1.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
2.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
3.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
4.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
5.
La Plata County, Colorado
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La Plata County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 51,334, the county was named for the La Plata River and the La Plata Mountains. La plata is the Spanish language word for silver, La Plata County comprises the Durango, CO Micropolitan Statistical Area. The county is home to Durango Rock Shelters Archeology Site, the site for the Basketmaker II period of Anasazi culture. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,700 square miles. The population density is 26 people per square mile, there are 20,765 housing units at an average density of 12 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county is 87. 31% White,5. 78% Native American,0. 40% Asian,0. 31% Black or African American,0. 05% Pacific Islander,3. 90% from other races, and 2. 25% from two or more races. 10. 40% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 80% of all households are made up of individuals and 6. 10% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.43 and the family size is 2.92. In the county, the population is out with 22. 70% under the age of 18,13. 90% from 18 to 24,29. 00% from 25 to 44,25. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age is 36 years, for every 100 females there are 103.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 103.10 males, the median income for a household in the county is $40,159, and the median income for a family is $50,446. Males have an income of $32,486 versus $24,666 for females. The per capita income for the county is $21,534,11. 70% of the population and 6. 70% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the population,9. 30% of those under the age of 18 and 7. 70% of those 65
6.
Archuleta County, Colorado
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Archuleta County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,084, the county seat and the only incorporated municipality in the county is Pagosa Springs. Archuleta County was created by the Colorado legislature on April 14,1885, out of western Conejos County. It was named for J. M. Archuleta, head of one of the old Spanish families of New Mexico, and in honor of Antonio D. Archuleta, who was the Senator from Conejos County at the time. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,356 square miles. The population density was 7 people per square mile, there were 6,212 housing units at an average density of 5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 33% White,0. 35% Black or African American,1. 40% Native American,0. 31% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,6. 97% from other races, and 2. 60% from two or more races. 16. 76% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 2.89. In the county, the population was out with 25. 30% under the age of 18,6. 30% from 18 to 24,26. 10% from 25 to 44,30. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 102.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $37,901, and the median income for a family was $43,259. Males had an income of $29,521 versus $21,851 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,683, about 9. 00% of families and 11. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 00% of those under age 18 and 6. 60% of those age 65 or over
7.
Montezuma County, Colorado
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Montezuma County is the southwesternmost of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 25,535, Montezuma County is also home to most of the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation, home of the Weeminuche Band of the Ute Nation, known as the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, with its headquarters at Towaoc. Montezuma County has been settled since approximately AD600, and had an population of approximately 100,000, four times its current population. Montezuma County was created out of the portion of La Plata County by the Colorado Legislature in April 1889. It was named in honor of a chief of the Aztec Indians in Mexico. The building ruins in Mesa Verde National Park were thought to be of Aztec origin at the time. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,040 square miles. A large county, roughly 1/3 of its area is land, 1/3 is federal land. It is also varied topographically, ranging in elevation from about 6,000 feet to more than 13,200 feet, the county has the second largest reservoir in Colorado, McPhee Reservoir, many other large reservoirs, and hundreds of private lakes and ponds. Much of the county is irrigated cropland, and it produces fruit, large numbers of cattle and sheep, highways 160 and 491, and by Cortez Municipal Airport. It has no service, although both Mancos and Dolores were established as railroad towns in the 1890s. The border with San Juan County, Colorado, is, however, the population density was 12 people per square mile. There were 10,497 housing units at a density of 5 per square mile. 9. 50% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the family size was 3.04. In the county, the population was out with 27. 50% under the age of 18,7. 10% from 18 to 24,26. 30% from 25 to 44,25. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 96.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $32,083, and the median income for a family was $38,071
8.
Ignacio, Colorado
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The Town of Ignacio is a Statutory Town in La Plata County, Colorado, United States. The population was 697 at the 2010 United States Census Ignacio is located at 37°7′0″N 107°38′6″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.273 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 669 people,262 households, the population density was 2,449.7 people per square mile. There were 303 housing units at a density of 1,109.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 51. 27% White,0. 75% African American,21. 97% Native American,0. 30% Asian,18. 39% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 48. 58% of the population. 27. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.12. In the town, the population was out with 30. 5% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,29. 9% from 25 to 44,20. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $27,917, and the median income for a family was $39,583. Males had an income of $27,333 versus $20,125 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,803, about 16. 8% of families and 19. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 1% of those under age 18 and 7. 4% of those age 65 or over. Ben Nighthorse Campbell Old Spanish National Historic Trail Town of Ignacio Website CDOT map of the Town of Ignacio Community Portal
9.
Arboles, Colorado
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Arboles is a census-designated place in Archuleta County, Colorado, United States. The population was 280 at the 2010 census, the Arboles Post Office has the ZIP Code 81121. The towns name means trees in Spanish, Arboles is located at 37°1′15″N 107°25′17″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 5.3 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 232 people,104 households, the population density was 44.1 people per square mile. There were 169 housing units at a density of 32.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 68. 10% White,1. 29% Native American,15. 95% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 25. 00% of the population. 23. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.59. In the CDP, the population was out with 20. 7% under the age of 18,2. 6% from 18 to 24,20. 7% from 25 to 44,35. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 48 years, for every 100 females there were 112.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.1 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $33,125, and the median income for a family was $37,813. Males had an income of $35,000 versus $25,833 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,384. About 11. 5% of families and 8. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 6% of those under the age of eighteen and 22. 9% of those sixty five or over
10.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
11.
Ute Mountain Ute Tribe
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The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe is one of three federally recognized tribes of the Ute Nation, and are mostly descendants of the historic Weeminuche Band who moved to the Southern Ute reservation in 1897. Their reservation is headquartered at Towaoc, Colorado on the Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation in southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe are descendants of the Weeminuche band who moved to the Southern Ute reservation in 1897. The use of lands in the Four Corners area, where the Ute Mountain Ute tribe now live, though, most anthropologists agree that Utes were established in the Four Corners area by 1500 C. E. The Ute people were hunters and gatherers who moved on foot to hunting grounds, the men hunted animals, including deer, antelope, buffalo, rabbits, and other small mammals and birds. Women gathered grasses, nuts, berries, roots, and greens in woven baskets, They also processed and stored meat, Ute in the western part of their territory lived in wickiups and ramadas, Hide tipis were used in the eastern reaches of their territory. As a result of American westward expansion, the Utes now possess only a fraction of the land that they once traveled seasonally. The Ute people consist of three populations of people, Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation near Fort Duchesne in northeastern Utah, the Southern Ute live on a reservation in southwestern Colorado near Ignacio. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe headquartered in Towaoc, Colorado, the subjects of this article, the Mesa Verde Region, the present day area containing the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe reservation and the Mesa Verde National Park, was the northern most edge of the colonial territory of Spain. Initial exploration of the American Southwest by the Spanish occurred in 1540 and they established their first capital near the pueblo of Ohkay Owingeh, which they renamed San Juan de los Caballeros. In 1626 an account was taken of the Utes by a Spanish scribe in New Mexico, about 1640 the Utes began trading with the Spanish for horses. Spanish traders followed trails to Ute villages and Utes traveled to New Mexican towns, the Utes brought buckskin, dried meats, furs, and slaves to exchange for horses, knives, and blankets. Spanish officials negotiate the first peace treaty with the Utes in 1670, in search of gold, Juan de Rivera made three expeditions between 1761 and 1765 from Taos through southwestern Colorado to the Gunnison River. He did not return with gold, but did trade with Utes. Beset by hunger and illness, the men turned back at Salt Lake Valley, the maps and information provided from the expedition provided useful information for future travel and their route from Santa Fe to the Salt Lake Valley became known as the Old Spanish Trail. The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 established a boundary line between Spanish and United States possessions in the southwest. Spanish territory included the southern plains, a part of the western Rocky Mountains. Even with the boundary, the Spanish did little to maintain their northern borders, when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, the Spanish lands became Mexican land. American fur trappers headed into the frontier in 1811 and encountered the Utes
12.
Continental Divide of the Americas
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The Continental Divide of the Americas is the principal, and largely mountainous, hydrological divide of the Americas. The Continental Divide of the Americas begins at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the Divide crosses into the United States in northwestern Montana, at the boundary between Waterton Lakes National Park and Glacier National Park. In Canada, it forms the boundary of Waterton Lakes National Park. The Divide crosses into Wyoming within Yellowstone National Park and continues southeast into Colorado where it reaches its highest point in North America at the summit of Grays Peak at 4,352 m. It crosses US Hwy 160 in southern Colorado at Wolf Creek Pass, the Divide then proceeds south into western New Mexico, passing along the western boundary of the endorheic Plains of San Agustin. Although the Divide represents the height of land between watersheds, it not always follow the highest ranges/peaks within each state or province. In Mexico, it passes through Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, México, the Federal District, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. In Central America, it continues through southern Guatemala, southwestern Honduras, western Nicaragua, western/southwestern Costa Rica, the divide reaches its lowest point in Central America at the Isthmus of Rivas at 47 m in Nicaragua. In North America, another, mainly non-mountainous divide, the Laurentian Divide, secondary divides separate the watersheds that flow into the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River from watersheds that flow to the Atlantic via the Missouri-Mississippi complex. Another secondary divide follows the Appalachian chain, which separates those streams, Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park, Montana, is the point where two of the principal continental divides in North America converge, the Great Divide and the Northern or Laurentian Divide. From this point, waters flow to the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico, most geographers, geologists, meteorologists, and oceanographers consider this point the hydrological apex of North America. This is not the place on earth where two oceanic divides meet, i. e. where waters from a single point area feed into three different oceans. This status of Triple Divide Peak is the reason behind the designation of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park as the Crown of the Continent of North America. Sources differ, however, on whether Hudson Bay is part of the Atlantic or Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bays waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic and do not directly contribute to the Arctic Ocean. Another triple divide or triple point occurs in Canada at an unimportant-looking hump on the border between Alberta and British Columbia, on the slope of Snow Dome. At 3,456 metres, the point is higher than Triple Divide Peak, the exact location of the triple point is somewhat indeterminate because the Columbia Icefield and the snow on top of it shift from year to year. The snow that falls on it doesnt really flow downhill as water, ice flowing away from that point down the Athabasca Glacier goes to the Arctic Ocean, via the Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers. Ice flowing west goes to the Pacific Ocean via Bryce Creek, ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier goes via the North Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, and Nelson Rivers into Hudson Bay
13.
Conejos River
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The Conejos River is a tributary of the Rio Grande, approximately 92.5 miles long, in south-central Colorado in the United States. It drains an area of the eastern San Juan Mountains west of the San Luis Valley. It rises from snowmelt along the continental divide west of Conejos Peak in western Conejos County and it flows briefly northeast, through Platoro Reservoir, then southeast through the Rio Grande National Forest, then east along the New Mexico border through a scenic canyon. It enters the corner of the San Luis Valley from the west near Conejos. It is impounded at Platoro Reservoir for flood control and to manage irrigation in the San Luis Valley, the river is wide and shallow along much of its course. It descends steeply in several areas, including at Pinnacle Canyon, off limits to white settlement during the New Spain years, the river was the site of early land grants to settlers from the government of Mexico in the 1830s. The first settlement of 50 families along the river, in the Guadalupe Grant in 1833, was destroyed in an attack by Native Americans, josé Jacques established the first white settlement on the river in 1851. The town of Conejos was founded in the 1854 by Lafayette Head, List of Colorado rivers List of tributaries of the Rio Grande USGR, San Luis Valley Project Rio Grandes Hispanic Heritage
14.
Rio Grande
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The Rio Grande is one of the principal rivers in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. The Rio Grande begins in south-central Colorado in the United States, along the way, it forms part of the Mexico–United States border. According to the International Boundary and Water Commission, its length was 1,896 miles in the late 1980s. Depending on how it is measured, the Rio Grande is the fourth- or fifth-longest river system in North America. The river serves as part of the border between the U. S. state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León. A very short stretch of the river serves as part of the boundary between the U. S. states of Texas and New Mexico. Since the mid–20th century, heavy consumption of farms and cities along with many large diversion dams on the river has left only 20% of its natural discharge to flow to the Gulf. Near the rivers mouth, the heavily irrigated lower Rio Grande Valley is an important agricultural region, the Rio Grande is one of 19 Great Waters recognized by Americas Great Waters Coalition. The Rio Grandes watershed covers 182,200 square miles, many endorheic basins are situated within, or adjacent to, the Rio Grandes basin, and these are sometimes included in the river basins total area, increasing its size to about 336,000 square miles. The Rio Grande rises in the part of the Rio Grande National Forest in the U. S. state of Colorado. The river is formed by the joining of several streams at the base of Canby Mountain in the San Juan Mountains and it then continues on a southerly route through the desert cities of Albuquerque, and Las Cruces to El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua. In the Albuquerque area, the river flows past a number of historic Pueblo villages, including Sandia Pueblo, below El Paso, it serves as part of the border between the United States and Mexico. The official river border measurement ranges from 889 miles to 1,248 miles, a major tributary, the Rio Conchos, enters at Ojinaga, Chihuahua, below El Paso, and supplies most of the water in the border segment. Other well-known tributaries include the Pecos and the smaller Devils, which join the Rio Grande on the site of Amistad Dam. Despite its name and length, the Rio Grande is not navigable by ocean-going ships, in New Mexico, the river flows through the Rio Grande rift from one sediment-filled basin to another, cutting canyons between the basins and supporting a fragile bosque ecosystem on its flood plain. From El Paso eastward, the flows through desert. Although irrigated agriculture exists throughout most of its stretch, it is extensive in the subtropical Lower Rio Grande Valley. The river ends in a small, sandy delta at the Gulf of Mexico, during portions of 2001 and 2002, the mouth of the Rio Grande was blocked by a sandbar
15.
Sangre de Cristo Mountains
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The Sangre de Cristo Mountains are the southernmost subrange of the Rocky Mountains. They are located in southern Colorado and northern New Mexico in the United States, the mountains run from Poncha Pass in South-Central Colorado, trending southeast and south, ending at Glorieta Pass, southeast of Santa Fe, New Mexico. The mountains contain a number of fourteen thousand foot peaks in the Colorado portion, the name of the mountains may refer to the occasional reddish hues observed during sunrise and sunset, and when alpenglow occurs, especially when the mountains are covered with snow. Although the particular origin of the name is unclear, it has been in use since the early 19th century, before that time the terms La Sierra Nevada, La Sierra Madre, La Sierra, and The Snowies were used. According to tradition, sangre de Cristo were the last words of a Catholic priest who was killed by Indians, sometimes the archaic Spanish spelling Christo is used. Much of the mountains are within various National Forests, the Rio Grande and San Isabel in Colorado, and these publicly accessible areas are popular for hunting, camping, hiking, mountain biking, backpacking, climbing, and cross-country and downhill skiing. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve lies on the southwest side of the mountains in Colorado, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains are divided into various subranges, described here from north to south. They form a ridge separating the San Luis Valley on the west from the watershed of the Arkansas River on the east. The Crestones are a group of four 14, 000+ foot peaks in the Sangre de Cristo Range above Crestone, Colorado. The Spanish Peaks are a pair of mountains, West Spanish Peak,13,626 feet/4,153 m. The Spanish Peaks were designated a National Natural Landmark in 1976 as one of the best known examples of igneous dikes. The mountains can be seen as far north as Colorado Springs, as far west as Alamosa, points south to Raton, New Mexico, and points east to La Junta, Colorado. The Culebra Range runs almost due north and south, with its limit at La Veta Pass in Colorado. Its highest point is Culebra Peak, which is notable for being the only fourteener in Colorado which is on private land, climbers wishing to ascend Culebra must pay a fee, and the number of climbers per year is limited. Standing to the east of the main crest are the two prominent Spanish Peaks, unlike the rest of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, these are volcanic, with conical shapes and prominent dikes radiating outward. These peaks were important landmarks on the branch of the Santa Fe Trail. The Taos Mountains span the western lobe of the range from Costilla Creek in the north and they include the highest point in New Mexico, Wheeler Peak 13,161 feet, which is part of the small Wheeler Peak Wilderness. Other notable peaks include Pueblo Peak 12,305 feet, which rises dramatically above Taos Pueblo, williams Lake is located below Wheeler Peak in the Wheeler Peak Wilderness
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San Luis Valley
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The valley is a section of the Rio Grande Rift and is drained to the south by the Rio Grande, which rises in the San Juan Mountains to the west of the valley and flows south into New Mexico. The valley is approximately 122 miles long and 74 miles wide, the San Luis Valley receives little precipitation and is made up of desert lands, but the temperatures can be very comfortable in the summer and very cold on winter nights. The San Luis Valley is the broad, generally flat, valley at the headwaters of the Rio Grande in south central Colorado, the northern portion of the San Luis Valley is an endorheic basin, which is to say that surface water does not exit this area. The southern portion is drained by the Rio Grande, there is no clear southern boundary but the term is generally used to include the San Luis Hills of southern Colorado and the Taos Plateau of northern New Mexico. About 50 miles from east to west and about 150 miles from north to south, within Colorado the San Luis Valley is generally considered to comprise six Colorado counties, Saguache, Alamosa, Rio Grande, Conejos, Costilla and Mineral. A few other counties of Colorado have some land in the Rio Grande Basin including Archuleta County, Hinsdale County, Blanca Peak is prominent in the Sierra Blanca at the southern end of the northernmost section of the mountains, which is known as the Sangre de Cristo Range. There are several passes, with elevations between 9,000 and 10,000 feet, giving access to the valley. North La Veta Pass, through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, is used by U. S. Highway 160 and by the San Luis, other passes used historically were Medano, Mosca and Sangre de Cristo Passes. The Great Sand Dunes is a feature of the valley. It lies directly to the west of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the dunes can reach 750 feet high. The Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve is now in place to both the dunes and the numerous archeological sites found in the area. The natural valley aquifer is close to the surface in part of the valley. Elevation rises as you go north in the valley to Poncha Pass, used now by U. S. Highway 285 and historically by the narrow tracks of the Denver. Cumbres Pass is a 10,015 ft. pass between Antonito, Colorado and Chama, New Mexico, the pass is traversed by State Highway 17 and the Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad. Stony Pass, sometimes spelled Stoney Pass, a wagon road to the mining camps of the San Juans, is now a jeep trail. At the north end of the valley, North Pass is the route of State Highway 114 between Saguache, Colorado and Gunnison, Colorado, bypassing the route over Cochetopa Pass. The Rio Grande follows a course through the valley from Del Norte southeastward via Alamosa to New Mexico. South of Alamosa it is joined by several streams from the west including the Alamosa River, most of the northern valley is an endorheic basin called the San Luis Closed Basin
17.
Animas River
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Animas River is a 126-mile-long river in the western United States, a tributary of the San Juan River, part of the Colorado River System. The Animas-La Plata Water Project was completed in 2015, spanish explorer Juan Maria de Rivera of Santa Fe recorded the name Rio de las Animas in 1765. One theory is that the name of the river was once Rio de las Animas Perdidas. At Silverton, the flows into the Animas Canyon. The Durango and Silverton Narrow gauge railroad follows the river through the canyon to Durango, from Durango the river flows south into New Mexico through the town of Aztec to its confluence with the San Juan River at Farmington. The only major tributary of the Animas River is the Florida River which confluences just north of the Colorado–New Mexico border, numerous irrigation ditches serve the surrounding farmland along the river. The Durango Pumping Plant, completed in 2011, as part of the Animas-La Plata Water Project, draws an average annual of 57,100 acre-feet from the river, for storage in Lake Nighthorse. The Animas serves as habitat to resident and migratory bald eagles arrive in the winter months to take advantage of the ice-free river. The plug was removed while investigating a leak at the abandoned Gold King Mine. The mine was last active in the 1920s, but it had been leaking toxic water at a rate of 50 to 250 gallons a minute for years, the spill contained the toxic metals arsenic, cadmium, and lead, as well as the metals aluminum and copper. There may be other toxic heavy metals in the plume, the rivers fish population might also be at risk due to the toxic waste that now runs through the river. In February 2016, the Associated Press reported that the spill dumped 880,000 pounds of metals into the Animas River, the metals considered are cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc, and possibly others. The Animas is a freestone fishery well populated with rainbow, brown, Colorado River cutthroat and it is considered a gold medal fishery above Rivera Bridge Crossing in Colorado. Recreational fishing with artificial lures and flies on the Animas is available due to moderate winter weather. Insect hatches of aquatic diptera and mayflies occur in the winter, in late spring, summer and through fall the Animas sees caddisfly and mayfly hatches as well as terrestrials such as grasshoppers. Animas trout average 12 to 16 inches, larger trout in the 17 to 22 inches are occasionally caught by anglers. Brown trout as large as 36 inches have been caught in the Animas, List of rivers of Colorado List of rivers of New Mexico List of tributaries of the Colorado River Animas-La Plata Water Project Lake Nighthorse Thompson, Jonathan. Acid-neutralizing potential of igneous bedrocks in the Animas River headwaters, San Juan County, reston, VA, U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey
18.
Chama, New Mexico
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Chama is a village in Rio Arriba County, New Mexico, United States. The population was 1,022 at the 2010 census, Chama is located at 36°53′41″N 106°35′4″W, on the Rio Chama. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has an area of 2.6 square miles. It is the remaining 64 mile portion of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroads San Juan Extension built in the 1880s between Alamosa, Colorado, and Durango, Colorado. The route was abandoned in the late 1960s and the tracks from Chama westward to Durango were torn up soon afterwards, at the 2000 census, there were 1,199 people,467 households and 312 families residing in the village. The population density was 467.9 per square mile, there were 601 housing units at an average density of 234.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 67. 56% White,1. 58% African American,2. 67% Native American,0. 08% Asian,25. 10% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 71. 23% of the population. 26. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.13. 26. 6% of the population were under the age of 18,6. 7% from 18 to 24,26. 3% from 25 to 44,28. 2% from 45 to 64, the median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 95.9 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.1 males. The median household income was $30,513, and the family income was $31,983. Males had an income of $27,167 compared with $20,054 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,670, about 11. 9% of families and 17. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 6% of those under age 18 and 13. 7% of those age 65 or over. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chama has a continental climate. Chama, Colorado Rio Chama Cumbres Pass San Juan Mountains San Juan Express Village website Chama Valley Chamber of Commerce
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Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico
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Tierra Amarilla is a small unincorporated community near the Carson National Forest in the northern part of the U. S. state of New Mexico. It is the county seat of Rio Arriba County, Tierra Amarilla is Spanish for Yellow Soil. The name refers to clay deposits found in the Chama River Valley, tewa and Navajo toponyms for the area also refer to the yellow clay. There is evidence of 5000 years of habitation in the Chama River Valley including pueblo sites south of Abiquiu, the area served as a trade route for peoples in the present-day Four Corners region and the Rio Grande Valley. Navajos later used the valley as an area for raids on Spanish settlements along the Rio Grande. Written accounts of the Tierra Amarilla locality by pathfinding Spanish friars in 1776 described it as suitable for pastoral and agricultural use, the route taken by the friars from Santa Fe to California became the Spanish Trail. During the Californian Gold Rush the area became a point for westward fortune seekers. The Tierra Amarilla Grant was created in 1832 by the Mexican government for Manuel Martinez, the land grant encompassed a more general area than the contemporary community known as Tierra Amarilla. The grant holders were unable to maintain a permanent settlement due to raids by Utes, Navajos, in 1860 the United States Congress confirmed the land grant as a private grant, rather than a community grant, due to mistranslated and concealed documents. Although a land patent for the grant required the completion of a geographical survey before issuance, in 1880 Thomas Catron sold some of the grant to the Denver and Rio Grande Railway for the construction of their San Juan line and a service center at Chama. By 1883 Catron had consolidated the deeds he held for the whole of the grant sans the original villages, in 1950, the descendants of the original grant holders court petitions to reclaim communal land were rebuked. In 1866 the United States Army established Camp Plummer just south of Los Ojos to rein in already decreased Native American activity on the grant, the military encampment was deserted in 1869. Las Nutrias, the site of the community, was founded nearby c.1862. The first post office in Las Nutrias was established in 1866 and bore the name Tierra Amarilla, in 1877 a U. S. Army lieutenant described the village as the center of the Mexican population of northwestern New Mexico. The territorial legislature located Rio Arribas county seat in Las Nutrias, when Tierra Amarilla was designated as the county seat the villagers set about building a courthouse. The neoclassical design by Isaac Rapp is now on the National Register of Historic Places, the Alianza Federal de Mercedes, led by Reies Tijerina, raided the Rio Arriba County Courthouse in 1967. Eulogio Salazar, a guard, was shot and Daniel Rivera. The National Guard, FBI and New Mexico State Police successfully pursued Tijerina, the Brazos Cliffs are a prominent nearby landmark and attraction
20.
Rio Arriba County, New Mexico
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Rio Arriba County is a county in the U. S. state of New Mexico. As of the 2010 census, the population was 40,246 and its county seat is Tierra Amarilla. Its northern border is the Colorado state line, Rio Arriba County comprises the Española, NM Micropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Albuquerque-Santa Fe-Las Vegas, NM Combined Statistical Area. The county was one of nine originally created for the Territory of New Mexico in 1852, originally extending west to the California line, it included the site of present-day Las Vegas, Nevada. The county seat was initially sited at San Pedro de Chamita, in 1860 the seat was moved to Plaza del Alcalde. Since 1880 Tierra Amarilla has been the county seat, the Battle of Embudo Pass took place in the southern part of the county during the American invasion in January 1847. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 5,896 square miles. It is the fifth-largest county in New Mexico by area, the highest point in the county is the summit of Truchas Peak at 13,102 feet. The county acquired its present proportions after the creation of San Juan County, the population density was 7 people per square mile. There were 18,016 housing units at a density of 3 per square mile. 72. 89% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.71 and the family size was 3.19. In the county, the population was out with 28. 60% under the age of 18,8. 90% from 18 to 24,28. 80% from 25 to 44,22. 90% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 98.00 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.70 males, the median income for a household in the county was $29,429, and the median income for a family was $32,901. Males had an income of $26,897 versus $22,223 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,263, about 16. 60% of families and 20. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23. 30% of those under age 18 and 22. 90% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 40,246 people,15,768 households, the population density was 6.9 inhabitants per square mile
21.
Puebloans
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The Pueblo peoples speak languages from several different groups and are also divided culturally by their kinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties of corn. In addition to differing kinship systems, the peoples have differing marriage practices and those who have a matrilineal system, in which children are considered born into the mothers clan and her line is used for inheritance and descent, are the Hopi, Keres, Towa and Zuni. The non-Towa Tanoan have a system, with clan membership, inheritance. All the Pueblo peoples have traditional economies based on agriculture and trade, at the time of Spanish encounter beginning in the 16th century, these peoples were living in complex, multi-story villages often built around a central courtyard. The Spanish called these pueblos, meaning towns, and applied the name to all the living in such complexes. In the 21st century there are 21 surviving pueblos in the Southwest of the United States, Taos, Acoma, Zuni, and Hopi are the best-known. The main pueblos are located primarily in the states of New Mexico. Anthropologists have studied these peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions, in 1950, Fred Russell Eggan contrasted the peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques. The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuñi and Hopi specialize in dry farming, in 1954, Paul Kirchhoff published a division of the Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture, one includes the Hopi, Zuni, Keres and Jemez. They each have matrilineal kinship systems, children are considered born into their mothers clan and must marry a spouse outside it and they maintain multiple kivas for sacred ceremonies. Their creation myth tells that humans emerged from the underground and they emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are considered significant in their rituals and symbolism. In contrast, the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos have a kinship system. They practice endogamy, or marriage within the clan and they have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based in dualism, the creation story recounts the emergence of the people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west and their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three. The Pueblo peoples speak languages from different language families, demonstrating their diverse ethnic origins. The Hopi language is Uto-Aztecan, Zuni is an isolate, and Keresan is a dialect continuum that includes Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo
22.
Jicarilla Apache
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Jicarilla Apache refers to the members of the Jicarilla Apache Nation currently living in New Mexico and speaking a Southern Athabaskan language. The term jicarilla, pronounced heek-ah-REE-yah, comes from Mexican Spanish meaning little basket and their autonym is Tinde or Dinde, meaning the People. To neighboring Apache bands like the Mescalero and Lipan they were known as Kinya-Inde, the Jicarilla Apache lived in a semi-nomadic existence in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and plains of southern Colorado, northern New Mexico and ranged into the Great Plains starting before 1525 CE. They lived a peaceful life for years, traveling seasonally to traditional hunting, gathering. The Jicarilla learned about farming and pottery from the Puebloan peoples and learned about survival on the plains from the Plains Indians and had a rich and varied diet and lifestyle. Tribal members transitioned from a lifestyle and are now supported by their oil and gas, casino gaming, forestry, ranching. The Jicarilla continue to be known for their pottery, basketry, large numbers of them lived also along the Cimarron River and ranged out into the plains of northwestern Texas and the western portions of Oklahoma and Kansas. Their territory overlapped that of other tribes. They were found to be in the Chama Valley, New Mexico, prior to that time, and the arrival of the Spanish, the Jicarilla lived a relatively peaceful existence. One of the Plains Indian traits prominent in Jicarilla Culture was an emphasis on raiding, after Spanish contact raiding increased in frequency and intensity with the use of and need for horses. In the 1600s, the Jicarillas were semi-nomads, practicing seasonal agriculture that they learned from the Pueblo people, the Apache are linked to the Dismal River culture of the western Plains, generally attributed to the Paloma and Quartelejo Apaches. Jicarilla Apache pottery has also found in some of the Dismal River complex sites. Some of the people of the Dismal River culture joined the Kiowa Apache in the Black Hills of South Dakota and they found farming in the mountains safer than on the open plains. They primarily hunted buffalo into the 17th century and thereafter hunted antelope, deer, mountain sheep, elk, from the wild, women gathered berries, agave, honey, onions, potatoes, nuts and seeds. They believe the heart of the world is located near Taos, the Jicarilla created shrines in sites that held spiritual meaning, sharing some of the Taos area sites with the Taos Pueblo. Clay for the pottery came from the Taos and Picuris Pueblo areas, due to increase in other populations, Manifest Destiny, and Indian Wars, the Apaches traditional cultural and economic lifestyle became strained. Many people died due to famine, Indian Wars, including the Battle of Cieneguilla, at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Jicarilla commonly raided the Plains tribes to their east and used the fruits of their successes to trade with the Pueblo Indians and the Spanish. As they were pushed off the plain, the Jicarilla moved to the mountains and near the pueblos and Spanish missions where they sought alliance with the Puebloan peoples and the Spanish settlers
23.
Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
24.
Las Vegas, New Mexico
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Las Vegas is a city in and the county seat of San Miguel County, New Mexico, United States. Once two separate municipalities both named Las Vegas, west Las Vegas and east Las Vegas, separated by the Gallinas River, retain distinct characters and separate, the population was 14,565 at the 2000 census. Las Vegas was established in 1835 after a group of settlers received a grant from the Mexican government. The town was out in the traditional Spanish Colonial style. Las Vegas soon prospered as a stop on the Santa Fe Trail, during the Mexican-American War in 1846, Stephen W. Kearny delivered an address at the Plaza of Las Vegas claiming New Mexico for the United States. In 1877 Las Vegas College, the precursor to Regis University, was founded in Las Vegas by a group of exiled Italian Jesuits, in 1887, Las Vegas College moved to Denver whereupon the name was changed. A railroad was constructed to the town in 1880, to maintain control of development rights, it established a station and related development one mile east of the Plaza, creating a separate, rival New Town, as occurred elsewhere in the Old West. The same competing development occurred in Albuquerque, for instance, during the railroad era Las Vegas boomed, quickly becoming one of the largest cities in the American Southwest. Since the decline and restructuring of the industry began in the 1950s. Although the two towns have been combined, separate school districts have been maintained, the anti-colonist organization Las Gorras Blancas was active in the area in the 1890s. The first billed Cowboy Reunions were held once a year within 1915 until 1931 and these reunions were meant to celebrate the ranching life that took place in northern New Mexico in the late 1800s. These reunions consisted of fair activities, including pie eating contests, barbecues. They brought the working cowhand and celebrities of Rodeos together in the town of Las Vegas, the Cowboy Reunions reflected the occupations of the area. The arrival of the railroad on July 4,1879 brought with it businesses, development and new residents, murderers, robbers, thieves, gamblers, gunmen, swindlers, vagrants, and tramps poured in, transforming the eastern side of the settlement into a virtually lawless brawl. Historian Ralph Emerson Twitchell once claimed regarding the Old West, Without exception there was no town which harbored a more disreputable gang of desperadoes, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 14,565 people,5,588 households, the population density was 1,938.2 people per square mile. There were 6,366 housing units at a density of 847.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 54. 21% White,0. 99% African American,1. 96% Native American,0. 61% Asian,0. 10% Pacific Islander,37. 19% from other races, and 4. 95% from two or more races
25.
Taos Pueblo
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Taos Pueblo is an ancient pueblo belonging to a Tiwa-speaking Native American tribe of Puebloan people. It lies about 1 mile north of the city of Taos, New Mexico. The pueblos are considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States and this has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Taos Pueblo is a member of the Eight Northern Pueblos, whose people speak two variants of the Tanoan language, the Taos community is known for being one of the most private, secretive, and conservative pueblos. A reservation of 95,000 acres is attached to the pueblo, the pueblo was constructed in a setting backed by the Taos Mountains of the Sangre de Cristo Range. The settlement was built on side of Rio Pueblo de Taos, also called Rio Pueblo and Red Willow Creek. Its headwaters come from the nearby mountains, Taos Pueblos most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown adobe, built on either side of the Rio Pueblo. The Pueblos website states it was built between 1000 and 1450. The pueblo was designated a National Historic Landmark on October 9,1960, in 1992 it was designated as a UNESCO Heritage Site. As of 2006, about 150 people live in the historic complex full-time, in the Tanoan language of Taos, the pueblo is referred to as the village in either tə̂otho in the village or tə̂obo to/toward the village. The proper name of the pueblo is ȉałopháymųp’ȍhə́othə̀olbo at red willow canyon mouth and this name is more commonly used in ceremonial contexts and is less common in everyday speech. The name Taos in English was borrowed from Spanish Taos, Spanish Taos is probably a borrowing of Taos tə̂o- village which was heard as tao to which the plural -s was added although in the modern language Taos is no longer a plural noun. The idea that the Spanish Taos is from tao, cross of the order of San Juan de los Caballeros, is unlikely, Taos is a derivative of spanish slang for a tiwa word meaning place down by the red willows. Most archeologists believe that the Taos Indians, along with other Pueblo Indians, the dwellings of that region were inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans. A long drought in the area in the late 13th century may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande, throughout its early years, Taos Pueblo was a central point of trade between the native populations along the Rio Grande and their Plains Tribes neighbors to the northeast. Taos Pueblo hosted a fair each fall after the agricultural harvest. Around 1620, Spanish Jesuits oversaw construction of the first Catholic Church in the pueblo, reports from the period indicate that the native people of Taos resisted the building of the church and imposition of the Catholic religion. Throughout the 1600s, cultural tensions grew between the populations of the Southwest and the increasing Spanish colonial presence
26.
Texas Panhandle
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The Texas Panhandle is a region of the U. S. state of Texas consisting of the northernmost twenty-six counties in the state. The panhandle is an area bordered by New Mexico to the west and Oklahoma to the north. The Handbook of Texas defines the border of Swisher County as the southern boundary of the Texas Panhandle region. Its land area is 25,823.89 sq mi, the Texas Panhandle is slightly larger in size than the US State of West Virginia. There is an additional 62.75 sq mi of water area and its population as of the 2010 census was 427,927 residents, or 1.7 percent of the states total population. As of the 2010 census, the density for the region was 16.6 per square mile. The Panhandle is distinct from North Texas, which is farther southeast, West of the Caprock Escarpment and north and south of the Canadian River breaks, the surface of the Llano Estacado is rather flat. South of the city of Amarillo, the level terrain gives way to Palo Duro Canyon and this colorful canyon was carved by the Prairie Dog Town Fork Red River. North of Amarillo lies Lake Meredith, a reservoir created by Sanford Dam on the Canadian River, the lake, along with the Ogallala Aquifer, provides drinking water and irrigation for this moderately dry area of the high plains. Interstate Highway 40 passes through the panhandle, and also passes through Amarillo, the highway passes through Deaf Smith, Oldham, Potter, Carson, Gray, Donley, and Wheeler Counties. The Texas Panhandle has been identified in the early 21st century as one of the fastest-growing windpower-producing regions in the nation because of its strong, steady winds. Before the rise of Amarillo, the three towns of the Panhandle were Clarendon in Donley County, Mobeetie in Wheeler County. Clarendon moved itself after it was overlooked by the Fort Worth, Mobeetie was reduced even below its original small size with the closure of the United States Armys Fort Elliott in 1890. Tascosa was ruined by the location of the railroad too far north of the town, as of the census of 2000, approximately 402,862 people lived in the panhandle. Of these,68. 9% were non-Hispanic White,23. 8% were Hispanic, only 2. 7% were of some other ethnicity. 92. 3% of inhabitants claimed native birth, and 8. 9% were veterans of the United States armed forces,49. 9% of the population was male, and 50. 1% was female. 13. 2% of the population were 65 years of age or older and it was one of the first regions of the state to break away from its Democratic roots, though Democrats continued to do well at the local level well into the 1980s. However, Republicans now dominate every level of government, holding nearly every elected post above the county level, in the 2008 Presidential Election, John McCain received 78. 82% of the vote, as compared with Barack Obamas 20. 48% share of the vote
27.
Ouray (Ute leader)
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Ouray was a Native American chief of the Uncompahgre band of the Ute tribe, then located in western Colorado. Because of his ability, Ouray was also acknowledged by the United States government as a chief of the Ute. In 1880 he left Colorado to travel to Washington, D. C. where he testified before Congress about the Ute uprising of 1879, the reason he was called the man of peace was because he made a treaty with the settlers. Ouray was born in what is now New Mexico, according to oral history, he was born on a clear night of November 13,1833, during the Leonid meteor showers, which was taken as an omen. In Ute, ouray means “the arrow, ” drawn from the shower that occurred at the time of his birth. His father, Guera Murah, was a Jicarilla Apache adopted into the Ute and he learned Spanish, English, and later both the Ute and Apache languages, which he found helpful in negotiating treaties. Ourays first wife, Black Water, died soon after the birth of their only child, after the death of his wife, Ouray married Chipeta, White Singing Bird in the Ute language, then sixteen. When Queashegut was five years old, Ouray took him along on a buffalo hunt and their hunting camp, near present-day Fort Lupton, was attacked by Sioux warriors and Queashegut was abducted. Ouray never saw his son again and remained in deep grief, according to a 1924 article in the Denver Post, The parents never saw or heard from their only child again. They said he was rather than believe the probable truth. Ten years after the abduction, Felix Brunot, from the U. S, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, wanting Ouray to turn over valuable mining property lured Ouray with the promise of finding his son. However, instead, Ouray was presented a 17-year-old orphan brought to meet Ouray and Chipeta in Washington, D. C. “ meeting turned out quite dissatisfying for Ouray, according to tribal historians. However, Richard E. Wood, author of the book, Here Lies Colorado, writes, Although he was disappointed with the outcome, Ouray was impressed by the effort the government made. In 1874, with Ouray’s help, the Brunot Agreement was ratified, at about age 18, Ouray came to modern-day Colorado to be a member of the Tabeguache Ute band, where his father was already a leader. He spent much of his working for Mexican sheepherders. At his fathers death in 1860, Ouray became chief of the band, Ouray never cut his long Ute-fashion hair, though he often dressed in the European-American style. The U. S. government appointed a commission to determine a reservation for the Ute, superintendent of Indian Affairs for Oregon, Otto Mears, a railroad executive, and George W. Manypenny, former Commissioner of Indian Affairs. About the time that the government established the White River Indian Agency in western Colorado, the White River Ute had separate leaders
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Ute people
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Ute people /ˈjuːt/ are Native Americans of the Ute tribe and culture. They are now living primarily in Utah and Colorado, the Ute are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People. They have three Ute tribal reservations, Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah, Southern Ute in Colorado, and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, the majority of Ute are believed to live on one of these reservations. The State of Utah is named after these people, the primary language of the Ute people is English. However, some of the people speak their ancestral Ute language. It is related to the Southern Paiute language and belongs to the Southern subdivision of the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, a dictionary and grammar have been written for the language, and the Bible has been translated into Ute. Several orthographies exist, but the language is written in the Latin script, different ideas about the phonetic spelling of many names and some words has caused confusion about the spelling, so many names are often spelled in several different ways. An example is Timpanogos, which has also been spelled as Toompahnahwach, Tumpanuwac, Tumpanawach, Timpanog, Tumpipanogo or Timanogos, from this area, speakers of Uto-Aztecan languages gradually diffused northward and southward. The Ute, Paiute, Shoshone, Comanche and some belong to what is called the Numic subdivision within the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is believed that this Numic group originated near the border of Nevada and California, then spread North, the Numic group is divided into 3 main subdivisions - Southern, Central and Western. Not all of the languages are mutually intelligible, especially those in different subdivisions, Ute and Southern Paiute are Southern Numic Languages, while Shoshone, Gosiute and Comanche are Central Numic, and Northern Paiute and Bannock are Western Numic. The Numic-speaking tribes share many cultural, genetic and linguistic characteristics, many of the tribes met and merged with each other or divided from each other at various times. For instance, the Comanche split off from the Shoshone in about the mid-1600s, since the mid-1800s, some Ute bands merged with Southern Paiute bands to become Paiute. Some possibly Shoshonean tribes, such as the Timpanogos, merged with the Ute and it is also true that there were many times when the tribes did not get along. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, before Mexican settlers arrived, the Utes occupied significant portions of what are today eastern Utah, western Colorado, including the San Luis Valley, and parts of New Mexico and Wyoming. The Utes were never a group within historic times, instead. Some of the largest known groups were the Capote, Moache, Moanumts, Parianuche, Taviwach, Weeminuche, also the Uintah or Uinta, Uncompahgre tribe and White River Utes. The last partial migration of the Utes within this area was in the year 1885, “In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln signed an executive order establishing the original Uintah Valley Reservation in the eastern part of the Utah territory
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Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
30.
Mesa
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Mesa is the American English term for tableland, an elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs. It takes its name from its characteristic table-top shape and it may also be called a table hill, table-topped hill or table mountain. It is larger than a butte, which it resembles closely. Examples are also found in other nations including Spain, Sardinia, North and South Africa, Arabia, India. Grand Mesa is a mesa located in western Colorado in the Southwest United States. Cerro Negro is a mesa in Argentina, the term mesa is used throughout the United States to describe a flat-topped mountain or hill. Mesas form by weathering and erosion of layered rocks that have been uplifted by tectonic activity. This process is called differential erosion, the most resistant rock types include sandstone, conglomerate, quartzite, basalt, chert, limestone, lava flows and sills. Lava flows and sills, in particular, are resistant to weathering and erosion. The less resistant rock layers are made up of shale. The differences in strength of rock layers is what gives mesas their distinctive shape. Less resistant rocks are eroded away on the surface into valleys, a large area of very resistant rock, such as a sill may shield the layers below it from erosion while the softer rock surrounding it is eroded into valleys, thus forming a caprock. Differences in rock type also reflect on the sides of a mesa, as instead of smooth slopes, the more resistant layers form the cliffs, or stairsteps, while the less resistant layers form gentle slopes, or benches, between the cliffs. Cliffs retreat and are cut off from the main cliff, or plateau. When the cliff edge does not retreat uniformly, but instead is indented by headward eroding streams, as the underlying shale erodes away, it can no longer support the overlying cliff layers, which collapse and retreat. When the caprock has caved away to the point where only a little remains, a transitional zone on Mars, known as the fretted terrain, lies between highly cratered highlands and less cratered lowlands. The younger lowland exhibits steep walled mesas and knobs, the mesa and knobs are separated by flat lying lowlands. They are thought to form from ice-facilitated mass wasting processes from ground or atmospheric sources, the mesas and knobs decrease in size with increasing distance from the highland escarpment
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Indian Reorganization Act
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The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18,1934, or the Wheeler-Howard Act, was U. S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans. It was the centerpiece of what has often called the Indian New Deal. The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, the law did not apply to Hawaii, Alaska and Oklahoma was added under another law in 1936. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to an all time low of $23 million in 1933, and reaching $38 million in 1940. The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelts Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and he had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America and his proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Colliers proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior, the self-government provisions would automatically go into effect for a tribe unless a clear majority of the eligible Indians voted it down. When approved, a tribe would adopt a variation of the constitution drafted by BIA lawyers. Of the tribes that voted on the IRA,174 voted yes and 78 rejected it, before allotment, reservation territory was not owned in the usual European-American sense, but was reserved for the benefit of entire Indian tribes. The communal benefits were apportioned to members according to tribal law. Generally, Indians held the land in a communal fashion, non-Indians were not allowed to own land on reservations, a fact which limited the value of the land to the Indians. The process of allotment started with the General Allotment Act of 1887, by 1934, two thirds of Indian land had converted to traditional private ownership. Most of that had sold by Indian allottees, often because they had no means to pay local taxes on the lands. The IRA provided a mechanism for the recovery of land that had been sold—including land that had sold to tribal Indians. They would lose individual property under the law, John Collier was appointed Commissioner of the Indian Bureau in April 1933 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He had the support of his boss, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. The federal government held land in trust for many tribes, numerous claims cases had been presented to Congress because of failures in the governments management of such lands
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Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation
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The Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation is located in northeastern Utah, United States. It is the homeland of the Northern Ute Tribe, and is the largest of three Indian reservations inhabited by members of the Ute Tribe of Native Americans. It lies in parts of seven counties, in descending order of land area they are, Uintah, Duchesne, Wasatch, Grand, Carbon, Utah, and Emery counties. The total land area is 6,769.173 sq mi with control of the split between Ute Indian Allottees, the Ute Indian Tribe, and the Ute Distribution Corporation. The tribe owns lands that total approximately 1.2 million acres of land and 40,000 acres of mineral-owned land within the 4 million acres reservation area. Other parts of the reservation are owned by non-Ute, as the tribe lost control of much of the land during the allotment process, as of the 2000 census, a population of 19,182 persons was recorded as living on the reservation. This is the second-largest Indian reservation in land area in the United States, second to the Navajo Indian Reservation, tribal headquarters are in Fort Duchesne, located in Uintah County, Utah. The largest community within the boundaries is the city of Roosevelt. Most of its residents are not Native Americans, the tribe filed suit against the state in federal district court. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case, the state continued to prosecute Ute within the reservations in state court, in violation of the ruling in Ute III. The state Supreme Court ruled the reservation boundaries had been reduced, and it upheld the Utah Supreme Court in affirming that some congressional actions had diminished the boundaries of the Uintah Reservation, but that the two other reservations were not affected. In an effort to reconcile the cases in light of the Supreme Courts ruling, so in a decision the parties call Ute V, this court elected to recall and modify Ute III’s mandate. See Ute Indian Tribe v. Utah,114 F. 3d 1513, because Hagen addressed the Uintah Valley Reservation, Ute V deemed that particular portion of Ute tribal lands diminished — and diminished according to the terms Hagen dictated. So much relief was warranted, this court found, to “reconcile two inconsistent boundary determinations and to provide an allocation of jurisdiction among separate sovereigns. ”The state. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals called the plaintiffs and defendants together again in 2015, the court rejected the counties claim to be acting as an arm of the state and entitled to the same immunity. com, Ute Nation
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
35.
Timpanogos
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In some accounts they were called the Timpiavat, Timpanogot, Timpanogotzi, Timpannah, Tempenny and other names. During the mid-19th century, when Mormon pioneers entered the territory, the Timpanogos have generally been classified as Ute people. They may have been a Shoshone band, since other Shoshone bands occupied parts of Utah, nineteenth-century historian Hubert Howe Bancroft wrote in 1882 that the Timpanogos were one of four sub-bands of the Shoshone. Chief Walkara, also known as Chief Walker, was a noted mid-19th-century chief who led his people against Mormon settlers in the Walker War, the Shoshone and Ute shared a common genetic, cultural and linguistic heritage as part of the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. In 2002, the Timpanogos won a case against the state in the Court of Appeals upholding their traditional rights to hunt, fish. The court concluded that their relationship with the government was well-established. They have submitted an application and documentation to the Department of the Interior seeking federal recognition as an independent tribe. They were hunter-gatherers, living mostly on fish and wild game caught by the men and cooked and processed by the women and on the seeds, as part of their religion, in the mornings they gathered together and greeted the morning with song to express gratitude to the Creator. They were divided into clans, each with its headman, spiritual leader, the clans would band together for specific purposes, such as hunting. There was no division of the land, and people were free to travel to different villages and they developed an extensive trading network. The Timpanogos lived in the Wasatch Range around Mount Timpanogos, along the southern and eastern shores of Utah Lake of the Utah Valley and in Heber Valley, Uinta Basin, the band around Utah Lake became dominant due to the areas food supply. During the spring spawning season at Utah Lake, the tribes hosted an annual fish festival, Timpanogos, Ute and Shoshone bands would come from 200 miles away to gather fish. At the festival there was dancing, singing, trading, horse races and it was an opportunity for young people to find a mate from another clan, since exogamous marriage was required. The shores of Utah Lake became a meeting place for the Timpanogos, Ute. The first known Europeans to enter this area were a Spanish expedition of Franciscan missionaries led by Father Silvestre Vélez de Escalante, the Dominguez–Escalante Expedition of 1776 was trying to find a land route from Santa Fe, New Mexico to Monterey, California. Two or three Timpanogos from the Utah Valley were guides for the party, on September 23,1776, they traveled down Spanish Fork Canyon and entered the Utah Valley. Besides this, they gather in the grass seeds from which they make atole, which they supplement by hunting hares, rabbits. The explorers named many features in central Utah for the Timpanog tribe
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Southern Ute Indian Reservation
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The Southern Ute Indian Reservation is a Native American reservation in southwestern Colorado near the northern New Mexico state line. Its territory consists of land from three counties, in descending order of surface area they are La Plata, Archuleta, the reservation has a land area of 1,058.785 sq mi. Its largest communities are Ignacio and Arboles, the only other community that is recognized as a separate place by the Census Bureau is the CDP of Southern Ute, which lies just southeast of Ignacio. The Southern Ute Indian Reservation was opened in southwestern Colorado, the tribes that originally resided there were the Muache, Capote, and the Weeminuche. These tribes were considered the Southern Utes, there was a half blood Ute Indian from the Ucompahgre band named Ouray who was appointed by president Lincoln as head of all Ute tribes, which the southern Ute bands did not agree with them. The first reservation created by the treaty of 1868 encompassed about 1/3 of present-day Colorado, when precious metals and minerals were discovered in the central mountains settlers sought access to the land. In 1873 The Brunot Agreement was created and this agreement limited the reservation to the narrow strip of land that is called The Southern Ute Reservation today. The United States also made treaties with various bands of Ute in 1855,1865, and 1866, initially given the whole of eastern Colorado for a reservation, the discovery of gold there in the 1860s brought a quick reduction in territory. The treaty also banned liquor and provided for the establishment and maintenance of a labor school for ten years. The eastern part of the reservation is forest with elevations of more than 9000 feet, the western portion is mostly arid mesa. The actual land lies in the corner of the state of Colorado and consists of a strip fifteen miles wide and one hundred. What was originally one long, narrow reservation in the corner of Colorado has been reduced. A portion of the Ute Mountain Reservation extends into New Mexico, in 1895, the Hunter Act made allotments of individual land available to the Indians instead of having them hold it collectively, as a tribe. The Mountain Utes optd for collective ownership, but the Southern Utes went with individual ownership, after the Southern Utes took 160 acres apiece, the balance was thrown open to settlers but some land went unclaimed and reverted to the Southern Ute tribe. The result was that the Southern Ute Reservation is divided into collective, during the late 1870s a railroad line was built that cut through the reservation. White settlers arrived to build and work on the railroad, there were many quarrels between the Indians and the settlers over use of the land. Tensions increased and an incident known as the Beaver Massacre occurred in which 11 Indians were killed by stockmen who accused them of butchering some of the settlers cattle, the Meeker Massacre occurred on Sept.29,1879 when the Indian agent Nathan Meeker and his men were killed. During this event the Indians took Meekers wife and daughters as hostages, another treaty was created in 1880, in this treaty the southern Utes agreed to settle on the La Plate River within their reservation
