1.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
2.
Indian reservation
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Each of the 326 Indian reservations in the United States are associated with a particular Nation. Not all of the countrys 567 recognized tribes have a reservation—some tribes have more than one reservation, some share reservations and this jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties. The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres, while most reservations are small compared to US states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia, Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country, the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or granted from the public domain. Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited and these laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local or federal government, generally has jurisdiction over reservations, different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the government, a limited number, mainly in the East. The name reservation comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U. S, the term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection. A majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in big cities such as Phoenix. In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans with about 1 million living on reservations, from the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including voluntary moves based on agreement, treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to an area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture. In 1764 the “Plan for the Future Management of Indian Affairs” was proposed by the Board of Trade, additionally, this plan dictated that the Indians would be properly consulted when ascertaining and defining the boundaries of colonial settlement. For much of North America, the American Revolution was more of a battle against the Indians than a war against the British, the treaty was seen by Americans as a confirmation of their conquest of Indian land. The private contracts that once characterized the sale of Indian land to various individuals and this protocol was adopted by the United States Government after the America Revolution. On March 11,1824, John C. Calhoun founded the Office of Indian Affairs as a division of the United States Department of War, to solve the land problem with 38 treaties with American Indian tribes. The passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 marked the systematization of a US federal government policy of forcibly moving Native populations away from European-populated areas, some of the lands these tribes were given to inhabit following the removals eventually became Indian Reservations. In 1851, the United States Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act which authorized the creation of Indian reservations in modern-day Oklahoma, relations between settlers and natives had grown increasingly worse as the settlers encroached on territory and natural resources in the West
3.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
4.
New Mexico
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New Mexico is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. It was admitted to the Union as the 47th state on January 6,1912 and it is usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is fifth by area, the 36th-most populous, inhabited by Native Americans for thousands of years before European exploration, New Mexico was colonized by the Spanish in 1598 Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain. Later, it was part of independent Mexico before becoming a U. S. territory and eventually a U. S. state as a result of the Mexican–American War. Among U. S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, the major Native American nations in the state are Navajo, Pueblo, and Apache peoples. The demography and culture of the state are shaped by these strong Hispanic and Native American influences and its scarlet and gold colors are taken from the royal standards of Spain, along with the ancient sun symbol of the Zia, a Pueblo-related tribe. New Mexico, or Nuevo México in Spanish, is incorrectly believed to have taken its name from the nation of Mexico. The name simply stuck, even though the area had no connection to Mexico or the Mexica Indian tribes, Mexico, formerly a part of New Spain, adopted its name centuries later in 1821, after winning independence from Spanish rule. New Mexico was a part of the independent Mexican Empire and Federal Republic of Mexico for 27 years,1821 through 1848, New Mexico and Mexico developed as neighboring Spanish-speaking communities under Spanish rule, with relatively independent histories. The states total area is 121,412 square miles, the eastern border of New Mexico lies along 103° W longitude with the state of Oklahoma, and 2.2 miles west of 103° W longitude with Texas. On the southern border, Texas makes up the eastern two-thirds, while the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora make up the western third, the western border with Arizona runs along the 109°03 W longitude. The southwestern corner of the state is known as the Bootheel, the 37° N latitude parallel forms the northern boundary with Colorado. The states New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, and Utah come together at the Four Corners in the corner of New Mexico. New Mexico, although a state, has very little water. Its surface water area is about 250 square miles, the New Mexican landscape ranges from wide, rose-colored deserts to broken mesas to high, snow-capped peaks. Despite New Mexicos arid image, heavily forested mountain wildernesses cover a significant portion of the state, the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, the southernmost part of the Rocky Mountains, run roughly north-south along the east side of the Rio Grande in the rugged, pastoral north. The most important of New Mexicos rivers are the Rio Grande, Pecos, Canadian, San Juan, the Rio Grande is tied for the fourth-longest river in the United States. Tourists visiting these sites bring significant money to the state, other areas of geographical and scenic interest include Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Monument and the Gila Wilderness in the southwest of the state
5.
La Plata County, Colorado
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La Plata County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 51,334, the county was named for the La Plata River and the La Plata Mountains. La plata is the Spanish language word for silver, La Plata County comprises the Durango, CO Micropolitan Statistical Area. The county is home to Durango Rock Shelters Archeology Site, the site for the Basketmaker II period of Anasazi culture. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,700 square miles. The population density is 26 people per square mile, there are 20,765 housing units at an average density of 12 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county is 87. 31% White,5. 78% Native American,0. 40% Asian,0. 31% Black or African American,0. 05% Pacific Islander,3. 90% from other races, and 2. 25% from two or more races. 10. 40% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 80% of all households are made up of individuals and 6. 10% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.43 and the family size is 2.92. In the county, the population is out with 22. 70% under the age of 18,13. 90% from 18 to 24,29. 00% from 25 to 44,25. 10% from 45 to 64. The median age is 36 years, for every 100 females there are 103.60 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 103.10 males, the median income for a household in the county is $40,159, and the median income for a family is $50,446. Males have an income of $32,486 versus $24,666 for females. The per capita income for the county is $21,534,11. 70% of the population and 6. 70% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the population,9. 30% of those under the age of 18 and 7. 70% of those 65
6.
Archuleta County, Colorado
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Archuleta County is one of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 12,084, the county seat and the only incorporated municipality in the county is Pagosa Springs. Archuleta County was created by the Colorado legislature on April 14,1885, out of western Conejos County. It was named for J. M. Archuleta, head of one of the old Spanish families of New Mexico, and in honor of Antonio D. Archuleta, who was the Senator from Conejos County at the time. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 1,356 square miles. The population density was 7 people per square mile, there were 6,212 housing units at an average density of 5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 33% White,0. 35% Black or African American,1. 40% Native American,0. 31% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,6. 97% from other races, and 2. 60% from two or more races. 16. 76% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 10% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 2.89. In the county, the population was out with 25. 30% under the age of 18,6. 30% from 18 to 24,26. 10% from 25 to 44,30. 40% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 102.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.50 males, the median income for a household in the county was $37,901, and the median income for a family was $43,259. Males had an income of $29,521 versus $21,851 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,683, about 9. 00% of families and 11. 70% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 00% of those under age 18 and 6. 60% of those age 65 or over
7.
Montezuma County, Colorado
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Montezuma County is the southwesternmost of the 64 counties in the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 25,535, Montezuma County is also home to most of the Ute Mountain Indian Reservation, home of the Weeminuche Band of the Ute Nation, known as the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe, with its headquarters at Towaoc. Montezuma County has been settled since approximately AD600, and had an population of approximately 100,000, four times its current population. Montezuma County was created out of the portion of La Plata County by the Colorado Legislature in April 1889. It was named in honor of a chief of the Aztec Indians in Mexico. The building ruins in Mesa Verde National Park were thought to be of Aztec origin at the time. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 2,040 square miles. A large county, roughly 1/3 of its area is land, 1/3 is federal land. It is also varied topographically, ranging in elevation from about 6,000 feet to more than 13,200 feet, the county has the second largest reservoir in Colorado, McPhee Reservoir, many other large reservoirs, and hundreds of private lakes and ponds. Much of the county is irrigated cropland, and it produces fruit, large numbers of cattle and sheep, highways 160 and 491, and by Cortez Municipal Airport. It has no service, although both Mancos and Dolores were established as railroad towns in the 1890s. The border with San Juan County, Colorado, is, however, the population density was 12 people per square mile. There were 10,497 housing units at a density of 5 per square mile. 9. 50% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 60% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.54 and the family size was 3.04. In the county, the population was out with 27. 50% under the age of 18,7. 10% from 18 to 24,26. 30% from 25 to 44,25. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 96.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.20 males, the median income for a household in the county was $32,083, and the median income for a family was $38,071
8.
Ignacio, Colorado
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The Town of Ignacio is a Statutory Town in La Plata County, Colorado, United States. The population was 697 at the 2010 United States Census Ignacio is located at 37°7′0″N 107°38′6″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.273 square miles, all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 669 people,262 households, the population density was 2,449.7 people per square mile. There were 303 housing units at a density of 1,109.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 51. 27% White,0. 75% African American,21. 97% Native American,0. 30% Asian,18. 39% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 48. 58% of the population. 27. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 3.12. In the town, the population was out with 30. 5% under the age of 18,7. 5% from 18 to 24,29. 9% from 25 to 44,20. 5% from 45 to 64. The median age was 36 years, for every 100 females there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $27,917, and the median income for a family was $39,583. Males had an income of $27,333 versus $20,125 for females. The per capita income for the town was $14,803, about 16. 8% of families and 19. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28. 1% of those under age 18 and 7. 4% of those age 65 or over. Ben Nighthorse Campbell Old Spanish National Historic Trail Town of Ignacio Website CDOT map of the Town of Ignacio Community Portal
9.
Arboles, Colorado
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Arboles is a census-designated place in Archuleta County, Colorado, United States. The population was 280 at the 2010 census, the Arboles Post Office has the ZIP Code 81121. The towns name means trees in Spanish, Arboles is located at 37°1′15″N 107°25′17″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 5.3 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 232 people,104 households, the population density was 44.1 people per square mile. There were 169 housing units at a density of 32.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 68. 10% White,1. 29% Native American,15. 95% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 25. 00% of the population. 23. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.59. In the CDP, the population was out with 20. 7% under the age of 18,2. 6% from 18 to 24,20. 7% from 25 to 44,35. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 48 years, for every 100 females there were 112.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.1 males, the median income for a household in the CDP was $33,125, and the median income for a family was $37,813. Males had an income of $35,000 versus $25,833 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $19,384. About 11. 5% of families and 8. 0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3. 6% of those under the age of eighteen and 22. 9% of those sixty five or over
10.
United States Census Bureau
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The United States Census Bureau is a principal agency of the U. S. Federal Statistical System, responsible for producing data about the American people and economy. The Census Bureaus primary mission is conducting the U. S. Census every ten years, in addition to the decennial census, the Census Bureau continually conducts dozens of other censuses and surveys, including the American Community Survey, the U. S. Economic Census, and the Current Population Survey, furthermore, economic and foreign trade indicators released by the federal government typically contain data produced by the Census Bureau. The Bureaus various censuses and surveys help allocate over $400 billion in federal funds every year and help states, local communities, the Census Bureau is part of the U. S. Department of Commerce and its director is appointed by the President of the United States. The Census Bureau now conducts a population count every 10 years in years ending with a 0. Between censuses, the Census Bureau makes population estimates and projections, the Census Bureau is mandated with fulfilling these obligations, the collecting of statistics about the nation, its people, and economy. The Census Bureaus legal authority is codified in Title 13 of the United States Code, the Census Bureau also conducts surveys on behalf of various federal government and local government agencies on topics such as employment, crime, health, consumer expenditures, and housing. Within the bureau, these are known as surveys and are conducted perpetually between and during decennial population counts. The Census Bureau also conducts surveys of manufacturing, retail, service. Between 1790 and 1840, the census was taken by marshals of the judicial districts, the Census Act of 1840 established a central office which became known as the Census Office. Several acts followed that revised and authorized new censuses, typically at the 10-year intervals, in 1902, the temporary Census Office was moved under the Department of Interior, and in 1903 it was renamed the Census Bureau under the new Department of Commerce and Labor. The department was intended to consolidate overlapping statistical agencies, but Census Bureau officials were hindered by their role in the department. An act in 1920 changed the date and authorized manufacturing censuses every 2 years, in 1929, a bill was passed mandating the House of Representatives be reapportioned based on the results of the 1930 Census. In 1954, various acts were codified into Title 13 of the US Code, by law, the Census Bureau must count everyone and submit state population totals to the U. S. President by December 31 of any year ending in a zero. States within the Union receive the results in the spring of the following year, the United States Census Bureau defines four statistical regions, with nine divisions. The Census Bureau regions are widely used. for data collection, the Census Bureau definition is pervasive. Title 13 of the U. S. Code establishes penalties for the disclosure of this information, all Census employees must sign an affidavit of non-disclosure prior to employment. The Bureau cannot share responses, addresses or personal information with anyone including United States or foreign government, only after 72 years does the information collected become available to other agencies or the general public
11.
Mesa
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Mesa is the American English term for tableland, an elevated area of land with a flat top and sides that are usually steep cliffs. It takes its name from its characteristic table-top shape and it may also be called a table hill, table-topped hill or table mountain. It is larger than a butte, which it resembles closely. Examples are also found in other nations including Spain, Sardinia, North and South Africa, Arabia, India. Grand Mesa is a mesa located in western Colorado in the Southwest United States. Cerro Negro is a mesa in Argentina, the term mesa is used throughout the United States to describe a flat-topped mountain or hill. Mesas form by weathering and erosion of layered rocks that have been uplifted by tectonic activity. This process is called differential erosion, the most resistant rock types include sandstone, conglomerate, quartzite, basalt, chert, limestone, lava flows and sills. Lava flows and sills, in particular, are resistant to weathering and erosion. The less resistant rock layers are made up of shale. The differences in strength of rock layers is what gives mesas their distinctive shape. Less resistant rocks are eroded away on the surface into valleys, a large area of very resistant rock, such as a sill may shield the layers below it from erosion while the softer rock surrounding it is eroded into valleys, thus forming a caprock. Differences in rock type also reflect on the sides of a mesa, as instead of smooth slopes, the more resistant layers form the cliffs, or stairsteps, while the less resistant layers form gentle slopes, or benches, between the cliffs. Cliffs retreat and are cut off from the main cliff, or plateau. When the cliff edge does not retreat uniformly, but instead is indented by headward eroding streams, as the underlying shale erodes away, it can no longer support the overlying cliff layers, which collapse and retreat. When the caprock has caved away to the point where only a little remains, a transitional zone on Mars, known as the fretted terrain, lies between highly cratered highlands and less cratered lowlands. The younger lowland exhibits steep walled mesas and knobs, the mesa and knobs are separated by flat lying lowlands. They are thought to form from ice-facilitated mass wasting processes from ground or atmospheric sources, the mesas and knobs decrease in size with increasing distance from the highland escarpment
12.
Meeker Massacre
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Nathanial Cook Nathan Meeker was a 19th-century United States journalist, homesteader, entrepreneur, and Indian agent for the federal government. He is noted for his founding in 1870 of the Union Colony, in 1878, he was appointed U. S. Agent at the White River Indian Agency in western Colorado, the next year, he was killed by Ute warriors in what became known as the Meeker Massacre, during the White River War. His wife and adult daughter were taken captive for three weeks. The town of Meeker, Colorado and Mount Meeker in Rocky Mountain National Park are named for him, Nathan Cook Meeker was born in Euclid, Ohio on July 12,1817, to Enoch and Lurana Meeker. Meeker was a writer and submitted articles to area publications when he was a boy and he left home at 17 years-of-age for New Orleans, where he worked as a copy boy for the New Orleans Picayune. In the late 1830s, Meeker returned to Ohio, where he attended and graduated from Oberlin College, after college, Meeker worked as a school teacher in Cleveland and Philadelphia. He saved up his money to move to New York, hoping to fulfill a desire to become a poet, in New York, he became a contributor to the Mirror, which was owned by N. P. Willis. Unable to support himself, he moved back to Euclid and was a traveling salesman, Meeker married Arvilla Delight Smith, a Congregationalist, on April 8,1844. He was baptized a Disciple of Christ to address her concern about his lack of faith, Smith was concerned that Meeker was younger than her. So, he stated that his year of birth was 1814 on their marriage certificate, the couple settled in the Trumbull Phalanx colony in Ohio. The colony was based upon the theories of Charles Fourier. Arvilla taught kindergarten and Nathan was a teacher, historian, auditor, librarian, secretary, in 1845, their son Ralph Lovejoy was born. Two years later George Columbus was born at the colony, the Trumbull Phalanx colony failed due to financial and health issues in the fall of 1847. In 1847, Meeker opened a store with his brothers in Cleveland, rozene was born in 1849 in Munson. Meeker opened another store in Hiram in 1852 and he was asked to help found the Western Reserve Institute by the Disciples of Christ, but he was furious when his claim was held up because he sold whiskey. He only sold whiskey by prescription, but was so angry over the misunderstanding that he left the church, in 1854, Mary was born in Hiram, and three years later Josephine was born there. Meeker lost his store and property during the Great Panic of 1857 and he moved to Dongola, Illinois, where he opened a small store and grew fruit
13.
Nathan Meeker
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Nathanial Cook Nathan Meeker was a 19th-century United States journalist, homesteader, entrepreneur, and Indian agent for the federal government. He is noted for his founding in 1870 of the Union Colony, in 1878, he was appointed U. S. Agent at the White River Indian Agency in western Colorado, the next year, he was killed by Ute warriors in what became known as the Meeker Massacre, during the White River War. His wife and adult daughter were taken captive for three weeks. The town of Meeker, Colorado and Mount Meeker in Rocky Mountain National Park are named for him, Nathan Cook Meeker was born in Euclid, Ohio on July 12,1817, to Enoch and Lurana Meeker. Meeker was a writer and submitted articles to area publications when he was a boy and he left home at 17 years-of-age for New Orleans, where he worked as a copy boy for the New Orleans Picayune. In the late 1830s, Meeker returned to Ohio, where he attended and graduated from Oberlin College, after college, Meeker worked as a school teacher in Cleveland and Philadelphia. He saved up his money to move to New York, hoping to fulfill a desire to become a poet, in New York, he became a contributor to the Mirror, which was owned by N. P. Willis. Unable to support himself, he moved back to Euclid and was a traveling salesman, Meeker married Arvilla Delight Smith, a Congregationalist, on April 8,1844. He was baptized a Disciple of Christ to address her concern about his lack of faith, Smith was concerned that Meeker was younger than her. So, he stated that his year of birth was 1814 on their marriage certificate, the couple settled in the Trumbull Phalanx colony in Ohio. The colony was based upon the theories of Charles Fourier. Arvilla taught kindergarten and Nathan was a teacher, historian, auditor, librarian, secretary, in 1845, their son Ralph Lovejoy was born. Two years later George Columbus was born at the colony, the Trumbull Phalanx colony failed due to financial and health issues in the fall of 1847. In 1847, Meeker opened a store with his brothers in Cleveland, rozene was born in 1849 in Munson. Meeker opened another store in Hiram in 1852 and he was asked to help found the Western Reserve Institute by the Disciples of Christ, but he was furious when his claim was held up because he sold whiskey. He only sold whiskey by prescription, but was so angry over the misunderstanding that he left the church, in 1854, Mary was born in Hiram, and three years later Josephine was born there. Meeker lost his store and property during the Great Panic of 1857 and he moved to Dongola, Illinois, where he opened a small store and grew fruit
14.
Ute people
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Ute people /ˈjuːt/ are Native Americans of the Ute tribe and culture. They are now living primarily in Utah and Colorado, the Ute are in the Great Basin classification of Indigenous People. They have three Ute tribal reservations, Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah, Southern Ute in Colorado, and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, the majority of Ute are believed to live on one of these reservations. The State of Utah is named after these people, the primary language of the Ute people is English. However, some of the people speak their ancestral Ute language. It is related to the Southern Paiute language and belongs to the Southern subdivision of the Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, a dictionary and grammar have been written for the language, and the Bible has been translated into Ute. Several orthographies exist, but the language is written in the Latin script, different ideas about the phonetic spelling of many names and some words has caused confusion about the spelling, so many names are often spelled in several different ways. An example is Timpanogos, which has also been spelled as Toompahnahwach, Tumpanuwac, Tumpanawach, Timpanog, Tumpipanogo or Timanogos, from this area, speakers of Uto-Aztecan languages gradually diffused northward and southward. The Ute, Paiute, Shoshone, Comanche and some belong to what is called the Numic subdivision within the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is believed that this Numic group originated near the border of Nevada and California, then spread North, the Numic group is divided into 3 main subdivisions - Southern, Central and Western. Not all of the languages are mutually intelligible, especially those in different subdivisions, Ute and Southern Paiute are Southern Numic Languages, while Shoshone, Gosiute and Comanche are Central Numic, and Northern Paiute and Bannock are Western Numic. The Numic-speaking tribes share many cultural, genetic and linguistic characteristics, many of the tribes met and merged with each other or divided from each other at various times. For instance, the Comanche split off from the Shoshone in about the mid-1600s, since the mid-1800s, some Ute bands merged with Southern Paiute bands to become Paiute. Some possibly Shoshonean tribes, such as the Timpanogos, merged with the Ute and it is also true that there were many times when the tribes did not get along. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, before Mexican settlers arrived, the Utes occupied significant portions of what are today eastern Utah, western Colorado, including the San Luis Valley, and parts of New Mexico and Wyoming. The Utes were never a group within historic times, instead. Some of the largest known groups were the Capote, Moache, Moanumts, Parianuche, Taviwach, Weeminuche, also the Uintah or Uinta, Uncompahgre tribe and White River Utes. The last partial migration of the Utes within this area was in the year 1885, “In 1861, President Abraham Lincoln signed an executive order establishing the original Uintah Valley Reservation in the eastern part of the Utah territory
15.
Indian Reorganization Act
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The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18,1934, or the Wheeler-Howard Act, was U. S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans. It was the centerpiece of what has often called the Indian New Deal. The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, the law did not apply to Hawaii, Alaska and Oklahoma was added under another law in 1936. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to an all time low of $23 million in 1933, and reaching $38 million in 1940. The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelts Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and he had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America and his proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Colliers proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior, the self-government provisions would automatically go into effect for a tribe unless a clear majority of the eligible Indians voted it down. When approved, a tribe would adopt a variation of the constitution drafted by BIA lawyers. Of the tribes that voted on the IRA,174 voted yes and 78 rejected it, before allotment, reservation territory was not owned in the usual European-American sense, but was reserved for the benefit of entire Indian tribes. The communal benefits were apportioned to members according to tribal law. Generally, Indians held the land in a communal fashion, non-Indians were not allowed to own land on reservations, a fact which limited the value of the land to the Indians. The process of allotment started with the General Allotment Act of 1887, by 1934, two thirds of Indian land had converted to traditional private ownership. Most of that had sold by Indian allottees, often because they had no means to pay local taxes on the lands. The IRA provided a mechanism for the recovery of land that had been sold—including land that had sold to tribal Indians. They would lose individual property under the law, John Collier was appointed Commissioner of the Indian Bureau in April 1933 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He had the support of his boss, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. The federal government held land in trust for many tribes, numerous claims cases had been presented to Congress because of failures in the governments management of such lands
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Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation
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The Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation is located in northeastern Utah, United States. It is the homeland of the Northern Ute Tribe, and is the largest of three Indian reservations inhabited by members of the Ute Tribe of Native Americans. It lies in parts of seven counties, in descending order of land area they are, Uintah, Duchesne, Wasatch, Grand, Carbon, Utah, and Emery counties. The total land area is 6,769.173 sq mi with control of the split between Ute Indian Allottees, the Ute Indian Tribe, and the Ute Distribution Corporation. The tribe owns lands that total approximately 1.2 million acres of land and 40,000 acres of mineral-owned land within the 4 million acres reservation area. Other parts of the reservation are owned by non-Ute, as the tribe lost control of much of the land during the allotment process, as of the 2000 census, a population of 19,182 persons was recorded as living on the reservation. This is the second-largest Indian reservation in land area in the United States, second to the Navajo Indian Reservation, tribal headquarters are in Fort Duchesne, located in Uintah County, Utah. The largest community within the boundaries is the city of Roosevelt. Most of its residents are not Native Americans, the tribe filed suit against the state in federal district court. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case, the state continued to prosecute Ute within the reservations in state court, in violation of the ruling in Ute III. The state Supreme Court ruled the reservation boundaries had been reduced, and it upheld the Utah Supreme Court in affirming that some congressional actions had diminished the boundaries of the Uintah Reservation, but that the two other reservations were not affected. In an effort to reconcile the cases in light of the Supreme Courts ruling, so in a decision the parties call Ute V, this court elected to recall and modify Ute III’s mandate. See Ute Indian Tribe v. Utah,114 F. 3d 1513, because Hagen addressed the Uintah Valley Reservation, Ute V deemed that particular portion of Ute tribal lands diminished — and diminished according to the terms Hagen dictated. So much relief was warranted, this court found, to “reconcile two inconsistent boundary determinations and to provide an allocation of jurisdiction among separate sovereigns. ”The state. The Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals called the plaintiffs and defendants together again in 2015, the court rejected the counties claim to be acting as an arm of the state and entitled to the same immunity. com, Ute Nation
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Ute Mountain Ute Tribe
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The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe is one of three federally recognized tribes of the Ute Nation, and are mostly descendants of the historic Weeminuche Band who moved to the Southern Ute reservation in 1897. Their reservation is headquartered at Towaoc, Colorado on the Ute Mountain Ute Indian Reservation in southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe are descendants of the Weeminuche band who moved to the Southern Ute reservation in 1897. The use of lands in the Four Corners area, where the Ute Mountain Ute tribe now live, though, most anthropologists agree that Utes were established in the Four Corners area by 1500 C. E. The Ute people were hunters and gatherers who moved on foot to hunting grounds, the men hunted animals, including deer, antelope, buffalo, rabbits, and other small mammals and birds. Women gathered grasses, nuts, berries, roots, and greens in woven baskets, They also processed and stored meat, Ute in the western part of their territory lived in wickiups and ramadas, Hide tipis were used in the eastern reaches of their territory. As a result of American westward expansion, the Utes now possess only a fraction of the land that they once traveled seasonally. The Ute people consist of three populations of people, Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation near Fort Duchesne in northeastern Utah, the Southern Ute live on a reservation in southwestern Colorado near Ignacio. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe headquartered in Towaoc, Colorado, the subjects of this article, the Mesa Verde Region, the present day area containing the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe reservation and the Mesa Verde National Park, was the northern most edge of the colonial territory of Spain. Initial exploration of the American Southwest by the Spanish occurred in 1540 and they established their first capital near the pueblo of Ohkay Owingeh, which they renamed San Juan de los Caballeros. In 1626 an account was taken of the Utes by a Spanish scribe in New Mexico, about 1640 the Utes began trading with the Spanish for horses. Spanish traders followed trails to Ute villages and Utes traveled to New Mexican towns, the Utes brought buckskin, dried meats, furs, and slaves to exchange for horses, knives, and blankets. Spanish officials negotiate the first peace treaty with the Utes in 1670, in search of gold, Juan de Rivera made three expeditions between 1761 and 1765 from Taos through southwestern Colorado to the Gunnison River. He did not return with gold, but did trade with Utes. Beset by hunger and illness, the men turned back at Salt Lake Valley, the maps and information provided from the expedition provided useful information for future travel and their route from Santa Fe to the Salt Lake Valley became known as the Old Spanish Trail. The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 established a boundary line between Spanish and United States possessions in the southwest. Spanish territory included the southern plains, a part of the western Rocky Mountains. Even with the boundary, the Spanish did little to maintain their northern borders, when Mexico gained its independence from Spain, the Spanish lands became Mexican land. American fur trappers headed into the frontier in 1811 and encountered the Utes
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
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Outline of Colorado prehistory
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The types of lifestyles ranged from nomadic hunter-gatherers, semi-permanent village dwellers and people who lived in pueblos. Paleo-Indian period – the first people who entered, and subsequently inhabited, pre-Clovis – Paleo-Indian hunting, before the use of Clovis points. Lamb Spring in Littleton, with bones dated 14,140 to 12,140 years ago. Other examples include Dutton and Selby in the far edge of Colorado. Clovis culture – the oldest Paleo-Indian division, marked by the use of Clovis points, Dent, Dutton the Drake Clovis Cache site are examples of Clovis sites in Colorado. The Dent Site was the first site to provide evidence that men and mammoth co-existed, Folsom tradition – as megafauna, like the mammoth, became extinct man adapted by hunting smaller animals with the smaller Folsom projectile point. Examples are the Lindenmeier Site, dated 10,600 to 10,720 B. P. and the Jones-Miller Bison Kill Sites. Plano cultures Cody complex – a Plano culture that used unfluted projectile points and other tools like the Folsom, olsen-Chubbuck Bison Kill Site, Jurgens Site and Lamb Spring are Cody complex sites. Goshen complex / Plainview complex – at the Phillips-Williams Fork Reservoir Site, Hell Gap complex – Plano culture from 10,060 to 9,600 before present, distinguished by the long stemmed, convex and unfluted Hell Gap points. Jones-Miller Bison Kill Site is the only Hell Gap location in Colorado, other Paleo-Indian sites – Canyons of the Ancients National Monument, Picture Canyon, Phillips-Williams Fork Reservoir Site and Roxborough State Park Archaeological District. Archaic period – people were hunters of small game, such as deer, antelope and rabbits, late in the Archaic period, about 200-500 A. D. corn was introduced into the diet and pottery-making became an occupation for storing and caring food. Apex complex – a Middle Archaic period was dated from about 3000 to 500 BC, Archaic–Early Basketmaker Era – cultural period from 7000 -1500 BC of ancestors to the Ancient Pueblo People, who used baskets to gather and store wild seeds, grasses, nuts and fruit. They moved seasonally to gather food and hunt, using spears with small points, atlatl and darts. Mount Albion complex – early Archaic culture, distinguished by the Mount Albion corner-notched projectile, examples are, LoDaisKa Site, Magic Mountain Site, and Franktown Cave. Oshara Tradition – was an Archaic culture dated from 5,440 B. C. to A. D.460 that is believed to be a predecessor to the Basketmaker culture of the Ancient Pueblo People. Six phases spanned a period from early Archaic period to the introduction of cultivation, Post-Archaic, hunter and gathers Apishapa culture – prehistoric culture from A. D. 1000-1400, named for an archaeological site in the Lower Apishapa canyon in Colorado. There are at least 68 Apishapa sites on the Chaquaqua Plateau in southeastern Colorado, some sites where Apishapa archaeological evidence has been found include Franktown Cave, Picture Canyon and Trinchera Cave Archeological District. Dismal River culture – first seen in the Dismal River area of Nebraska, dated between 1650-1750 A. D. it is different than other prehistoric Central Plains and Woodland traditions of the western Plains
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Prehistory of Colorado
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Prehistory of Colorado provides an overview of the activities that occurred prior to Colorados recorded history. Colorado experienced cataclysmic geological events over billions of years, which shaped the land, the ecosystems included several ice ages, tropical oceans, and a massive volcanic eruption. Then, ancient layers of earth rose to become the Rocky Mountains, before man, the dinosaur, mammoth, mastodon, camelops and giant bison foraged for food in a verdant land. During the Ice Age Summer humans walked into the present Colorado area as they followed and hunted large animals, the ancient hunters, the Paleo-Indians, evolved into modern Native American nations. The first people in Colorado were nomadic, following and hunting large mammals using the Clovis point, as Megafauna became extinct, people adapted by hunting smaller animals, gathering wild plants, and cultivating food, such as maize. As the natives became more sedentary, there were significant technological and social advances, including basket, pottery, and tool making and creation of permanent structures and communities. Trading with other indigenous people expanded the number and type of items used for material goods, such as sea shells, stones for jewelry and tools, pottery. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago, during the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite. In Colorado it is known as the Precambrian Pikes Peak Granite, over the next 500 million years, sedimentation occurred after the granite was produced. At about 500 –300 million years ago, the region began to sink and lime, eroded granite produced sand particles that formed strata, layers of sediment, in the sinking basin. At about 300,000 million years ago the land lifted, Fountain Formation Fountain Formation was formed during the Pennsylvanian period of the Paleozoic era, 290-296 million years ago. Over the next 150 million years, during uplift the mountains would continue to erode, wind, gravity, rainwater, snow, and ice-melt supplied rivers that ultimately carved through the granite mountains and eventually led to their end. The characteristic predominant red color and the composition of the Fountain reflect that of the granites and gneisses from which it was eroded, at the beginning of the period, sea levels were low and present-day Colorado was part of the super-continent Pangaea. Sand deserts covered most of the area spreading as dunes seen in the rock record and these dunes appear to be cross-bedded and show various fossil footprints and leaf imprints in many of the strata making up the section. Related sites include, Garden of the Gods, Roxborough State Park, Lykins Formation Lykins Formation was formed during the Jurassic and Triassic periods 150-250 million years ago. The sediment deposition of layers of muddy limestone and signs of stromatolites that thrived in a smelly tidal flat at present-day Colorado. The Ancestral Rockies were burying themselves while the shoreline was present during the break-up of Pangaea and this formation began right after Earth’s largest extinction 251 million years ago at the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Ninety percent of the marine life was destroyed and a great deal on land as well
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Arapaho
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The Arapaho are a tribe of Native Americans historically living on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne tribe and loosely aligned with the Lakota and Dakota, the Arapaho language, Heenetiit, is an Algonquian language closely related to Gros Ventre, whose people are seen as an early offshoot of the Arapaho. Blackfeet and Cheyenne are the other Algonquian-speakers on the Plains, by the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes, the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma, together, their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes. It is uncertain where the word Arapaho came from and it may have come from the Pawnee word for trader, iriiraraapuhu, or it may have been a corruption of a Crow word for tattoo. The Arapaho autonym is Hinonoeino or Inun-ina, when referring to the tribe they use Hinonoeiteen and they were also known as Hitanwoiv or Hetanevoeo/Hetanevoeoo by their Cheyenne allies or Mahpíyato by Dakota, Maȟpíya thó by Lakota and Assiniboine. The Caddo called them Detsekayaa, the Wichita Niarharis-kûrikiwaahûski, and the Comanche Saria Tʉhka / Säretika, to Pawnee, Ute and other tribes they were also known as “dog-eaters”. The Northern Arapaho were also known as BSakuunena, the Cheyenne adapted the Arapaho terms and referred to the Northern Arapaho as Vanohetan or Vanohetaneo/ Vánoétaneoo and to the Southern Arapaho as Nomsennat or Nomseneo. The Arapaho recognize among themselves five main divisions, each speaking a different dialect and apparently representing as many originally distinct, through much of Arapaho history, each tribal-nation maintained a separate ethnic identity, although they occasionally came together and acted as political allies. Each also spoke mutually intelligible dialects, but there existed a degree of difference from Arapaho proper, dialectically, the Haaninin, Beesowuunenno, and Hinonoeino were closely related. Arapaho elders claimed that the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to comprehend of all the dialects, Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuunenan or Aanûnhawa, occupying territory adjacent to, but further north of the Nanwacinahaana, spoke the now extinct Haanahawunena dialect. Hinonoeino or Hinanaeinan, they spoke the Arapaho language Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuunenan or Bäsawunena and their war parties used temporary brush shelters like the dome-shaped shade or Sweat lodge of the Great Lakes Algonquian peoples. They are said to have left their old homes more recently than the other Arapaho tribes, before their historic geo-political ethnogensis, each tribal-nation had a principal headman. The exact date of the fusion or fission of each social division is not known. Both sacred objects traditionally were kept by the Beesowuunenno, the different tribal-nations lived together and the Beesowuunenno have dispersed for at least 150 years among the former distinct Arapaho tribal groups. They keep the sacred tribal articles, and are considered the nucleus or mother tribe of the Arapaho and they absorbed the historic Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno. There are still about 50 people of Beesowuunenno-lineage among the Northern Arapaho, Southern Arapaho, Náwunena or Noowunenno, are called by the Northern Arapaho Nawathineha, the Kiowa know them as Ähayädal, the name for the wild plum
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Cheyenne
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The Cheyenne are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and their language is of the Algonquian language family. The Cheyenne comprise two Native American tribes, the Sótaeoo or Sótaétaneoo and the Tsétsêhéstâhese and these tribes merged in the early 19th century. At the time of their first contact with the Europeans, the Cheyenne were living in the area of what is now Minnesota, at times they have been allied with the Lakota and Arapaho, and at other points enemies of the Lakota. In the early 18th century they migrated west across the Mississippi River and into North and South Dakota, having settled the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Powder River Country of present-day Montana, they introduced the horse culture to Lakota bands about 1730. Allied with the Arapaho, the Cheyenne pushed the Kiowa to the Southern Plains, in turn, they were pushed west by the more numerous Lakota. The Cheyenne Nation or Tsêhéstáno was at one time composed of ten bands that spread across the Great Plains from southern Colorado to the Black Hills in South Dakota and they fought their traditional enemies, the Crow and later the United States Army forces. In the mid-19th century, the bands began to split, with some choosing to remain near the Black Hills. Tribal enrollment figures, as of late 2014, indicate there are approximately 10,840 members. Approximately 91% of the population are Native Americans, with 72. 8% identifying themselves as Cheyenne, slightly more than one quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Southern Cheyenne, known in Cheyenne as Heévâhetaneoo meaning Roped People, together with the Southern Arapaho, form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes and their combined population is 12,130, as of 2008. In 2003, approximately 8,000 of these identified themselves as Cheyenne, the Tsétsêhéstâhese, which translates to those who are like this. Though the identity of the Šahíya is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some people who spoke an Algonquian language related to Cree. The Cheyenne word for Ojibwe is Sáheaeoo, a word that sounds similar to the Dakota word Šahíya, another of the common etymologies for Cheyenne is a bit like the alien speech. The etymology of the name Tsitsistas, which the Cheyennes call themselves, is uncertain, grinnells record is typical, he states They call themselves Tsistsistas, which the books commonly give as meaning people. It most likely related to one another, similarly bred, like us, our people. The term for the Cheyenne homeland is Tsiihistano, the Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as Tsêhésenêstsestôtse. Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma, there are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two locations. The Cheyenne alphabet contains 14 letters, the Cheyenne language is one of the larger Algonquian-language group
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Comanche
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The Comanche people are federally recognized as the Comanche Nation, headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Post-contact, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers with a horse culture, there may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century. They were the dominant tribe on the Southern Plains and often took captives from weaker tribes during warfare, selling them as slaves to the Spanish and they also took thousands of captives from the Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Today, the Comanche Nation has 15,191 members, approximately 7,763 of whom reside in tribal jurisdictional area around the Lawton, Fort Sill, the Comanche Nation Homecoming Powwow is held annually in Walters, Oklahoma in mid-July. The Comanche language is a Numic language of the Uto-Aztecan family, only about 1% of Comanches speak their language today. The name Comanche is from the Ute name for them, kɨmantsi, the Comanche Nation is headquartered in Lawton, Oklahoma. Their tribal jurisdictional area is located in Caddo, Comanche, Cotton, Grady, Jefferson, Kiowa, Stephens, membership of the tribe requires a 1/8 blood quantum. The tribe operates its own housing authority and issues tribal vehicle tags and they have their own Department of Higher Education, primarily awarding scholarships and financial aid for members college educations. Additionally, they operate the Comanche Nation College in Lawton, Oklahoma and they own ten tribal smoke shops and four casinos. The casinos are Comanche Nation Casino in Lawton, Comanche Red River Casino in Devol, Comanche Spur Casino, in Elgin, in 2002, the tribe founded the Comanche Nation College, a two-year tribal college in Lawton. Each July Comanches from across the United States gather to celebrate their heritage and culture in Walters, the Comanche Nation Fair is held every September. The Comanche Little Ponies host two annual dances—one over New Years and one in May, the Comanche emerged as a distinct group shortly before 1700, when they broke off from the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in Wyoming. In 1680, the Comanche acquired horses from the Pueblo Indians after the Pueblo Revolt and they separated from the Shoshone after this, as the horses allowed them greater mobility in their search for better hunting grounds. The horse was a key element in the emergence of a distinctive Comanche culture and they only just fall short of possessing all of the conveniences of the earth, and have no need to covet the trade pursued by the rest of the Indians. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains, into a sweep of territory extending from the Arkansas River to central Texas. They reached present-day New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle by 1700, forcing the Lipan Apache people ever southward, by 1777, the Lipan Apache had retreated to the Rio Grande and the Mescalero Apache to Coahuila. The Comanche never formed a single cohesive unit, but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. These groups shared the language and culture, and rarely fought each other
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Jicarilla Apache
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Jicarilla Apache refers to the members of the Jicarilla Apache Nation currently living in New Mexico and speaking a Southern Athabaskan language. The term jicarilla, pronounced heek-ah-REE-yah, comes from Mexican Spanish meaning little basket and their autonym is Tinde or Dinde, meaning the People. To neighboring Apache bands like the Mescalero and Lipan they were known as Kinya-Inde, the Jicarilla Apache lived in a semi-nomadic existence in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and plains of southern Colorado, northern New Mexico and ranged into the Great Plains starting before 1525 CE. They lived a peaceful life for years, traveling seasonally to traditional hunting, gathering. The Jicarilla learned about farming and pottery from the Puebloan peoples and learned about survival on the plains from the Plains Indians and had a rich and varied diet and lifestyle. Tribal members transitioned from a lifestyle and are now supported by their oil and gas, casino gaming, forestry, ranching. The Jicarilla continue to be known for their pottery, basketry, large numbers of them lived also along the Cimarron River and ranged out into the plains of northwestern Texas and the western portions of Oklahoma and Kansas. Their territory overlapped that of other tribes. They were found to be in the Chama Valley, New Mexico, prior to that time, and the arrival of the Spanish, the Jicarilla lived a relatively peaceful existence. One of the Plains Indian traits prominent in Jicarilla Culture was an emphasis on raiding, after Spanish contact raiding increased in frequency and intensity with the use of and need for horses. In the 1600s, the Jicarillas were semi-nomads, practicing seasonal agriculture that they learned from the Pueblo people, the Apache are linked to the Dismal River culture of the western Plains, generally attributed to the Paloma and Quartelejo Apaches. Jicarilla Apache pottery has also found in some of the Dismal River complex sites. Some of the people of the Dismal River culture joined the Kiowa Apache in the Black Hills of South Dakota and they found farming in the mountains safer than on the open plains. They primarily hunted buffalo into the 17th century and thereafter hunted antelope, deer, mountain sheep, elk, from the wild, women gathered berries, agave, honey, onions, potatoes, nuts and seeds. They believe the heart of the world is located near Taos, the Jicarilla created shrines in sites that held spiritual meaning, sharing some of the Taos area sites with the Taos Pueblo. Clay for the pottery came from the Taos and Picuris Pueblo areas, due to increase in other populations, Manifest Destiny, and Indian Wars, the Apaches traditional cultural and economic lifestyle became strained. Many people died due to famine, Indian Wars, including the Battle of Cieneguilla, at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Jicarilla commonly raided the Plains tribes to their east and used the fruits of their successes to trade with the Pueblo Indians and the Spanish. As they were pushed off the plain, the Jicarilla moved to the mountains and near the pueblos and Spanish missions where they sought alliance with the Puebloan peoples and the Spanish settlers
27.
Kiowa
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The Kiowas are a tribe of Native Americans. They migrated from western Montana southward into the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in the 17th and 18th centuries, in 1867, the Kiowa were moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma. Today they are recognized as Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma with headquarters in Carnegie. The Kiowa language is spoken today and is part of the Tanoan language family. As of 2011, there are 12,000 members, Kiowa call themselves Kaigwu, Cáuigù or Gaigwu, most given with the meaning Principal People. The first part of the name is the element Kae-, Cáui- or Gai- which means the Kiowa themselves – it may derive from the word ka or from ka-a, kae-kia means a Kiowa man, Kae-ma is a Kiowa woman. The second element -gua refers to men or people, so the meaning of the two elements is Kiowa people, to express Principal People or genuine, real or true People in Kiowa is to add the ending -hin. Ancient names were Kútjàu or Kwu-da and Tep-da, relating to the pulling or coming out of a hollow log until a pregnant woman got stuck. Later, they called themselves Kom-pa-bianta for people with large tipi flaps, the mountain pass they came through was populated heavily by grizzly bear Kgyi-yo and Blackfoot people. Other tribes who encountered the Kiowa used sign language to them by holding two straight fingers near the lower outside edge of the eye and moving these fingers back past the ear. This corresponded to the ancient Kiowa hairstyle cut horizontally from the lower edge of the eyes to the back of their ears. This was a practice to keep their hair from getting tangled as an arrow was let loose from a bow string. George Catlin painted Kiowa warriors with this hairstyle, for a time, the Kiowa are thought to have shared land, mostly in present-day eastern Colorado, with the Arapaho. An Arapaho name for the Kiowa is creek people, and the Arapaho word for creek is kohowu, for example, the Kiowa are referred to as creek people in an oral narrative recited in 1993 by native Arapaho speaker Paul Moss. Thus, it is possible Kiowa may have come from a name by which the tribe was known among the Arapaho, the Kiowa language is a member of the Kiowa-Tanoan language family. The relationship was first proposed by Smithsonian linguist John P. Harrington in 1910, parker McKenzie, born 1897, was a noted authority on the Kiowa language, learning English only when he began school. He worked with John P. Harrington on the Kiowa language and he went on to discuss the etymology of words and insights of how the Kiowa language changed to incorporate new items of material culture. McKenzies letters are in the National Anthropological Archives on pronunciation and grammar of the Kiowa language, additionally, Kiowa were one of the numerous nations across the US, Canada and Mexico that spoke Plains Sign Talk
28.
Pawnee people
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The Pawnee are a Plains Indian tribe who are headquartered in Pawnee, Oklahoma. Pawnee people are enrolled in the federally recognized Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma, historically, they lived in Nebraska and Kansas. In the Pawnee language, the Pawnee people refer to themselves as Chaticks si Chaticks or Men of Men, historically, the Pawnee lived in large earth lodge villages with adjacent farmlands. With the arrival of horses, the Pawnee retained their agricultural lifestyle, in the early 19th century, the Pawnee numbered over 10,000 people and were one of the largest and most powerful tribes in the west. They had suffered losses due to diseases brought by the expanding Europeans. By 1860, the Pawnee population was reduced to 4000 and it further decreased, because of disease, crop failure and warfare, to approximately 2400 by 1873, at which time they were forced to move to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. Many Pawnee warriors enlisted to serve as Indian scouts in the US Army to track, there are approximately 3200 enrolled Pawnee and nearly all reside in Oklahoma. Their tribal headquarters is in Pawnee, Oklahoma and their tribal area is in parts of Noble, Payne. The tribal constitution establishes the government of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma and this government consists of the Nasharo Council, the Pawnee Business Council, and the Supreme Court. Enrollment into the tribe requires a minimum blood quantum. The Nasharo Council, also known as the Chiefs Council consists of eight members, each band has two representatives on the Nasharo Council selected by the members of the tribal bands, Chaui, Kitkehahki, Pitahawirata and Skidi. Current Pawnee Business Council, Marshall R. Gover, President Bruce Pratt, Vice President Misty M. Nuttle, the Pawnee operate two gaming casinos, three smoke shops, two fuel stations, and one truck stop. Their estimated economic impact for 2010 was $10.5 million, increased revenues from the casinos have helped them provide for education and welfare of their citizens. They issue their own vehicle tags and operate their housing authority. The Pawnee were divided into two large groupings—the Skidi living in the north and the South Bands, while the Skidi were the most populous group of Pawnee, the Chaui of the South Bands were generally the politically leading group, although each band was autonomous. As was typical of many Native American tribes, each band saw to its own, in response to pressures from the Spanish, French and Americans, as well as neighboring tribes, the Pawnee began to draw closer together. Archeology studies of ancient sites have demonstrated the people lived in this pattern for nearly 700 years, the Pawnee generally settled close to the rivers and placed their lodges on the higher banks. They built earth lodges that by historical times tended to be oval in shape, at earlier stages and they constructed the frame, made of 10–15 posts set some 10 feet apart, which outlined the central room of the lodge
29.
Shoshone
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The Shoshone were sometimes called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early American explorers. Their peoples have become members of recognized tribes throughout their traditional areas of settlement, often colocated with the Paiute. The name Shoshone comes from Sosoni, a Shoshone word for high-growing grasses, some neighboring tribes call the Shoshone Grass House People, based on their traditional homes made from soshoni. Shoshones call themselves Newe, meaning People, meriwether Lewis recorded the tribe as the Sosonees or snake Indians in 1805. The Shoshoni language is spoken by approximately 1,000 people today and it belongs to the Central Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Speakers are scattered from central Nevada to central Wyoming, the largest numbers of Shoshoni speakers live on the federally recognized Duck Valley Indian Reservation, located on the border of Nevada and Idaho, and Goshute Reservation in Utah. Idaho State University also offers Shoshoni-language classes, the Shoshone are a Native American tribe, who originated in the western Great Basin and spread north and east into present-day Idaho and Wyoming. By 1500, some Eastern Shoshone had crossed the Rocky Mountains into the Great Plains, after 1750, warfare and pressure from the Blackfoot, Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed Eastern Shoshone south and westward. Some of them moved as far south as Texas, emerging as the Comanche by 1700, as more European-American settlers migrated west, tensions rose with the indigenous people over competition for territory and resources. Wars occurred throughout the half of the 19th century. The Northern Shoshone, led by Chief Pocatello, fought during the 1860s with settlers in Idaho, as more settlers encroached on Shoshone hunting territory, the natives raided farms and ranches for food, and attacked immigrants. The warfare resulted in the Bear River Massacre, when US forces attacked and killed an estimated 410 Northwestern Shoshone, a large number of the dead were civilians, including women and children, deliberately killed by the soldiers. This was the highest number of deaths which the Shoshone suffered at the hands of United States forces, allied with the Bannock, to whom they were related, the Shoshone fought against the United States in the Snake War from 1864 to 1868. They fought US forces together in 1878 in the Bannock War, in 1876, by contrast, the Shoshone fought alongside the U. S. Army in the Battle of the Rosebud against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne. In 1879 a band of approximately 300 Eastern Shoshone became involved in the Sheepeater Indian War and it was the last Indian war fought in the Pacific Northwest region of the present-day United States. In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named Mike Daggett, also known as Shoshone Mike, killed four ranchers in Washoe County, the settlers formed a posse and went out after the Native Americans. They caught up with the Bannock band on February 26,1911 and they lost one man of the posse, Ed Hogle. The posse captured three children and a woman, a rancher donated the partial remains of three adult males, two adult females, two adolescent males, and three children to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC for study
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Battle of Beecher Island
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In addition, they found incentive in the warfare that had been waged specifically against their clans by the military in 1867, and by memories of such atrocities as the Sand Creek massacre. The latter during the summer of 1867 had successfully avoided a large expedition commanded by Maj. Gen. Winfield S, as the Indians fought dispersed battles composed of small bands of warriors all over the frontier, U. S. Army troops and units were at a premium. General Sheridan decided to try an unusual tactic and they were to seek out and engage the marauders using their tactics, rather than those of the traditional Army. Forsyth hand-picked 48 men at Forts Harker and Hays and armed them with Spencer repeating rifles, Forsyths executive officer was Lieutenant Fredrick H. Beecher of the 3rd Infantry, a decorated veteran of the Battle of Gettysburg. His company rode northwest nearly to Nebraska, then turned southwest, brevet Colonel Forsyth and his group of scouts departed Fort Wallace with orders to counter the raid. Col. Forsyth took his command to investigate and they learned that a force of about 25 Indians had taken part in the attack. They followed their trail into what is now Yuma County, Colorado, the scouts trailed the Indian raiding party from Sheridan into Colorado, signs indicated that the opposing force considerably outnumbered the scouts, but the unit nonetheless pressed on. Around dusk on the 16th, Forsyth and his men arrived in the vicinity of the Dry Fork of the Republican River and they camped only 12 miles downstream from a large encampment of two Lakota villages, one of Cheyenne Dog Soldiers and a few lodges of Arapaho. At dawn on the 17th, Forsyth sensed trouble and spotted the silhouette of a feathered head against the skyline and he fired his weapon, instantly killing the Indian warrior. Forsyth gave orders to saddle the horses, seeing that no escape route was open, he directed his men to take cover on a sand bar in the middle of the Arikaree. The numbers of attacking Indians varies widely, with estimates including 200,600 to 1,000, the initial assault by the Indians was cut down by the accurate, quick-firing Spencer rifles. The combined force of Oglala Sioux and Cheyenne Indians were surprised and changed their tactics, during the early morning of the first day of battle, small parties of Indians dashed up to the sand bar on horseback several times, but they did little damage to the scouts. The scouts killed their horses for breastworks and dug pits into the sand behind them. When the scouts opened fire, the Indians attacked the island on both sides, later they crawled through the grass and shot through the grass. Several scouts who were killed or wounded were hit by the Indian snipers hidden in the grass, the Indians surrounded the island and repeatedly attacked the Scouts. Three scouts hidden in hole on the shot several Indians from the shore. Roman Nose was shot on the riverbank at the west end of the sand bar and he jumped back into the grass where other warriors retrieved him. He died at 10 pm that night, many other warriors fell, while four of the scouts including Beecher, Acting Surgeon J. H. Mooers, George W. Culver, and William Wilson were killed
31.
Colorado War
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The Colorado War was fought from 1863 to 1865 and was an Indian War between the Cheyenne and Arapaho Nations and white settlers and militia in the Colorado Territory and adjacent regions. The United States government and Colorado Territory authorities participated through the Colorado volunteers, the war was centered on the Colorado Eastern Plains. The war included an attack in November 1864 against the camp of the Southern Cheyenne Chief Black Kettle known as the Sand Creek massacre. The engagement, initially hailed in the United States press as a victory, was later publicly condemned as an act of depraved genocidal brutality. The massacre resulted in military and congressional hearings which established the culpability of John Chivington, the commander of the Colorado Volunteers, moreover, the tribes would be converted from nomadic hunting to a farming lifestyle. The new reservation, instead of being a hunting territory, would be surveyed and divided among the tribal members. Moreover, the federal agents promised that each tribe would receive a US $30,000 subsidy for 15 years, as well as a grist mill, saw mill, the leader of the Cheyenne who signed the treaty was Black Kettle. The treaty text, which the Cheyenne and Arapaho chiefs could not read, stipulated that the Cheyenne, the chiefs clarified that they could only speak for their bands but not for their nations as a whole. The conflict occurred during the last two years of the American Civil War, the same units of the 1st Colorado Volunteers of the US Army that fought in this war also spearheaded the Union counterattack in the New Mexico Campaign against the Confederate Army. By the early 1860s, relations between the Sioux and the United States on the northern Great Plains had deteriorated substantially, prior to this time, white emigrants passed relatively harmoniously through the area on their way along the California, Mormon, and the Oregon Trails. Especially troublesome from their point was the slicing up of the bison herd by the increasingly heavily used trails. The Colorado War marked the spreading of the trend among the Plains Tribes southward along Rockies, the increased traffic in the area resulted in attacks by, most notoriously by the Kiowa, who were regarded as historically one of the most antagonistic tribes to white encroachment of any kind. They were somewhat caught in the crossfire of the war, tensions further increased between the settlers and the Indians. The discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains prompted more and more men to settle into the territory. The Indians, particularly the Cheyennes, replied by creating their own war parties such as the infamous Dog Soldiers and this was seen by many as a violation of the Treaty of Fort Laramie that strained the Indian-white relationships. Soon Indian war parties started raiding white settlements, and with military intervention. In November 29,1864, a 675-man unit of troops, consisting of armed white men from Colorado led by John Chivington, crossed into Cheyenne. The troops sacked the village and killed over 200 Indians including unarmed women and children, in response to the attack, many Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians joined the Dog Soldiers and mobilized war parties to attack settlements and military outposts throughout Colorado
32.
Comanche campaign
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The Comanche campaign is a general term for military operations by the United States government against the Comanche tribe in the newly settled west. Between 1867 and 1875, military units fought against the Comanche people in a series of expeditions and campaigns until the Comanche surrendered and relocated to a reservation. Western settlement brought the Spanish, French, English, and American settlers into regular contact with the tribes of the region. Many of these Indians were friendly, and received the new settlers gladly, offering to trade and coexist peacefully, the idea of Manifest Destiny as well as the Homestead Act pushed American and immigrant settlers further west, thereby creating more competition for a finite amount of land. This competition for land created tension between the Anglo settlers and the Natives of the region, in an effort to prevent conflicts in the area, many treaties were signed promising land and peace between the two parties, but such treaties were rarely honored. The Comanche tribe was one of the sources of native resistance in the region that became Oklahoma and Texas. With the outbreak of the Civil War, some Indian tribes attempted to align themselves with what they believed would be the winning side. In the case of the Comanche, the signed a treaty with the Confederacy. This did little to end the cycle of raiding which had come to typify this region, spreading over a large expanse of the southern plains, the Comanche fought hard diplomatically to maintain power in the region they controlled. In the Treaty of Little Arkansas in 1865, the Comanche tribe was awarded a large piece of land spanning parts of Oklahoma, some parts of this region, called the Comancheria, soon became part of the reservation system. This treaty was followed by the Medicine Lodge Treaty in 1867. These policies eventually became part of President Ulysses S. Grant’s Peace Policy, President Grant’s Peace Policy became an important part of the white-Indian relations for a number of years. A faction of the Comanche tribe, the Quahadi, was arguably the most resistant towards the Anglo settlers, skeptical of what they would bring, the Quahadi avoided contact with these men. Goods were never exchanged between the groups, and because of this seclusion they were unaffected by the cholera plagues in 1816 and 1849. The Quahadi were noted for their nature, so much so that other Comanche feared them. They were the wealthiest of the Comanche in terms of horses and cattle and it was this faction of the Comanche that gave the American troops the most trouble during this period. Following on the heels of the Civil War, the Army had a low number of recruits, approximately 5,000 enlisted men, divided into ten regiments made up the American forces that would face the powerful Comanche. General Sherman picked Ranald S. Mackenzie, described by President Grant as “the most promising young officer in the army, ” commanding the 4th Cavalry, Mackenzie and his men developed a style of fighting designed to slowly defeat the Comanche rather than face them in open battle
33.
Sand Creek massacre
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The Sand Creek massacre was a massacre in the American Indian Wars that occurred on November 29,1864, when a 675-man force of Colorado U. S. The location has been designated the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site and is administered by the National Park Service and this area included present-day southeastern Wyoming, southwestern Nebraska, most of eastern Colorado, and the westernmost portions of Kansas. In November 1858, however, the discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, then part of the Kansas Territory, european-American immigrants flooded across Cheyenne and Arapaho lands. They competed for resources, and some tried to stay. The Cheyenne chiefs included Black Kettle, White Antelope, Lean Bear, Little Wolf, and Tall Bear, the Arapaho chiefs included Little Raven, Storm, Shave-Head, Big Mouth, and Niwot, or Left Hand. The new reserve, less than one-13th the size of the 1851 reserve, was located in eastern Colorado, between the Arkansas River and Sand Creek. Most bands of the Cheyenne, including the Dog Soldiers, a band of Cheyenne. They disavowed the treaty - which never received the blessing of the Council of 44 and they continued to live and hunt in the bison-rich lands of eastern Colorado and western Kansas, and became increasingly belligerent over the tide of white migration across their lands. Tensions were high, particularly in the Smoky Hill River country of Kansas, the whites, however, claimed the treaty was a solemn obligation. Officials took the position that Indians who refused to abide by it were hostile, the beginning of the American Civil War, in 1861, led to the organization of military forces in Colorado Territory. In March 1862, the Colorado volunteers defeated a Confederate Army from Texas in the Battle of Glorieta Pass, New Mexico by destroying their supply wagons, the Confederates returned to Texas, and the First Regiment of Colorado Volunteers returned to Colorado Territory. They were then mounted as a guard under the command of Colonel John Chivington. Chivington and Colorado territorial governor John Evans adopted a line against Indians. On May 16,1864, a detachment under Lieutenant George S. Eayre crossed into Kansas and encountered Cheyenne in their summer buffalo-hunting camp at Big Bushes, near the Smoky Hill River. Cheyenne chiefs Lean Bear and Star approached the soldiers to signal their peaceful intent and this incident touched off a war of retaliation by the Cheyenne in Kansas. Damn any man who sympathizes with Indians, I have come to kill Indians, and believe it is right and honorable to use any means under Gods heaven to kill Indians. Kill and scalp all, big and little, nits make lice, after a while, the Native Americans were requested to relocate to Big Sandy Creek, less than 40 miles northwest of Fort Lyon, with the guarantee of perfect safety remaining in effect. The Dog Soldiers, who had responsible for many of the attacks
34.
Clovis culture
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The Clovis culture appears around 11, 500–11,000 uncal RCYBP, at the end of the last glacial period, and is characterized by the manufacture of Clovis points and distinctive bone and ivory tools. Archaeologists most precise determinations at present suggest that this age is equal to roughly 13,200 to 12,900 calendar years ago. Clovis people are considered to be the ancestors of most of the cultures of the Americas. The only human burial that has been associated with tools from the Clovis culture included the remains of an infant boy named Anzick-1. Researchers from the United States and Europe conducted paleogenetic research on Anzick-1s ancient nuclear, mitochondrial, the results of these analyses reveal that Anzick-1 is closely related to modern Native American populations, which lends support to the Beringia hypothesis for the peopling of the Americas. The Clovis culture was replaced by more localized regional cultures from the time of the Younger Dryas cold climate period onward. Post-Clovis cultures include the Folsom tradition, Gainey, Suwannee-Simpson, Plainview-Goshen, Cumberland, each of these is commonly thought to derive directly from Clovis, in some cases apparently differing only in the length of the fluting on their projectile points. Recent preliminary carbon dating shows a culture from around or prior to 13,000 years ago, along with horse, camel, a hallmark of the toolkit associated with the Clovis culture is the distinctively shaped, fluted stone spear point, known as the Clovis point. The Clovis point is bifacial and typically fluted on both sides, the culture was originally named for a small number of artifacts found between 1932 and 1936 at Blackwater Locality No. 1, a site between the towns of Clovis and Portales, New Mexico. These finds were deemed especially important due to their association with mammoth sp. Clovis sites have since been identified throughout much, but not all, of the contiguous United States, as well as Mexico and Central America and it is generally accepted that Clovis people hunted mammoths, as Clovis points have repeatedly been found in sites containing mammoth remains. In total, more than 125 species of plants and animals are known to have used by Clovis people in the portion of the Western Hemisphere they inhabited. The oldest Clovis site in North America is believed to be El Fin del Mundo in northwestern Sonora, Mexico and it features occupation dating around 13,390 calibrated years BP. In 2011, remains of Gomphothere were found, the evidence suggests that humans did in fact two of them here. Theres also the Aubrey site in Denton County, Texas, which produced a date that is almost identical. After this time, Clovis-style fluted points were replaced by other fluted-point traditions with an uninterrupted sequence across North. An effectively continuous cultural adaptation proceeds from the Clovis period through the ensuing Middle, whether the Clovis culture drove the mammoth, and other species, to extinction via overhunting – the so-called Pleistocene overkill hypothesis – is still an open, and controversial, question
35.
Cody complex
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The Cody complex is a Paleo-Indian culture group first identified at a bison antiquus kill site near Cody, Wyoming in 1951. Points possessing characteristics of Cody Complex flaking have been found all across North America from Canada to as far south as Oklahoma, the tradition is generally attributed to the North American, primarily in the High Plains portion of the American Great Plains. The discovery of the Cody complex broadened the understanding of late Paleo-Indian cultural traditions beyond the Folsom tradition, most Cody complex sites were bison antiquus kill and butcher sites, and sometime campsites. The sites are distinguished by their campsites, tools and butchering process, the tools, dated between about 6,000 and 8,000 BC, include Cody knives and Scottsbluff and diamond-shaped Eden projectile points
36.
Folsom tradition
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The Folsom Complex is a name given by archaeologists to a specific Paleo-Indian archaeological culture that occupied much of central North America. The term was first used in 1927 by Jesse Dade Figgins, some kill sites exhibit evidence of up to 50 bison being killed, although the Folsom diet apparently included mountain sheep, marmots, deer and cottontail rabbit as well. A Folsom site at Hanson, Wyoming, also revealed areas of hardstanding, which indicate possible dwellings. The type site is Folsom Site, near Folsom, New Mexico, in Colfax County, a kill site found in about 1908 by George McJunkin. Archaeologists excavated the site in 1926, the Folsom Complex dates to between 9000 BC and 8000 BC and is thought to have derived from the earlier Clovis culture. The Lindenmeier Site in Colorado is a campsite that was used throughout a longer period, spanning this era
37.
Hell Gap complex
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Hell Gap complex is a Plano culture from 10,060 to 9,600 before present. It is named after the Hell Gap archaeological site, in Goshen County, in addition to the Hell Gap archaeological site, other Wyoming archaeological sites include the Sisters Hill site in northeastern Wyoming and a bison kill site near Casper, Wyoming. Jones-Miller Bison Kill Site is the only Hell Gap complex site in Colorado, Hell Gap point The Hell Gap projectile points are long stemmed, convex blades. Goshen point — of the nearby Goshen complex
38.
Plainview point
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In the classification of Archaeological cultures of North America, the term Plainview points refer to Paleoindian projectile points dated between 10, 000–9,000 Before Present. At least twenty-eight specimens were recovered from this location, which was the site of a Bison antiquus kill, however this approach was later rejected and revised leading to new projectile point classifications. The Golondrina point was one of these types mistakenly named as Plainview, Plainview is described as having parallel or convex sides with a concave base. It is considered to be a Plano point, Plainview complex, distinguished by the Plainview point, is similar to the Goshen complex. Due to the diversity of points found at the site in Plainview, Texas, the complex has been widely interpreted, and may be grouped with Agate Basin, Firstview, Golondrina. Plainview kill and butchering sites are found in New Mexico, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Texas
39.
Plano cultures
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Their diets also included pronghorn, elk, deer, raccoon and coyote. To better manage their supply, they preserved meat in berries and animal fat. The Plano cultures existed in Canada during the Paleo-Indian or Archaic period between 9000 BC and 6000 BC, the Plano cultures originated in the plains, but extended far beyond, from the Atlantic coast to British Columbia and as far north as the Northwest Territories. Early Plano culture occurs south of the North Saskatchewan River in Saskatchewan and in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains north to the Peace River Valley of Alberta, at this time, most of Manitoba was still covered by Glacial Lake Agassiz and associated glacial ice. Bison herds were attracted to the grasslands and parklands in the western region, Cody complex, named for the Horner site near Cody, Wyoming, includes the Olsen-Chubbuck Bison Kill Site and the Jurgens Site. Hell Gap complex, such as the Hell Gap, Wyoming site for which it was named and the Jones-Miller Bison Kill Site
40.
Archaic period (North America)
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The Archaic stage is characterized by subsistence economies supported through the exploitation of nuts, seeds, and shellfish. As its ending is defined by the adoption of sedentary farming and this classification system was first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in the widely accepted 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. In the organization of the system, the Archaic period followed the Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage, the Lithic stage The Archaic stage The Formative stage The Classic stage The Post-Classic stage Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings. The period has been subdivided by region and then time, for instance, the Archaic Southwest tradition is subdivided into the Dieguito-Pinto, Oshara, Cochise and Chihuahua cultures. Such early mound sites as Frenchmans Bend and Hedgepeth were of time period. Watson Brake is now considered the oldest mound complex in the Americas, more than 100 sites have been identified as associated with the regional Poverty Point culture of the Late Archaic period, and it was part of a regional trading network across the Southeast. Across what is now the Southeastern United States, starting around 4000 BCE, people exploited wetland resources, middens developed along rivers, but there is limited evidence of Archaic peoples along coastlines prior to 3000 BCE. Archaic sites on the coast may have been inundated by rising sea levels, starting around 3000 BCE evidence of large-scale exploitation of oysters appears. During the period 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE shell rings, large shell middens more or less surrounding open centers, developed along the coast of the Southeastern United States. These shell rings are numerous in South Carolina and Georgia, but are found scattered around the Florida Peninsula. In some places, such as Horrs Island in Southwest Florida, four shell or sand mounds on Horrs Island have been dated to between 4,870 and 4,270 Before Present. The site which is considered to be one of the most significant centres of habitation and ceremonial burial in Canada, is located on the north side Rainy River in Northwestern Ontario. It became part of a trading network because of its strategic location at the centre of major North American waterways. In Glyn Edmund Daniel, Christopher Chippindale, feasting with Shellfish in the Southern Ohio Valley, Archaic Sacred Sites and Rituals. Knoxville, U of Tennessee P. ISBN 1-5723-3733-8, gainesville, Florida, The University Press of Florida
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Apex complex
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Apex complex is a cultural tradition of the Middle Archaic period. Apex complex artifacts, dated from about 3000 to 500 BC, the Irwins, archaeologists at Magic Mountain, believe that the artifacts are from ancestors of Puebloan people of the American southwest. The cultural complex is distinguished by its Apex projectile points, evidence of a few grave sites suggest that burials were conducted near their living areas, covered with stones and milling slabs. List of prehistoric sites in Colorado Outline of Colorado prehistory Prehistory of Colorado Gunnerson, James H. Archaeology of the High Plains
