comoros G50 Kilombero The languages of Zone G have been reclassified, G60 Bene–Kinga to Northeast Bantu, and the other branches more specifically to Northeast Coast Bantu languages. NW Angola, W Congo H10 Kongo languages H20 Kimbundu languages H30–40 Yaka languages H10 and H40 are sometimes considered Forest Bantu, H10 Kunyi, Suundi, and Vili have been split between B40 and L10. H40 is split between H30 and L10, Kongo–Yaka may form a family, perhaps with B40 Sira. Uganda, Rwanda–Burundi, near lakes Kivu & Victoria J Great Lakes E Angola, k43 Mbukushu K20 Lozi is now classified as Southern Bantu
Guthrie classification of Bantu languages
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The approximate locations of the sixteen Guthrie Bantu zones, including the addition of a zone J
10.
Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
Afrikaans
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Slogan in front of the Afrikaans Language Monument, near Paarl, South Africa. Loosely translated, it reads "This we care about/This is important to us", or, literally, "This is our seriousness".
Afrikaans
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Regions shaded dark blue represent areas of concentrated Afrikaans-speaking communities
Afrikaans
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Side view of the Pretoria Art Museum in Arcadia, Pretoria, with Afrikaans language sign.
Afrikaans
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Sign in Afrikaans: "Gevaar Slagysters" or "Warning (danger), Traps"
11.
Pretoria Art Museum
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The Pretoria Art Museum is an art gallery located in Arcadia, Pretoria in South Africa. The museum in Arcadia Park occupies a city block bounded by Park, Wessels, Schoeman. The Pretoria Art Museum was established to house the City Council of Pretorias Art Collection, the collection received an early windfall in 1932 when Lady Michaelis bequeathed a large number of artworks to the city council after the death of her husband, Sir Max Michaelis. The collection consisted mainly of 17th-century work of the North Dutch school, South African works included pieces by Henk Pierneef, Pieter Wenning, Frans Oerder, Anton van Wouw and Irma Stern. The collection was housed in the Town Hall. Aside from these artists, work by Hugo Naude, Maggie Laubser, the purchase of international work was focused on more affordable graphics prints from Europe and USA. More recently there was emphasis on contemporary South African art and building a more representative historical collection also traditional arts. After the death of the sculptor Lucas Sithole 1994, half of his work by Haenggi Foundation was donated to the museum after documented by art historian Elza Miles. The South African collection now includes work by Gerard Sekota and Judith Mason, since the mid-1990s, the New Signatures competition is also held at the Pretoria Art Museum. The Pretoria City Council in 1954 decided that a building was needed to house the art collection, the firm of architects Burg, Lodge and Burg and W. G. McIntosh and the builder J. Zylstra Ltd was appointed. Building began on 26 January 1962 and the cornerstone was laid on 19 October 1962 by the then Prime Minister Dr HF Verwoerd, the building of concrete and glass was completed over 18 months at a cost of R400,000. The design in the modern International Style design and technical innovations feasible at that time were used, the museum was officially inaugurated on 20 May 1964 by the new mayor of Pretoria, Dr PJ van der Walt. The first curator of the new Pretoria Art Museum, Dr. Albert Werth, was appointed early in 1963, additional exhibit space was created in 1975 with the creation of secretion of an open area between the entrance and the East Gallery. It was constructed in 1988 and again in 1999 upgraded, in the latter case in preparation for the international exhibition, Leonardo da Vinci, scientist, inventor, artist. An image Garden is also on the stage, was added to the museum, list of museums in South Africa Pretoria Art Museum Official Website Pretoria Art Museum works list Trans migrations at Pretoria Art Museum
Pretoria Art Museum
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Side view of the Pretoria Art Museum
12.
Ndebele people (South Africa)
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The Southern African Ndebele are one of the Nguni tribes. The two Ndebele groups are separated not only geographically but also by differences in their languages and cultures, the Ndebele of the Northern Province consist mainly of the BagaLanga and the BagaSeleka tribes who, by and large, adopted the language and culture of their Sotho neighbours. However, they were concentrated in the districts of Pietersburg, Bakenberg. The Springbok Flats separated the North Ndebele and those in the east from one another, King Musi was a polygamist and fathered the following sons, Skhosana, Manala, Ndzundza, Thombeni, Sibasa, Mhwaduba and Mphafuli and others. The first born son of king Musi was Skhosana from the third wife, the name “sombuka” means to begin, hence the first son was called Masombuka. Manala was the first son from the wife and Ndzundza was the son of the second wife. According to Ndebele custom, the heir to the throne of the king is the first born son from the great wife, when the great wife of King Musi died, King Musi was blind through old age and was sickly. He was nursed by his second wife and mother of Ndzundza. Due to the fact that Musi was very old, he was worried about the Kingship of the Ndebele Nation. Musi did not want Manala to be the King of the Nation hence one day Musi instructed Manala to come and see him in the morning. Musi then instructed Manala to go and hunt for the iMbuduma, after Manala had left to hunt for the Wildebeest Musi instructed his wife to call her son Ndzundza. King Musi then gave Ndzundza the accessory to the throne, customarily passed on from the incumbent to the successor and this accessory called namrhali was a mysterious object that cries like a child, used to fortify the king. Musi then instructed Ndzundza to call a Royal meeting and notify the nation that he is the King, many people believed him and a few did not want to follow him. Ndzundza then left with a number of people. When Manala came back from the hunt he realised that Ndzundza had received the namrhali and his father informed him that he had already given away the namrhali to Ndzundza. Manala called a Royal meeting with the few left behind. Musi then instructed Manala that if he wants to be a king he must pursue Ndzundza and bring him back to the royal household. Manala caught up with Ndzundza who was with Thombeni and Skhosana, his half brothers, the two factions fought at Cullinan
Ndebele people (South Africa)
–
The women of Loopspruit Cultural Village, near
Bronkhorstspruit, in front of a
traditionally-painted Ndebele dwelling.
13.
South Africa
–
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
South Africa
–
Mapungubwe Hill, the site of the former capital of the
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
South Africa
–
Flag
South Africa
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Arrival of
Jan van Riebeeck, the first European to settle in South Africa, with
Devil's Peak in the background
South Africa
–
Depiction of a
Zulu attack on a Boer camp in February 1838
14.
Zimbabwe
–
Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in southern Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west and southwest, Zambia to the northwest, although it does not border Namibia, less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates it from that country. The capital and largest city is Harare, a country of roughly 13 million people, Zimbabwe has 16 official languages, with English, Shona, and Ndebele the most commonly used. Since the 11th century, present-day Zimbabwe has been the site of several organised states and kingdoms as well as a route for migration. The British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes first demarcated the present territory during the 1890s, in 1965, the conservative white minority government unilaterally declared independence as Rhodesia. Zimbabwe then rejoined the Commonwealth of Nations—which it withdrew from in 2003 and it is a member of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa. Robert Mugabe became Prime Minister of Zimbabwe in 1980, when his ZANU-PF party won the following the end of white minority rule. Under Mugabes authoritarian regime, the security apparatus has dominated the country. Mugabe has maintained the revolutionary socialist rhetoric from the Cold War era, the name Zimbabwe stems from a Shona term for Great Zimbabwe, an ancient ruined city in the countrys south-east whose remains are now a protected site. Two different theories address the origin of the word, many sources hold that Zimbabwe derives from dzimba-dza-mabwe, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as large houses of stone. The Karanga-speaking Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the province of Masvingo. Zimbabwe was formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, and Zimbabwe Rhodesia, a further alternative, put forward by nationalists in Matabeleland, had been Matopos, referring to the Matopos Hills to the south of Bulawayo. In a 2001 interview, black nationalist Edson Zvobgo recalled that Mawema mentioned the name during a rally, and it caught hold. The black nationalist factions subsequently used the name the during the Second Chimurenga campaigns against the Rhodesian government during the Rhodesian Bush War of 1964-1979, major factions in this camp included the Zimbabwe African National Union, and the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union. Proto-Shona-speaking societies first emerged in the middle Limpopo valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands, the Zimbabwean plateau eventually became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast, the main archaeological site uses a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of sophisticated trade states developed in Zimbabwe by the time of the first European explorers from Portugal and they traded in gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass. From about 1300 until 1600, Mapungubwe was eclipsed by the Kingdom of Zimbabwe and this Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwes stone architecture, which survives to this day at the ruins of the kingdoms capital of Great Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
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Towers of
Great Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
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Flag
Zimbabwe
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Opening of the railway to Umtali in 1899
Zimbabwe
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Ian Smith signing the
Unilateral Declaration of Independence on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience.
15.
Zulu language
–
Zulu is the language of the Zulu people, with about 10 million speakers, the vast majority of whom live in South Africa. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa. It became one of South Africas 11 official languages in 1994, according to Ethnologue, it is the second most widely spoken of the Bantu languages, after Shona. Like many other Bantu languages, it is written with the Latin alphabet, even in English, the language is often referred to by using its native form, isiZulu. Zulu migrant populations have taken it to adjacent regions, especially Zimbabwe, Xhosa, the predominant language in the Eastern Cape, is often considered mutually intelligible with Zulu. Maho lists four dialects, central KwaZulu-Natal Zulu, northern Transvaal Zulu, eastern coastal Qwabe, the Zulu, like Xhosa and other Nguni people, have lived in South Africa for a long time. The Zulu language possesses several click sounds typical of Southern African languages, the Nguni people have coexisted with other Southern tribes like the San and Khoi. Zulu, like most indigenous Southern African languages, was not a written language until the arrival of missionaries from Europe, the first grammar book of the Zulu language was published in Norway in 1850 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Schreuder. The first written document in Zulu was a Bible translation that appeared in 1883, in 1901, John Dube, a Zulu from Natal, created the Ohlange Institute, the first native educational institution in South Africa. He was also the author of Insila kaShaka, the first novel written in Zulu, another pioneering Zulu writer was Reginald Dhlomo, author of several historical novels of the 19th-century leaders of the Zulu nation, U-Dingane, U-Shaka, U-Mpande, U-Cetshwayo and U-Dinizulu. Other notable contributors to Zulu literature include Benedict Wallet Vilakazi and, more recently, the written form of Zulu was controlled by the Zulu Language Board of KwaZulu-Natal. This board has now disbanded and superseded by the Pan South African Language Board which promotes the use of all eleven official languages of South Africa. English, Dutch and later Afrikaans had been the official languages used by all South African governments before 1994. However, in the Kwazulu bantustan the Zulu language was widely used, all education in the country at the high-school level was in English or Afrikaans. Since the demise of apartheid in 1994, Zulu has been enjoying a marked revival, zulu-language television was introduced by the SABC in the early 1980s and it broadcasts news and many shows in Zulu. Zulu radio is very popular and newspapers such as isoLezwe, Ilanga and UmAfrika in the Zulu language are available, mainly available in Kwazulu-Natal province, in January 2005 the first full-length feature film in Zulu, Yesterday, was nominated for an Oscar. South African matriculation requirements no longer specify which South African language needs to be taken as a second language, and some people have made the switch to learning Zulu. However people taking Zulu at high-school level overwhelmingly take it as a first language, according to statistics, in the 1994 film The Lion King, in the Circle of Life song, the phrases Ingonyama nengw enamabala, Nans ingonyama bakithi Baba and Siyonqoba were used
Zulu language
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Trilingual sign in English,
Afrikaans, and Zulu in Apartheid era
South Africa.
Zulu language
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0–20%
16.
Bantustan
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A Bantustan was a territory set aside for black inhabitants of South Africa and South West Africa, as part of the policy of apartheid. The term was first used in the late 1940s and was coined from Bantu and it was regarded as a disparaging term by some critics of the apartheid-era governments homelands. Four of the South African Bantustans—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei —were declared independent, other South African Bantustans received partial autonomy but were never granted independence. In South West Africa, Ovamboland, Kavangoland, and East Caprivi were granted self-determination, the Bantustans were abolished with the end of apartheid and re-joined South Africa proper in 1994. The creation of the homelands or Bantustans was an element of this strategy. As a result, blacks would lose their South African citizenship and voting rights, the term Bantustan was used by apartheids apologists in reference to the partition of India in 1947. However, it quickly became pejorative in left and anti-apartheid usage, verwoerd argued that the Bantustans were the original homes of the black peoples of South Africa. In 1951, the government of Daniel François Malan introduced the Bantu Authorities Act to establish homelands allocated to the countrys ethnic groups. These amounted to 13% of the land, the remainder being reserved for the white population. The homelands were run by tribal leaders, while uncooperative chiefs were forcibly deposed. Over time, a ruling black élite emerged with a personal and financial interest in the preservation of the homelands, while this aided the homelands political stability to an extent, their position was still entirely dependent on South African support. The role of the homelands was expanded in 1959 with the passage of the Bantu Self-Government Act and this enabled the homelands to establish themselves as self-governing, quasi-independent states. This plan was stepped up under Verwoerds successor as minister, John Vorster. The homelands were encouraged to opt for independence, as this would reduce the number of black citizens of South Africa. In parallel with the creation of the homelands, South Africas black population was subjected to a programme of forced relocation. It has been estimated that 3.5 million people were forced from their homes from the 1960s through the 1980s, the government made clear that its ultimate aim was the total removal of the black population from South Africa. But this goal was not achieved, only about 55% of South Africas population lived in the Bantustans, the remainder lived in South Africa proper, many in townships, shanty-towns and slums on the outskirts of South African cities. Bantustans within the borders of South Africa were classified as self-governing or independent, in theory, self-governing Bantustans had control over many aspects of their internal functioning but were not yet sovereign nations
Bantustan
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Map of the black homelands in
Namibia as of 1978
Bantustan
–
Racial-demographic map of South Africa published by the
CIA in 1979 with data from the 1970 South African census
17.
KwaNdebele
–
KwaNdebele was a bantustan in South Africa, intended by the apartheid government as a semi-independent homeland for the Ndebele people. The homeland was created when the South African government purchased nineteen white-owned farms, the homeland was granted self-rule in April 1981. Siyabuswa was designated as its capital, but in 1986 the capital was relocated to KwaMhlanga, KwaNdebele was re-integrated into South Africa after the first democratic election of 27 April 1994. It now forms part of the Mpumalanga province, districts of the province and population at the 1991 census. Mdutjana,125,485 Mkobola,212,771 Mbibana,65,989 Chief Ministers of KwaNdebele South Africa 1980/81 – Official Yearbook of the Republic of South Africa ISBN 0-908393-51-2, ISSN 0302-0681
KwaNdebele
KwaNdebele
–
Flag
18.
Ethnologue
–
Ethnologue, Languages of the World is a web-based publication that contains information about the 7,099 living languages in its 20th edition, which was released in 2017. The publication is well respected and widely used by linguists, Ethnologue is published by SIL International, a Christian linguistic service organization with an international office in Dallas, Texas. Ethnologue follows general linguistic criteria, which are based primarily on mutual intelligibility, shared language intelligibility features are complex, and usually include etymological and grammatical evidence that is agreed upon by experts. These lists of names are not necessarily complete, in 1984, Ethnologue released a three-letter coding system, called an SIL code, to identify each language that it described. This set of codes significantly exceeded the scope of other standards, e. g. ISO 639-1, the 14th edition, published in 2000, included 7,148 language codes. In 2002, Ethnologue was asked to work with the International Organization for Standardization to integrate its codes into an international standard. The 15th edition of Ethnologue was the first edition to use this standard and this standard is now administered separately from Ethnologue according to rules established by ISO, and since then Ethnologue relies on the standard to determine what is listed as a language. e. A language with which no-one retains a sense of ethnic identity, in December 2015, Ethnologue launched a soft paywall, users in high-income countries who want to refer to more than seven pages of data per month must buy a paid subscription. Ethnologues 18th edition describes 228 language families and six typological categories, in 1986, William Bright, then editor of the journal Language, wrote of Ethnologue that it is indispensable for any reference shelf on the languages of the world. In 2008 in the journal, Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona said, Ethnologue. has become the standard reference. However, he concluded that, on balance, Ethnologue is a comprehensive catalogue of world languages. Starting with the 17th edition, new editions of Ethnologue are to be published every year, linguasphere Observatory Register Glottolog Lists of languages List of language families Martin Everaert, Simon Musgrave, Alexis Dimitriadis, eds. The Use of Databases in Cross-Linguistic Studies, linguistic Genocide in Education-or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights. Evaluating language statistics, the Ethnologue and beyond
Ethnologue
–
Three-volume 17th edition
19.
Archive.org
–
The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
Archive.org
–
Since 2009, headquarters have been at 300 Funston Avenue in
San Francisco, a former
Christian Science Church
Archive.org
–
Internet Archive
Archive.org
–
Mirror of the Internet Archive in the
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
Archive.org
–
From 1996 to 2009, headquarters were in the
Presidio of San Francisco, a former U.S. military base
20.
Languages of South Africa
–
There are eleven official languages of South Africa, Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa and Zulu. Fewer than two percent of South Africans speak a first language other than an official one, most South Africans can speak more than one language. Dutch and English were the first official languages of South Africa from 1910 to 1925, Afrikaans was added as a part of Dutch in 1925, although in practice, Afrikaans effectively replaced Dutch, which fell into disuse. Different government departments and official bodies use different terms to denote Northern Sotho, in South Africa, Southern Ndebele is known simply as Ndebele, as most speakers of Northern Ndebele live in Zimbabwe. Since taking power in the 1994 election, the ANC has promoted English as the language of government. Afrikaans also features prominently in commerce together with English, as the languages with the highest number of fluent speakers are Afrikaans, in terms of linguistic classification, the official languages include two West Germanic languages and nine Bantu languages. Four of these are Nguni languages and three are Sotho–Tswana languages, South African Sign Language is understood across the country, though sometimes sign-language interpreters use manually coded language. The most common language spoken as a first language by South Africans is Zulu, followed by Xhosa, English is the fourth most common first language in the country, but is understood in most urban areas and is the dominant language in government and the media. The majority of South Africans speak a language one of the two principal branches of the Bantu languages represented in South Africa, the Sotho–Tswana branch, or the Nguni branch. For each of the two groups, the languages within that group are for the most part intelligible to a speaker of any other language within that group. Gauteng is the most linguistically heterogeneous province, with equal numbers of Nguni, Sesotho. This has resulted in the spread of an urban argot, Tsotsitaal, Afrikaans, a language derived from Dutch, is the most widely spoken language in the western half of the country. It is spoken as first language by approximately 61 percent of whites and 76 percent of Coloured people in the country, Afrikaans is also spoken widely across the centre and north of the country, as a second language by Black South Africans living in farming areas. Lobedu has been claimed to be a dialect of Northern Sotho. Fanagalo is an often used as a mining lingua franca. Significant numbers of immigrants from Europe, elsewhere in Africa, in the older immigrant communities there are, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Portuguese, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Yiddish, Italian and smaller numbers of Dutch, French and German speakers. These non-official languages may be used in limited semi-official use where it has determined that these languages are prevalent. More recently, speakers of North, Central and West African languages have arrived in South Africa, mostly in the cities, especially in Johannesburg and Pretoria
Languages of South Africa
–
Trilingual government building sign in
Afrikaans,
English and
Xhosa
21.
Department of Arts and Culture (South Africa)
–
The Department of Arts and Culture is one of the departments of the South African government. It promotes, supports, develops and protects the arts, culture, the heritage sites, museums and monuments of the country also reside under this ministry. The political head of the department is the Minister of Arts and Culture, in the 2010 national budget, the department received an appropriation of 2,406.7 million rand, and had 461 employees. Culture minister Ministry for Culture and Heritage of New Zealand Department of Arts and Culture
Department of Arts and Culture (South Africa)
–
Logo of the department
22.
West Germanic languages
–
The West Germanic languages constitute the largest of the three branches of the Germanic family of languages. The three most prevalent West Germanic languages are English, German, and Dutch, additionally, several creoles, patois, and pidgins are based on Dutch and English as they were languages of colonial empires. The West Germanic languages share many lexemes not existing in North Germanic and/or East Germanic—archaisms as well as common neologisms, most scholars doubt that there was a Proto-West-Germanic proto-language common to the West Germanic languages and no others, though a few maintain that Proto-West-Germanic existed. Although there is quite a bit of knowledge about North Sea Germanic or Anglo-Frisian, linguists know almost nothing about Weser-Rhine Germanic, in fact, these two terms were coined in the 1940s to refer to groups of archeological findings rather than linguistic features. Only later were these terms applied to hypothetical dialectal differences within both regions, the rhotacism of /z/ to /r/. The development of the demonstrative pronoun ancestral to English this, rhotacism, for example, was largely complete in West Germanic at a time when North Germanic runic inscriptions still clearly distinguished the two phonemes. However, there are also a number of common archaisms in West Germanic shared by neither Old Norse nor Gothic, the debate on the existence of a Proto-West-Germanic clade was recently summarized, That North Germanic is. A unitary subgroup is completely obvious, as all of its dialects shared a series of innovations. Several scholars have published reconstructions of Proto-West-Germanic morphological paradigms and many authors have reconstructed individual Proto-West-Germanic morphological forms or lexemes, the first comprehensive reconstruction of the Proto-West-Germanic language was published in 2013 by Wolfram Euler. If indeed Proto-West-Germanic existed, it must have been between the 3rd and 7th centuries, after that, the split into West and North Germanic occurred. It has been argued that, judging by their nearly identical syntax, over the course of this period, the dialects diverged successively. Bordering dialects very probably continued to be mutually intelligible even beyond the boundaries of the consonant shift, in fact, many dialects of Limburgish and Ripuarian are still mutually intelligible today. The High German consonant shift distinguished the High German languages from the other West Germanic languages, by early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from Highest Alemannic in the South to Northern Low Saxon in the North. Although both extremes are considered German, they are not mutually intelligible, the southernmost varieties have completed the second sound shift, whereas the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift. Of modern German varieties, Low German is the one that most resembles modern English, the district of Angeln, from which the name English derives, is in the extreme northern part of Germany between the Danish border and the Baltic coast. The area of the Saxons lay south of Anglia, the Anglo-Saxons, two Germanic tribes, were a combination of a number of peoples from northern Germany and the Jutland Peninsula. Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely defined, most form dialect continua, with adjacent dialects being mutually intelligible. Also note that English is part of the North Sea Germanic branch of the West Germanic languages, some may only appear in the older languages but are no longer apparent in the modern languages
West Germanic languages
–
Icelandic
23.
Northern Sotho language
–
Northern Sotho is a Bantu language spoken primarily in South Africa, where it is one of the 11 official languages. According to the 2011 census it was the first language of 4,618,576 people in South Africa, principally in the provinces of Limpopo, Gauteng and Mpumalanga. Urban varieties of Northern Sotho, such as Pretoria Sotho, have acquired clicks in a process of such sounds spreading from Nguni languages. Northern Sotho is one of the Sotho languages of the Bantu family, Northern Sotho is thus most closely related to Sesotho, Setswana, sheKgalagari and siLozi. Lobedu exists only in a form, and the standard Northern Sotho language. The monarch associated with this community is Queen Modjadji. Lobedu is spoken mainly in the area of Modjadjiskloof in the Limpopo Province and its speakers are known as the Balobedu. Sepulana also exists in form and forms part of the standard Northern Sotho. Sepulana is spoken in Bushbuckridge area by the Mapulana people, Northern Sotho has often been equated with its major component Sepedi, and continued to be known as Pedi or Sepedi for some years after the new South African constitution appeared. However, the Pan South African Language Board and the Northern Sotho National Lexicography Unit now specifically prefer, apart from Sepedi itself, the other languages or dialects covered by the term Northern Sotho appear to be a diverse grouping of communal speech-forms within the Sotho-Tswana group. They are apparently united by the fact that they are neither as Southern Sotho nor as Tswana. Maho leaves SePhalaborwa and the East Sotho varieties of SeKutswe, SePai and their precise classification would appear to be a matter for further research. Some examples of Northern Sotho words and phrases, slang jargon Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin, world Atlas of Language Structures Online
Northern Sotho language
–
0–20%
24.
Sotho language
–
Like all Bantu languages, Sesotho is an agglutinative language, which uses numerous affixes and derivational and inflexional rules to build complete words. Within the Sotho-Tswana group, Sesotho proper is most closely related to Lozi, the Northern Sotho group is geographical, and includes a number of dialects also closely related to Sesotho-Lozi. Tswana is also known as Western Sesotho, Sotho is a tribal suffix, i. e. the name of the Sotho people or Basotho, while Sesotho is the term for the language of the Basotho. Use of Sesotho rather than Sotho language in English has seen increasing use since the 1980s, especially in South African English, the Nguni language Phuthi has been heavily influenced by Sesotho, its speakers have mixed Nguni and Sotho–Tswana ancestry. It seems that it is sometimes treated erroneously as a dialect of Sesotho called Sephuthi, however, Phuthi is mutually unintelligible with standard Sesotho and thus cannot in any sense be termed a dialect of it. These were the first peoples to be called Basotho, before many of their descendants, the situation is even further complicated by various historical factors, such as members of parent clans joining their descendants or various clans calling themselves by the same names. According to the South African National Census of 2011, there were almost four million first language Sesotho speakers recorded in South Africa – approximately eight per cent of the population. Sesotho is also the language spoken by the people of Lesotho. The census fails, to record other South Africans for whom Sesotho is a second or third language, such speakers are found in all major residential areas of Metropolitan Municipalities - such as Johannesburg, and Tshwane - where multilingualism and polylectalism are very high. Sesotho is one of the official languages of South Africa. Sesotho is one of the languages from which the pseudo-language Tsotsitaal is derived. Tsotsitaal is not a language, as it is primarily a unique vocabulary. It is a part of the culture in most Southern Gauteng townships and is the primary language used in Kwaito music. The sound system of Sesotho is unusual in many respects and it has ejective consonants, click consonants, a uvular trill, a relatively large number of affricate consonants, no prenasalised consonants, and a rare form of vowel-height harmony. In total, the language contains some 39 consonantal and 9 vowel phonemes and it also has a large number of complex sound transformations which often change the phones of words due to the influence of other sounds. The most striking properties of Sesotho grammar, and the most important properties which reveal it as a Bantu language, are its noun gender, the grammatical gender system does not encode sex gender, and indeed, Bantu languages in general are not grammatically marked for gender. Another well-known property of the Bantu languages is their agglutinative morphology, additionally, they tend to lack any grammatical case systems, indicating noun roles almost exclusively through word order. Sotho calendar Sotho people South African Translators Association Sesotho Online A gentle introduction to the Sesotho language, weblog on Sesotho Translate. org. za Project translating Free and Open Source Software into South African languages, including Sesotho
Sotho language
–
A Mosotho woman holding up a sign protesting violence against women, written in her native Sotho language, at a
National Women's Day protest at the National University of Lesotho. The sign translates as "if you do not listen to women, we will lose patience with you."
25.
Tswana language
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The Tswana language, Setswana, is a language spoken in southern Africa by about five million people. Tswana is a language and lingua franca of Botswana. The two South African provinces with largest number of speakers are Gauteng Province and North West Province, until 1994, South African Tswana people were notionally citizens of Bophuthatswana, one of the bantustans of the apartheid regime. The first European to describe the Tswana language was the German traveller H. Lichtenstein and he mistakenly regarded Tswana as a dialect of the Xhosa language, and the name he used for the language Beetjuana may also have covered the Northern- and Southern Sotho languages. In the following years he published other books of the Bible. Masego was the first to speak the language, the first grammar of the Tswana language was published in 1833 by the missionary James Archbell, although it was modelled on a Xhosa grammar. The first grammar of Tswana which regarded it as a language from Xhosa was published by the French missionary E. Casalis in 1841. He changed his mind later, and in a publication from 1882 he noted that the Northern-, in 1876 the South African intellectual and linguist Solomon Plaatje was born, and he became one of the first writers to extensively write in and about the Tswana language. The vowel inventory of Tswana can be seen below, some dialects have two additional vowels, the close-mid vowels /e/ and /o/. The consonant inventory of Tswana can be seen below, the consonant /d/ is merely an allophone of /l/, when the latter is followed by the vowels /i/ or /u/. Tswana also has three click consonants, but these are used in interjections or ideophones, and tend only to be used by the older generation. The three click consonants are the dental click /ǀ/, orthographically ⟨c⟩, the lateral click /ǁ/, orthographically ⟨x⟩, there are some minor dialectal variations among the consonants between speakers of Tswana. For instance, /χ/ is realised as either /x/ or /h/ by many speakers, /f/ is realised as /h/ in most dialects, and /tɬ/ and /tɬʰ/ are realised as /t/ and /tʰ/ in northern dialects. Stress is fixed in Tswana and thus falls on the penult of a word. The syllable on which the falls is lengthened. Tswana has two tones, high and low, although the latter has a wider distribution in words than the former. Tones are not marked orthographically which may lead to ambiguity, if a syllable bears a high tone, the following two syllables will also get high tones, unless they are at the end of the word. The nine classes and their respective prefixes can be seen below, some nouns may be found in several classes
Tswana language
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