1.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
2.
Battle of Cowpens
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The Battle of Cowpens was a engagement between Patriot forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan and British forces under Sir Banastre Tarleton fought on January 17,1781. As part of the campaign in the Carolinas, a force of 1,100 British under Tarleton were sent against 2000 men under Morgan, the Patriot forces were able to perform a double envelopment of Tarletons force, at the cost of only 12 killed and 61 wounded. Tarleton was one of around 160 British troops to escape, the British had received incorrect reports that Morgans army was planning to attack the important strategic fort of Ninety Six, to the west of the Carolinas. Morgans army was deemed to represent a threat to the British left flank. Cornwallis dispatched Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton to defeat Morgans command, upon learning Morgans army was not at Ninety Six, Tarleton, bolstered by British reinforcements, set off in hot pursuit of the American detachment. Morgan resolved to make a stand near the Broad River and he selected a position on two low hills in open woodland, with the expectation that the aggressive Tarleton would make a headlong assault without pausing to devise a more intricate plan. He deployed his army in three main lines, Tarletons army, after exhaustive marching, reached the field malnourished and heavily fatigued. Tarleton attacked immediately, however the American defence-in-depth absorbed the impact of the British attack, the British lines lost their cohesion as they hurried after the retreating Americans. Morgans army went on the offensive, and wholly overwhelmed Tarletons force, the battle was a turning point in the American reconquest of South Carolina from the British. On October 14,1780, George Washington chose Nathanael Greene to be commander of the Southern Department of the Continental forces, Greenes task was not an easy one. A victory of Patriot militia over their Loyalist counterparts at the Battle of Kings Mountain in October had bought time, when Greene took command, the southern army numbered only 2307 men, of whom just 949 were Continental regulars. On December 3, Brigadier General Daniel Morgan reported for duty to Greenes headquarters at Charlotte, at the start of the Revolution, Morgan, whose military experience dated to the French and Indian War, had served at the Siege of Boston. Later he participated in the 1775 invasion of Canada and its climactic battle and that battle, on December 31,1775, ended in defeat and Morgans capture by the British. Morgan was exchanged in January 1777 and placed by George Washington in command of a force of 500 trained riflemen. Morgan and his men played a key role in the victory at Saratoga, bitter after being passed over for promotion and plagued by severe attacks of sciatica, Morgan left the army in 1779. A year later he was promoted to Brigadier General and returned to service in the Southern Department, Greene decided that his weak army was unable to meet the British in a stand-up fight. Greene gave Morgan command of wing and instructed him to join with the militia west of the Catawba. Morgan headed west on December 21, charged with taking position between the Broad and Pacolet Rivers, and protecting the civilians in that area and he had 600 men, some 400 of which were Continentals, the rest being Virginia militia with experience as Continentals
3.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
4.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
5.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
6.
Georgia (U.S. state)
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Georgia is a state in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1733, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies, named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2,1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 19,1861 and it was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15,1870. Georgia is the 24th largest and the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, from 2007 to 2008,14 of Georgias counties ranked among the nations 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South, Atlanta is the states capital, its most populous city and has been named a global city. Georgia is bordered to the south by Florida, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina, to the west by Alabama, the states northern part is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, part of the Appalachian Mountains system. Georgias highest point is Brasstown Bald at 4,784 feet above sea level, Georgia is the largest state entirely east of the Mississippi River in land area. Before settlement by Europeans, Georgia was inhabited by the mound building cultures, the British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12,1733. The colony was administered by the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America under a charter issued by King George II. The Trustees implemented a plan for the colonys settlement, known as the Oglethorpe Plan. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins Ear, in 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the crown. Georgia became a colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The Province of Georgia was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution by signing the 1776 Declaration of Independence, the State of Georgias first constitution was ratified in February 1777. Georgia was the 10th state to ratify the Articles of Confederation on July 24,1778, in 1829, gold was discovered in the North Georgia mountains, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush and an established federal mint in Dahlonega, which continued its operation until 1861. The subsequent influx of white settlers put pressure on the government to land from the Cherokee Nation. In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, sending many eastern Native American nations to reservations in present-day Oklahoma, including all of Georgias tribes. Despite the Supreme Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia that ruled U. S. states were not permitted to redraw the Indian boundaries, President Jackson and the state of Georgia ignored the ruling. In 1838, his successor, Martin Van Buren, dispatched troops to gather the Cherokee
7.
East Florida
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East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763, it consisted of peninsular Florida and its capital was St. Augustine, which had been the capital of Spanish Florida. Britain formed East and West Florida out of territory it had received from Spain and France following the French, finding its new acquisitions in the southeast too large to administer as a single unit, the British divided them into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. East Florida comprised the bulk of what had previously been the Spanish territory of Florida, Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain following the American Revolutionary War. Spain maintained them as separate colonies, although the majority of West Florida was gradually occupied and annexed by the United States from 1810 to 1813, Spain ceded East Florida and the remainder of West Florida to the US in the Adams–Onís Treaty. In 1822 the United States organized them as a single unit, under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War, Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London with the interests that controlled Nova Scotia. Perhaps it is strange to think of such dissimilar geographic areas with such opposing climates as having much in common, but if one considers naval and military strategy, one can see that these areas have a common significance, especially when viewed from London by the ministry. Halifax was the command post for both the admiral and general in charge of the American forces, St. Augustine evoked the same strategic considerations. These posts have described as the two centers of strength to which the British army was withdrawn in the late 1760s. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada show that the fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincolns Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, other aristocrats, nobles and merchants did the same. The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham and it was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature. Both Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American War of Independence, Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north. Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces, the Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several disputes between the US and Spain, some resulting in military action
8.
West Florida
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West Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. The province was established by the British in 1763 out of lands ceded from the Spanish, as its name suggests, it was formed out of the Western part of formerly Spanish Florida, along with lands taken from French Louisiana, West Floridas capital was Pensacola. The colony included most of what is now the Florida Panhandle, plus parts of the modern U. S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Great Britain established West and East Florida out of land taken from France and Spain after the French and Indian War. As the newly acquired territory was too large to govern from one administrative center, British West Floridas government was based in Pensacola, and the colony included the part of formerly Spanish Florida which lay west of the Apalachicola, plus parts of formerly French Louisiana. It thus comprised all territory between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with a boundary which shifted several times over the subsequent years. Both West and East Florida remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution, Spain invaded West Florida and captured Pensacola in 1781, and after the war Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain. However, the lack of defined boundaries led to a series of disputes between Spanish West Florida and the fledgling United States known as the West Florida Controversy. Disagreements with the Spanish government led American and English settlers between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers to declare that area the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819 the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory. The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of La Florida, in 1698 the settlement of Pensacola was established in order to check French expansion into the area. Beginning in the late 17th century the French established settlements in the region as part of colonial Louisiana, notably including Mobile, after years of contention the Perdido River was agreed upon as the boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Florida. Before 1762 France had owned and administered the land west of the Perdido River as part of La Louisiane. A secret treaty in 1762 had effectively, upon being revealed in 1764, ceded to Spain all of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, notably, Spain failed to make good by occupancy its title to Louisiana until 1769, when it took formal possession. Spain also ceded to Great Britain its territory of La Florida, in exchange for Cuba, as a result, for the next two decades, the British controlled nearly all of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Most of the Spanish population left Florida at that time, and its colonial government records were relocated to Havana, East Florida consisted of most of the formerly Spanish Florida, and retained the old Spanish capital of St. Augustine. West Florida comprised the land between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with Pensacola designated as its capital, the northern boundary was arbitrarily set at the 31st parallel north. Many English Americans and Scotch-Irish Americans moved to the territory at this time, the Governor of West Florida in November 1763 was George Johnstone, his lieutenant governor, Montfort Browne, was a major landowner in the province who heavily promoted its development. Seven General Assemblies were convoked between 1766 and 1778, in 1764, the British moved the northern boundary to the 32° 22′ north latitude, extending from the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River, which included the Natchez District and the Tombigbee District
9.
Siege of Yorktown
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The battle boosted faltering American morale and revived French enthusiasm for the war, as well as undermining popular support for the conflict in Great Britain. In 1780, approximately 5,500 French soldiers landed in Rhode Island to assist their American allies in operations against British-controlled New York City. On the advice of Rochambeau, de Grasse informed them of his intent to sail to the Chesapeake Bay, where Cornwallis had taken command of the army. Cornwallis, at first given confusing orders by his officer, Henry Clinton, was eventually ordered to build a defensible deep-water port. Cornwallis movements in Virginia were shadowed by a Continental Army force led by the Marquis de Lafayette, the French and American armies united north of New York City during the summer of 1781. When word of de Grasses decision arrived, the armies began moving south toward Virginia. De Grasse sailed from the West Indies and arrived at the Chesapeake Bay at the end of August, bringing additional troops and providing a naval blockade of Yorktown. He was transporting 500,000 silver pesos collected from the citizens of Havana, Cuba, to fund supplies for the siege, while in Santo Domingo, de Grasse met with Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis, an agent of Carlos III of Spain. De Grasse had planned to leave several of his warships in Santo Domingo, Saavedra promised the assistance of the Spanish navy to protect the French merchant fleet, enabling de Grasse to sail north with all of his warships. In the beginning of September, he defeated a British fleet led by Sir Thomas Graves that came to relieve Cornwallis at the Battle of the Chesapeake, as a result of this victory, de Grasse blocked any escape by sea for Cornwallis. By late September Washington and Rochambeau arrived, and the army, after initial preparations, the Americans and French built their first parallel and began the bombardment. With the British defense weakened, on October 14,1781 Washington sent two columns to attack the last major remaining British outer defenses, a French column took redoubt #9 and an American column took redoubt #10. With these defenses taken, the allies were able to finish their second parallel, with the American artillery closer and more intense than ever, the British situation began to deteriorate rapidly and Cornwallis asked for capitulation terms on the 17th. After two days of negotiation, the ceremony took place on the 19th, Lord Cornwallis was absent from the ceremony. With the capture of more than 7,000 British soldiers, on December 20,1780, Benedict Arnold sailed from New York with 1,500 troops to Portsmouth, Virginia. He first raided Richmond, defeating the militia, from January 5–7 before falling back to Portsmouth. The Marquis de Lafayette was sent south with 1,200 men to help with the assault, however, Destouches was reluctant to dispatch many ships, and in February sent only three. Destouches withdrew due to the damage sustained to his fleet, leaving Arbuthnot, on March 26, Arnold was joined by 2,300 troops under command of Major General William Phillips, who took command of the combined forces
10.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
11.
Kingdom of France
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The Kingdom of France was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Western Europe. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe and a great power since the Late Middle Ages and it was also an early colonial power, with possessions around the world. France originated as West Francia, the half of the Carolingian Empire. A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, the territory remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself Roi de France was Philip II, France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines—the Valois and Bourbon—until the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution. France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal monarchy, in Brittany and Catalonia the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France, during the Late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years War. Subsequently, France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the ensuing Italian Wars, religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority, the Huguenots, which led to a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known collectively as New France, Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of America, the Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the great powers in 1814. During the later years of the elderly Charlemagnes rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks, after Charlemagnes death in 814 his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, with Charles the Bald ruling over West Francia, the nucleus of what would develop into the kingdom of France. Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers and other waterways, wreaking havoc. During the reign of Charles the Simple, Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years. Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married Frances newly divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, after the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne. The death of Charles IV of France in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line, under Salic law the crown could not pass through a woman, so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois
12.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
13.
Nathanael Greene
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When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible, he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washingtons most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United States are named after him and he suffered financial difficulties in the post-war years and died in 1786. Greene was the son of Nathanael Greene, a Quaker farmer and smith, Nathanael was born on Forge Farm at Potowomut in the township of Warwick, Rhode Island on August 7,1742. His mother Mary Mott was his fathers second wife and his fathers sect discouraged literary accomplishments, so Greene educated himself with a special study of mathematics and law. The Rev. Ezra Stiles, later president of Yale University, was an influence in the young Nathanaels life. In 1770, Greene moved to Coventry, Rhode Island to take charge of the family-owned foundry and he sympathized strongly with the Whig or Patriot element among the colonists. In July 1774, he married Catharine Littlefield, also known as Caty or Kitty and they had six children who survived infancy. He was Quaker by birth, and struggled to reconcile the faiths commitment to pacifism throughout his military career and he continued to serve despite this, as did many other Quakers in the American Revolution. In August 1774, Greene helped organize a militia which was chartered as the Kentish Guards that October. His participation in the group was challenged because he had a pronounced limp, at this time, he began to acquire many expensive volumes on military tactics and began to teach himself the art of war. In December 1774, he was on an appointed by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in fighting the British and organizing the militia led to his expulsion from the pacifistic Quakers, on May 8,1775, he was promoted from private to major general of the Rhode Island Army of Observation formed in response to the Siege of Boston. He was appointed a brigadier of the Continental Army by the Continental Congress on June 22,1775, George Washington assigned Greene the command of the city of Boston after it was evacuated by the British in March 1776. Severe illness prevented him taking part in the Battle of Long Island. Greene was also a Rhode Island Freemason and bore a masonic jewel, Greene was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New York City. He also advocated the burning of the city so that the British might not use it and he justified this by asserting that the majority of property was owned by Loyalists. While Washington agreed with this, the proposal was rejected by Congress and he was placed in command of Fort Constitution on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. On October 25,1776, he succeeded General Israel Putnam in command of Fort Washington, Greene ordered Colonel Magaw, who was in immediate command, to defend the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced it to meet General Howes attack
14.
Daniel Morgan
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Daniel Morgan was an American pioneer, soldier, and United States Representative from Virginia. One of the most gifted battlefield tacticians of the American Revolutionary War, Morgan is believed to have been born in the village of New Hampton, New Jersey in Lebanon Township. All four of his grandparents were Welsh immigrants who lived in Pennsylvania, Morgan was the fifth of seven children of James Morgan and Eleanor Lloyd. When Morgan was 17, he left following a fight with his father. After working at odd jobs in Pennsylvania, he moved to the Shenandoah Valley and he finally settled on the Virginia frontier, near what is now Winchester, Virginia. He worked clearing land, in a sawmill, and as a teamster, in just a year, he saved enough to buy his own team. Morgan had served as a teamster during the French and Indian War. After returning from the advance on Fort Duquesne by General Braddocks command, Morgan thus acquired a hatred for the British Army. He then fell in love with Abigail Curry, they married and had two daughters, Nancy and Betsy, Morgan later served as a rifleman in the provincial forces assigned to protect the western settlements from French-backed Indian raids. Some time after the war, he purchased a farm between Winchester and Battletown, by 1774, he was so prosperous that he owned ten slaves. That year, he served in Dunmores War, taking part in raids on Shawnee villages in the Ohio Country. After the American Revolutionary War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19,1775 and they called for the formation of 10 rifle companies from the middle colonies to support the Siege of Boston, and late in June 1775 Virginia agreed to send two. The Virginia House of Burgesses chose Daniel Morgan to form one of these companies and he had already been an officer in the Virginia militia since the French and Indian War. Morgan recruited 96 men in just 10 days and assembled them at Winchester on July 14 and he then marched them 600 miles to Boston, Massachusetts in 21 days, arriving on Aug.6,1775. His company of marksmen was nicknamed Morgans Riflemen, Morgans company had a significant advantage over the others. Instead of the weapons used of most British and most American companies. They were lighter and easier to fire, and they were more accurate. Morgans company used guerrilla tactics, first shooting the Indian guides who led the British forces through the rugged terrain, the British Army considered these guerrilla tactics to be dishonorable, however, they created chaos within the British ranks
15.
Horatio Gates
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Horatio Lloyd Gates was a retired British soldier who served as an American general during the Revolutionary War. He took credit for the American victory in the Battles of Saratoga – a matter of contemporary, Horatio Gates was christened on April 30,1728, in the Parish of St Nicholas, Deptford, Greenwich borough, in the English county of Kent. His parents were Robert and Dorothea Gates, evidence suggests that Dorothea was the granddaughter of John Hubbock, Sr. postmaster at Fulham, and the daughter of John Hubbock, Jr. listed in 1687 sources as a vintner. She had a marriage, to Thomas Reeve, whose family was well situated in the royal Customs service. Dorothea Reeve was housekeeper for the second Duke of Leeds, Peregrine Osborne, marriage into the Reeve family opened the way for Robert Gates to get into and then up through the Customs service. So too, Dorothea Gatess appointment circa 1729 to housekeeper for the third Duke of Bolton provided Horatio Gates with otherwise off-bounds opportunities for education, through Dorothea Gatess associations and energetic networking, young Horace Walpole was enlisted as Horatios godfather and namesake. In 1745, Horatio Gates obtained a commission with financial help from his parents. Gates served with the 20th Foot in Germany during the War of the Austrian Succession and he arrived in Halifax, Nova Scotia under Edward Cornwallis and later was promoted to captain in the 45th Foot the following year. He was participated in engagements against the Mikmaq and Acadians. He married his wife Elizabeth at St. Pauls Church in 1754, leaving Nova Scotia, he sold his commission in 1754 and purchased a captaincy in one of the New York Independent Companies. One of his mentors in his early years was Edward Cornwallis, Gates served under Cornwallis when the latter was governor of Nova Scotia, and also developed a relationship with the lieutenant governor, Robert Monckton. During the French and Indian War, Gates served General Edward Braddock in America, in 1755 he accompanied the ill-fated Braddock Expedition in its attempt to control access to the Ohio Valley. This force included other future Revolutionary War leaders such as Thomas Gage, Charles Lee, Daniel Morgan, Gates didnt see significant combat, since he was severely injured early in the action. His experience in the years of the war was limited to commanding small companies. In 1759 he was brigade major to Brigadier General John Stanwix. Gates served under Monckton in the capture of Martinique in 1762, Monckton bestowed on him the honor of bringing news of the success to England, which brought him a promotion to major. The end of the war brought an end to Gates prospects for advancement, as the army was demobilized. In November 1755, Gates married Elizabeth Phillips and had a son, Robert, Gates military career stalled, as advancement in the British army required money or influence
16.
Benjamin Lincoln
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Benjamin Lincoln was an American army officer. He served as a general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. After the war Lincoln was active in politics in his native Massachusetts, running times for lieutenant governor. He served from 1781 to 1783 as the first United States Secretary of War, in 1787, Lincoln led a militia army in the suppression of Shays Rebellion, and was a strong supporter of the new United States Constitution. He was for many of his years the politically influential customs collector of the Port of Boston. Benjamin Lincoln was born on January 24,1733, in Hingham, Province of Massachusetts Bay the sixth child and first son of Colonel Benjamin Lincoln and his second wife Elizabeth Thaxter Lincoln. Lincolns father, one of the wealthiest men in Suffolk County, served as a member of the council from 1753 until 1770. In his early life, Lincoln worked on the family farm and he followed his father into public life, becoming town constable at 21, and in 1755 he joined the 3rd Regiment of the Suffolk County militia as an adjutant. In 1756, at the age of 23, Lincoln married Mary Cushing, daughter of Elijah Cushing of Pembroke, Massachusetts and they had eleven children, seven of which survived to adulthood. In 1757, he was elected the clerk of Hingham. He continued to be active in the militia during the French and Indian War, but saw no action, Lincoln was elected a Hingham town selectman in 1765, a post to which he held for six years. During this tenure political opposition rose in the province to Parliamentary tax measures, Lincoln sided with the opposition, eventually becoming a leading force among Hinghams Patriots. In 1772, Lincoln was promoted to lieutenant colonel of the 3rd Regiment of the Suffolk militia and that same year he won election as a representative of the town to the provincial assembly. With the arrival of General Thomas Gage as governor of the colony in 1774, the assembly was dissolved. He was then appointed to the committee of safety, and also was elected to its executive council. He was deeply involved in ensuring that supplies of all sorts reached the nascent Continental Army outside Boston, in January 1776 Lincoln was promoted to major general of the Massachusetts militia, overseeing the coastal defenses of the state. In May 1776 he directed the forces that successfully drove the last Royal Navy ships from Boston Harbor. The idea was well received, with one representative writing that Lincoln was a good man for a Brigadier General
17.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
18.
Thomas Sumter
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Thomas Sumter was a soldier in the Colony of Virginia militia, a brigadier general in the South Carolina militia during the American War of Independence, a planter, and a politician. After the United States gained independence, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives and to the United States Senate, where he served from 1801 to 1810, when he retired. Sumter was nicknamed the Carolina Gamecock, for his fighting style against British soldiers after they burned down his house during the Revolution. Thomas Sumter was born in Hanover County, Province of Virginia, little is known of his parentage. Given just a rudimentary education on the frontier, the young Sumter enlisted in the Virginia militia. At the end of the Anglo-Cherokee War, in 1761, Sumter was invited to join what was to become known as the Timberlake Expedition, organized by Colonel Adam Stephen and led by Henry Timberlake. The purpose of the expedition was to visit the Overhill Cherokee towns, the small expeditionary party consisted of Timberlake, Sumter, an interpreter named John McCormack, and a servant. The party arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley on December 20, in the following weeks, Sumter and the group attended peace ceremonies in several Overhill towns, such as Chota, Citico, and Chilhowee. The party, along with several Beloved Men of the Cherokee, arrived in Williamsburg, while in Williamsburg, Ostenaco professed his desire to meet the king of England. In May 1762, Timberlake, Sumter, and three distinguished Cherokee leaders, including Ostenaco, departed for London, arriving in early June, the Indians were an immediate attraction, drawing crowds all over the city. The three Cherokee accompanied Sumter back to North America, landing on about August 25,1762 and he petitioned the Virginia Colony for reimbursement of his travel expenses, but was denied. He was subsequently imprisoned for debt in Virginia, when his friend and fellow soldier, Joseph Martin, arrived in Staunton, Martin asked to spend the night with Sumter in jail. Martin gave Sumter ten guineas and a tomahawk, Sumter used the money to buy his way out of jail in 1766. When Martin and Sumter were reunited some thirty years later, Sumter repaid the money, Sumter settled in Stateburg in the High Hills of Santee in the Claremont District. He married Mary Jameson in 1767, and together they opened several businesses and became successful planters. In February 1776, Sumter was elected lieutenant colonel of the Second Regiment of the South Carolina Line of which he was appointed colonel. He subsequently was appointed general, a post he held until the end of the war. He participated in battles in the early months of the war
19.
Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing
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Jean Baptiste Charles Henri Hector, comte dEstaing was a French general and admiral. He began his service as a soldier in the War of the Austrian Succession, naval exploits during the latter war prompted him to change branches of service, and he transferred to the French Navy. Following Frances entry into the American War of Independence in 1778 and he participated in a failed Franco-American siege of Newport, Rhode Island in 1778 and the equally unsuccessful 1779 Siege of Savannah before returning to France in 1780. His difficulties working with American counterparts are cited among the reasons these operations failed, although he sympathized with revolutionaries during the French Revolution, he held a personal loyalty to the French royal family. Because of this he came under suspicion, and was executed by guillotine in the Reign of Terror and he was born on 24 November 1729 at the Château de Ravel in Auvergne to Charles-François, the Marquis de Saillant and Marie-Henriette Colbert de Maulevrier, a descendant of Jean-Baptiste Colbert. His father was a lieutenant general in the French Army from a family with a history of service to the French crown. The young dEstaing was educated alongside Louis, the Dauphin, who was born at about the same time, dEstaing thus became close friends with the Dauphin and served in his retinue. That same year he married Marie-Sophie, granddaughter of the celebrated Marshal Château-Renault and his regiment was also called to serve in the War of the Austrian Succession. DEstaing served as aide-de-camp to Marshal Saxe throughout the Flanders campaigns of 1746-48, during these years he was promoted to colonel in command of Regiment de Rouergue, and was wounded at the 1748 Siege of Maastricht. Following the war King Louis XV embarked on a program to modernize his army on the model of Frederick the Greats Prussian army. DEstaing became one of the reformers, and after a few years. Seeking to gain experience in diplomacy, he accompanied the French ambassador to England for a time, when an expedition to the East Indies was organized, he applied to participate without consulting his family. His participation was ensured when he was offered a promotion to brigadier-general, provided he could transfer command of his regiment to someone else. In early January 1757, shortly before embarking, dEstaing was awarded the Order of Saint Louis, Lally disembarked his troops, established a blockade around the town, and then traveled to Pondicherry to organize the delivery of siege equipment. On 4 May French forces occupied the town and partially blockaded Fort St. David, the siege equipment was delayed in its arrival, but the garrison was eventually compelled to surrender after 17 days of siege operations. DEstaing commanded Lallys left, overseeing the approaches and placing of batteries and he continued to serve under Lally in his campaigns against the British in southern India. He opposed Lallys decision to lift the siege of Tanjore following the British seizure of Karikal, when Lally began to besiege Madras in December 1758, dEstaings division was positioned in the center of the French line. When the British made a sortie against that sector, dEstaing advanced alone to reconnoiter their movements and he was surrounded by British troops, unhorsed, and twice wounded by bayonet before surrendering
20.
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis
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In the United States and the United Kingdom he is best remembered as one of the leading British generals in the American War of Independence. His surrender in 1781 to a combined American and French force at the Siege of Yorktown ended significant hostilities in North America, born into an aristocratic family and educated at Eton and Cambridge, Cornwallis joined the army in 1757, seeing action in the Seven Years War. Upon his fathers death in 1762 he became Earl Cornwallis and entered the House of Lords, from 1766 until 1805 he was Colonel of the 33rd Regiment of Foot. He next saw action in 1776 in the American War of Independence. Active in the forces of many campaigns, in 1780 he inflicted an embarrassing defeat on the American army at the Battle of Camden. He also commanded British forces in the March 1781 Pyrrhic victory at Guilford Court House, Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown in October 1781 after an extended campaign through the Southern states, marked by disagreements between him and his superior, General Sir Henry Clinton. Despite this defeat, Cornwallis retained the confidence of successive British governments, knighted in 1786, he was in that year appointed to be Governor-General and commander-in-chief in India. From 1789 to 1792 he led British and Company forces in the Third Anglo-Mysore War to defeat the Mysorean ruler Tipu Sultan, returning to Britain in 1794, Cornwallis was given the post of Master-General of the Ordnance. Following his Irish service, Cornwallis was the chief British signatory to the 1802 Treaty of Amiens and was reappointed to India in 1805 and he died in India not long after his arrival. Cornwallis was born in Grosvenor Square in London, though his familys estates were in Kent and he was the eldest son of Charles Cornwallis, 5th Baron Cornwallis. His mother, Elizabeth, was the daughter of Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend and his uncle, Frederick, was Archbishop of Canterbury. Fredericks twin brother, Edward, was an officer, colonial governor. His brother William became an Admiral in the Royal Navy and his other brother, James, eventually inherited the earldom from Cornwalliss son, Charles. The family was established at Brome Hall, near Eye, Suffolk, in the 14th century, Frederick Cornwallis, created a Baronet in 1627, fought for King Charles I, and followed King Charles II into exile. He was made Baron Cornwallis, of Eye in the County of Suffolk, in 1661, Cornwallis was educated at Eton College and Clare College, Cambridge. While at Eton, he received an injury to his eye by an accidental blow while playing hockey, from Shute Barrington and he obtained his first commission as Ensign in the 1st Foot Guards, on 8 December 1757. He then sought and gained permission to engage in studies abroad. After travelling on the continent with a Prussian officer, Captain de Roguin, upon completion of his studies in Turin in 1758, he traveled to Geneva, where he learned that British troops were to be sent to the Continent in the Seven Years War
21.
Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)
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General Sir Henry Clinton, KB was a British army officer and politician, best known for his service as a general during the American War of Independence. First arriving in Boston in May 1775, from 1778 to 1782 he was the British Commander-in-Chief in North America, in addition to his military service, due to the influence of the 2nd Duke of Newcastle, he was a Member of Parliament for many years. Late in life he was named Governor of Gibraltar, but died before assuming the post, Henry Clinton was born, probably in 1730, to Admiral George Clinton and Anne Carle, the daughter of a general. Willcox also notes that none of these records give indication of the place of Clintons birth, historian John Fredriksen claims that Clinton was born in Newfoundland, his father was posted there from 1732 to 1738. Little is known of the earliest years of Clintons life, or of his mother, given his fathers naval career, where the family was domiciled is uncertain. They were not obviously well-connected to the seat of the Earls of Lincoln, from whom his father was descended, or the estate of the Dukes of Newcastle, to whom they were related by marriage. In 1739 his father, then stationed at Gibraltar, applied for the governorship of the Province of New York, however, he did not actually go to New York until 1743, he took young Henry with him, having failed to acquire a lieutenants commission for the 12-year-old. Henrys career would also benefit from the connection to the Newcastles. Records of the life in New York are sparse. He is reported to have studied under Samuel Seabury on Long Island, Clintons first military commission was to an independent company in New York in 1745. The next year his father procured for him a captains commission, in 1749, Clinton went to Britain to pursue his military career. It was two years before he received a commission as a captain in the Coldstream Guards and his father, after he returned to London when his term as New York governor was over, procured for Clinton a position as aide to Sir John Ligonier in 1756. George II died on 25 October 1760 and Clinton, along with all Officers of the Regiment, was amongst those listed in the renewal of commissions to George III and his father died this year necessitating a return to England to resolve family affairs. In 1762 the unit, part of the led by Prince Ferdinand, was in action at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal on 24 June 1762. After this action they participated in cutting the French supply lines at the heights of Homberg on 24 July 1762 and it was after this engagement that the unit lost its Commanding Officer, General Julius Caesar who died at Elfershausen and is buried there. Prince Ferdinand was wounded during this engagement and Clinton severely wounded forcing him to quit the field and this and the consequent siege of Cassel, were the last actions of the 1st Foot Guards in the Seven Years War and Clinton returned to England. Clinton had distinguished himself as an aide-de-camp to Brunswick, with whom he established an enduring friendship, during these early years, he formed a number of friendships and acquaintances, mostly with other officers serving in Brunswicks camp. These included Charles Lee and William Alexander, who styled himself Lord Stirling and he formed long-lasting and deep friendships with John Jervis, and William Phillips, Phillips later served under Clinton in North America, and Jervis rose to prominence in the Royal Navy
22.
Banastre Tarleton
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Sir Banastre Tarleton, 1st Baronet, GCB was a British soldier and politician. Tarleton was eventually ranked as a years after his service in the colonies during the American Revolutionary War. Banastre Tarleton was known for his British military service in the American War of Independence, in the 19th century those killings became known in American history as the Waxhaws Massacre. In the biography The Green Dragoon, The Lives of Banastre Tarleton and Mary Robinson, by Robert D. Bass, Tarleton is identified as the Bloody Ban, the Butcher, in American popular culture those nicknames were the result of Col. Tarletons cavalrymen were called Tarletons Raiders. His green uniform was the uniform of the British Legion. After returning to Great Britain in 1781 at the age of 27, Tarleton was elected a Member of Parliament for Liverpool, as such, Tarleton became a prominent Whig politician despite his young mans reputation as a roué. Given the importance of the trade to the British shipping industry in Liverpool. Banastre Tarleton was the third of seven born to the merchant John Tarleton. His paternal grandfather Thomas Tarleton had been a shipowner and slave trader, banastres younger brother John entered the family business. He was elected as a Member of Parliament, Tarleton was educated at the Middle Temple, London and went to University College, Oxford University in 1771, preparing for a career as a lawyer. In 1773 at the age of 19, he inherited £5,000 on his fathers death and he squandered almost all of it in less than a year on gambling and women, mostly at the Cocoa Tree club in London. In 1775 he purchased a commission as a officer in the 1st Dragoon Guards. Due to his abilities, he worked his way up through the ranks to Lieutenant Colonel without having to purchase any further commissions. In December 1775, at the age of 21, the volunteer-soldier Banastre Tarleton sailed from Cork to North America, Tarleton sailed with Lord Cornwallis as part of an expedition to capture the southern city of Charleston, South Carolina. After that expedition failed, at the Battle of Sullivans Island, Tarleton joined the main British Army under command of General William Howe, in New York City. Under the command of Colonel William Harcourt, Tarleton, as a cornet, was part of a party sent to gather intelligence on the movements of General Charles Lee. In the course of the war in North America, Cornet Tarletons campaign service during 1776 earned him promotion to brigade major of cavalry at the end of the year. Major Tarleton was at the Battle of Brandywine and at battles in the campaigns of 1777 and 1778
23.
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings
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He had also served with British forces for years during the American Revolutionary War and in 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars. He took the additional surname Hastings in 1790 in compliance with the will of his uncle, Francis Hastings. Hastings was born at Moira, County Down, the son of John Rawdon, 1st Earl of Moira and Elizabeth Hastings and he grew up there and in Dublin, Ireland. He joined the British Army on 7 August 1771 as an ensign in the 15th Foot and he was at Harrow School and matriculated at University College, Oxford, but dropped out. He became friends there with Banastre Tarleton, with his uncle Lord Huntington, he went on the Grand Tour. On 20 October 1773, he was promoted to lieutenant in the 5th Foot and he returned to England to join his regiment, and sailed for America on 7 May 1774. In May 1789 he acted as the Duke of Yorks second in his duel with Lieut. -Colonel Lennox on Wimbledon Common, Rawdon was posted at Boston as a Lieutenant in the 5th Regiment of Foots Grenadier company, which was then under the command of Captain Francis Marsden. He first saw action at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, serving with the grenadiers, he participated in the second assault against Breeds Hill, and the third assault against the redoubt. As his superior, a Captain George Harris, was wounded beside him, he took command of his company, John Burgoyne noted in dispatches, Lord Rawdon has this day stamped his fame for life. He also was wounded during the assault and he was promoted Captain, and given a company in the 63rd Foot. After having recognized him, it is said that it was Lieutenant Lord Rawdon killed the American general Joseph Warren, Lord Rawdon is depicted in John Trumbulls famous painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Rawdon is in the far background holding the British ensign, during the Boston winter quarters, Rawdon made his stage debut, delivering a prologue for Aaron Hills tragedy, Zara, which had been written by John Burgoyne. He returned with him to New York, on 4 August, he dined with General Clinton, Admiral Lord Howe, Lord Cornwallis, General Vaughan, and others. During the Battle of Long Island, he was at headquarters with Clinton, on 15 September, Rawdon led his men at Kips Bay, an amphibious landing on Manhattan island. The next day, he led his troops in support of the Light Infantry that attacked Harlem Heights until the Americans withdrew and he participated at the landings at Pells Point. The British pressed the Americans to White Plains, where on 1 November the Americans withdrew from their entrenchments, on 8 December Rawdon landed with Clinton at Rhode Island, securing the ports for the British Navy. On 13 January 1777, with Clinton, he departed for London, during a ball at Lord George Germains, he met Lafayette, who was visiting London. Returning to America in July, while Howe went to his Philadelphia campaign and he participated in the battles of the New York Highlands, where on 7 October, Fort Constitution was captured
24.
Gunpowder Incident
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The Gunpowder Incident was a conflict early in the American Revolutionary War between Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia, and militia led by Patrick Henry. On April 20,1775, one day after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Lord Dunmore ordered the removal of the gunpowder from the magazine in Williamsburg and this action sparked local unrest, and militia companies began mustering throughout the colony. Patrick Henry led a militia force toward Williamsburg to force return of the gunpowder to the colonys control. The matter was resolved without conflict when a payment of £330 was made to Henry, Dunmore, fearing for his personal safety, later retreated to a naval vessel, ending royal control of the colony. During the meeting of the First Continental Congress word arrived of an uprising in Massachusetts that became known as the Powder Alarm. One consequence of action was that the Congress called for the colonies to organize militia companies for their defense. Another was that Lord Dartmouth, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, advised the governors to secure their military supplies. In early 1775, Virginians began to organize militia companies and seek out military supplies to arm, Lord Dunmore, Virginias royal governor, saw this rising unrest in his colony and sought to deprive Virginia militia of these supplies. Although British Army troops had withdrawn from Virginia in the wake of the Powder Alarm. On April 19, Lord Dunmore quietly brought a company of British sailors into Williamsburg, Dunmore then ordered Captain Henry Collins, commander of HMS Magdalen, to remove the gunpowder from the magazine in Williamsburg. The act was discovered by townsfolk while underway, and they sounded an alarm, local militia rallied to the scene, and riders spread word of the incident across the colony. The city council demanded the return of the powder, claiming it was the property of the colony, Dunmore demurred, stating that he was moving the powder as protection against its seizure during a rumored slave uprising, and would eventually return it. This seemed to satisfy the crowd, and it dispersed peacefully. Unrest however persisted in Williamsburg and spread throughout the countryside and he also told a Williamsburg alderman that he had once fought for the Virginians but By God, I would let them see that I could fight against them. By April 29, militia mobilizing in the countryside had learned of the battles at Lexington, nearly 700 men mustered at Fredericksburg, and decided to send a messenger to Williamsburg to assess the situation before marching on the capital. Peyton Randolph advised against violence, and George Washington, a leader of the Virginia militia. In response to their advice, the Fredericksburg militia voted by a narrow margin not to march, however, militia from other parts of the colony did march to Williamsburg. The Hanover County militia, led by Patrick Henry, voted on May 2 to march on Williamsburg
25.
Battle of Kemp's Landing
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The Battle of Kemps Landing, also known as the Skirmish of Kempsville, was a skirmish in the American Revolutionary War that occurred on November 15,1775. Dunmore followed up the victory with a reading of his proclamation declaring martial law and this increased opposition to his activities, and he was eventually forced to leave Virginia. Rebellious Whigs in control of the assembly had begun recruiting troops by March 1775. Although the incident was resolved without violence, Dunmore, fearing for his safety, left Williamsburg in June 1775. He then assembled a small British fleet at Norfolk, a town whose merchants had significant Loyalist tendencies. The threat posed by this fleet may have played a role in minimizing Whig activity in the town, general Thomas Gage, the British commander-in-chief for North America, had ordered small detachments of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help. These troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12 and this activity continued through the end of October, when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by Whigs during a skirmish near Hampton. Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by Continental Army troops and militia in a skirmish that resulted in the killing and capture of several sailors. Dunmore reacted to this event by writing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law and these local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot that were the sole British military presence in the colony. Virginias Committee of Safety began organizing troops at Williamsburg to send to Norfolk in response to Dunmores actions, the forces raised, led by Continental Army Colonel William Woodford, did not leave Williamsburg until November 7 due to shortages of equipment and supplies. They were prevented from crossing the James River for a week by British ships sent by Dunmore to patrol the river and his landing prompted the militia of Princess Anne County to be called out. About 170 men responded to the call issued by Joseph Hutchings, the local militia commander, and Anthony Lawson. They mustered at Kemps Landing, about 10 miles from Great Bridge, Dunmores search of the Great Bridge area the next day confirmed that the rumors were false, but heard of the militia mustering at Kemps Landing. Leaving a company of troops to defend the causeway to the bridge and begin construction of defenses, the Patriot ambush was spoiled when Hutchings inexperienced militiamen opened fire too early. Dunmores disciplined regulars returned fire, moving through the woods to flush out the rebels, the militia scattered, and in the ensuing chase, Hutchings was captured by one of his former slaves. Lawson was able to escape the battle, but was captured a few days later, in total,18 Patriots were captured and seven were killed, one British soldier suffered a single minor wound. After securing the town, Dunmore raised the British standard, the next day more than 100 militiamen that had previously opposed him swore an oath to the Crown, claiming that they had been forced into arms by the Patriots. Dunmore then moved on to Norfolk, where he raised the standard
26.
Snow Campaign
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The Snow Campaign was one of the first major military operations of the American Revolutionary War in the southern colonies. The Patriot expedition became known as the Snow Campaign due to snowfall in the later stages of the campaign. When the American Revolutionary War began in Massachusetts in April 1775, many English coastal residents were either neutral or favored the rebellion, while significant numbers of backcountry residents, many of whom were German and Scottish immigrants were opposed. Loyalist opposition in the backcountry was dominated by Thomas Fletchall, a vocal and active opponent of attempts to resist King, by August 1775 tensions between Patriot and Loyalist in the province had escalated to the point where both sides had raised sizable militia forces. Events were largely nonviolent for some time, although there were isolated instances of tarring and feathering, Drayton was able to negotiate a tenuous treaty with Fletchall in September that only temporarily lessened tensions. On September 15, Patriot militia seized Fort Johnson, the principal fortification overlooking the Charleston harbor, Governor William Campbell dissolved the provincial assembly, and fearing for his personal safety, fled to the Royal Navy sloop of war HMS Tamar. This left the Council of Safety in control of the provincial capital, matters also escalated when the Council of Safety began to organize a large-scale response to the seizure by Loyalists in October of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition intended for the Cherokee. On November 8 the Council of Safety voted to send Colonel Richard Richardson, while Richardson gathered forces in Charleston, Major Andrew Williamson, who had been recruiting Patriots in the backcountry, learned of the gunpowder seizure. He arrived at Ninety Six early on November 19 with 560 men, Loyalist recruiting had been more successful, Williamson had learned that Captain Patrick Cuningham and Major Joseph Robinson were leading a large Loyalist force toward Ninety Six. In a war council that day, the Patriot leaders decided against marching out to face the Loyalists, the Loyalists arrived the next day, and surrounded the Patriot camp. The leaders of the two factions were in the midst of negotiating an end to the standoff when two Patriot militiamen were seized by Loyalists outside the stockade and this set off a gunfight that lasted for about two hours, with modest casualties on both sides. For two more days the Patriots were besieged, during which there were exchanges of gunfire. The siege ended after a parley in which the Patriot leaders were allowed to lead their forces out of the encampment in exchange for the surrender of their swivel guns, both sides withdrew, the Loyalists across the Saluda River, and the Patriots down toward Charleston. Colonel Richardson had in the meantime begun his march into the backcountry, by November 27 he reached the Congaree River with about 1,000 men. There he paused for several days, crossing the river and accumulating more militia companies into his force, when he left camp his force numbered about 1,500. By December 2 he had reached the Dutch Fork region, gathering a number of militia along the way. There he halted at Evan McLaurens house, capturing several Loyalist officers in the area, the Loyalist forces, hampered by loss of leadership, were shrinking due to desertion. Those that remained organized retreated toward Cherokee lands at the headwaters of the Saluda River, after issuing proclamations calling for the arrest of Loyalist officers and the return of the stolen munitions, Richardson resumed the march, his force grown to about 2,500
27.
Siege of Savage's Old Fields
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The Siege of Savages Old Fields was an encounter between Patriot and Loyalist forces in the back country town of Ninety Six, South Carolina, early in the American Revolutionary War. It was the first major conflict in South Carolina in the war, williamsons force, numbering over 500, established a stockaded fort near Ninety Six, where it was surrounded by some 1,900 Loyalists. After two days the Loyalists withdrew, having lost four killed and 20 wounded to one Patriot killed and 12 wounded, the Patriots also withdrew toward the coast, but a major Patriot expedition not long after resulted in the arrest or flight of most of the Loyalist leadership. When the American Revolutionary War began in Massachusetts in April 1775, many English coastal residents were either neutral or favored the rebellion, while significant numbers of back country residents, many of whom were German and Scottish immigrants, were opposed. Loyalist sentiment in the country was dominated by Thomas Fletchall. By August 1775 tensions between Patriot and Loyalist in the province had escalated to the point where both sides had raised militia forces. Events were largely nonviolent for some time, although there were isolated instances of tarring and feathering, the Council of Safety in early August sent William Henry Drayton and Reverend William Tennent to Ninety Six to rally Patriot support and suppress growing Loyalist support in the back country. Drayton was able to negotiate a truce with Fletchall in September. On September 15, Patriot militia seized Fort Johnson, the principal fortification overlooking the Charleston harbor, governor William Campbell dissolved the provincial assembly, and fearing for his personal safety, fled to the Royal Navy sloop of war HMS Tamar. This left the Patriot Council of Safety in control of the provincial capital, matters also escalated after the seizure by Loyalists in October of a shipment of gunpowder and ammunition sent by the Council of Safety and intended for the Cherokee. The council responded by organizing an expedition to recover the munitions. On November 8 it voted to send Colonel Richard Richardson, the commander of the Camden militia, to recover the shipment, while Richardson gathered his forces, Major Andrew Williamson, who had already been recruiting in the back country, learned of the gunpowder seizure. He arrived at Ninety Six early on November 19 with 560 men, finding the small town to be not very defensible, he established a camp on John Savages plantation, provided a field of fire for the forces three swivel guns. He began fortifying the camp, ordering the construction of an improvised stockade, Loyalist recruiting had been more successful, Williamson had learned that Captain Patrick Cuningham and Major Joseph Robinson were leading a large Loyalist force toward Ninety Six. In a war council that day, the Patriot leaders decided against marching out to face the Loyalists, the Loyalists arrived the next day, and surrounded the Patriot camp. The leaders of the two factions were in the midst of negotiating an end to the standoff when two Patriot militiamen were seized by Loyalists outside the stockade and this set off a gunfight that lasted for about two hours. The next morning the two sides resumed firing at each other at long range, the Loyalists attempted to set fires, creating a smokescreen they could use to approach the stockade. This attempt was frustrated by the wet ground, on the afternoon of November 21 the Patriots held a war council, in which they decided to sortie that night
28.
Battle of Great Bridge
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The Battle of Great Bridge was fought December 9,1775, in the area of Great Bridge, Virginia, early in the American Revolutionary War. Following increasing political and military tensions in early 1775, both Dunmore and colonial rebel leaders recruited troops and engaged in a struggle for military supplies. The struggle eventually focused on Norfolk, where Dunmore had taken aboard a Royal Navy vessel. Dunmores forces had fortified one side of a river crossing south of Norfolk at Great Bridge. In an attempt to break up the gathering, Dunmore ordered an attack across the bridge. Colonel William Woodford, the Virginia militia commander at the battle, shortly thereafter, Norfolk, at the time a Tory center, was abandoned by Dunmore and the Tories, who fled to navy ships in the harbor. Rebel-occupied Norfolk was destroyed on January 1,1776 in an action begun by Dunmore, the Burgesses authorized existing and newly raised militia troops to arm themselves, leading to a struggle for control of the colonys military supplies. Under orders from Lord Dunmore, British forces removed gunpowder from the storehouse in the capital of Williamsburg. Although the incident was resolved without violence, Dunmore, fearing for his safety, left Williamsburg in June 1775. A small British fleet then took shape at Norfolk, a town whose merchants had significant Loyalist tendencies. The threat posed by the British fleet may also have played a role in minimizing Whig activity in the town, incidents continued between rebels on one side and loyalists on the other until October, when Dunmore had acquired enough military support to begin operations against the rebellious colonists. General Thomas Gage, the British commander-in-chief for North America, had ordered small detachments of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help and these troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12. This activity continued through the end of October, when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by rebels during a skirmish near Hampton. Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by colonial militia in a gunfight that resulted in the killing. Dunmore reacted to this event by issuing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law, the proclamation alarmed rebel and loyalist slaveholders alike, concerned by the idea of armed former slaves and the potential loss of their property. Nevertheless, Dunmore was able to recruit slaves to form the Ethiopian Regiment. These local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot, and in addition to the forces, that were the sole British military presence in the colony. This successful recruiting drive prompted Dunmore to write on November 30,1775 that he would soon be able to reduce this colony to a sense of their duty
29.
Burning of Norfolk
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The Burning of Norfolk was an incident that occurred on January 1,1776, during the American Revolutionary War. British Royal Navy ships in the harbor of Norfolk, Virginia began shelling the town, the town, whose significantly Tory population had fled, was occupied by Whig forces from Virginia and North Carolina. Although these forces worked to drive off the landing parties, they did nothing to impede the progress of the flames, after three days, most of the town had been destroyed, principally by the action of the Whig forces. The destruction was completed by Whig forces in early February to deny use of even the remnants to the British. Norfolk was the last significant foothold of British authority in Virginia, after raiding Virginias coastal areas for a time, its last Royal Governor, Lord Dunmore, left for good in August 1776. Rebellious Whigs in control of the assembly had begun recruiting troops in March 1775. Although the incident was resolved without violence, Dunmore, fearing for his safety, left Williamsburg in June 1775. A small British fleet then took shape at Norfolk, a town whose merchants had significant Loyalist tendencies. Although the town did have some Whig support, the threat posed by the British fleet may have played a role in minimizing their activity in the town. General Thomas Gage, the British commander-in-chief for North America, had ordered a detachment of the 14th Regiment of Foot to Virginia in response to pleas by Dunmore for military help. These troops began raiding surrounding counties for rebel military supplies on October 12 and this activity continued through the end of October, when a small British ship ran aground and was captured by Whigs during a skirmish near Hampton. Navy boats sent to punish the townspeople were repulsed by Continental Army troops and militia in a gunfight that resulted in the killing. Dunmore reacted to this event by issuing a proclamation on November 7 in which he declared martial law, the proclamation alarmed Tory and Whig slaveholders alike, concerned by the idea of armed former slaves and the potential loss of their property. Nevertheless, Dunmore was able to recruit slaves to form the Ethiopian Regiment. These local forces supplemented the two companies of the 14th Foot that were the sole British military presence in the colony. This successful recruiting drive prompted Dunmore to write on November 30,1775 that he would soon be able to reduce this colony to a sense of their duty. Woodford, his force swollen to 700 men, advanced toward Great Bridge in early December, on December 9, British troops attempted to disperse Woodfords force, and were decisively repulsed. Woodfords force continued to grow with the arrival of Colonel Robert Howe, on December 14, with the Whig forces having grown by further militia arrivals to about 1,200, Howe and Woodford moved into Norfolk
30.
Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge
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The Battle of Moores Creek Bridge was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought near Wilmington in present-day Pender County, North Carolina on February 27,1776. The victory of North Carolina Revolutionary forces over Southern Loyalists helped build support for the revolution. When word arrived in January 1776 of a planned British Army expedition to the area, Josiah Martin, in a brief early-morning engagement, a charge across the bridge by sword-wielding Loyalist Scotsmen was met by a barrage of musket fire. One Loyalist leader was killed, another captured, and the force was scattered. In the following days, many Loyalists were arrested, putting a damper on further recruiting efforts, North Carolina was not militarily threatened again until 1780, and memories of the battle and its aftermath negated efforts by Charles Cornwallis to recruit Loyalists in the area in 1781. His petition to London to recruit 1,000 men had been rejected, at about the same time, Scotsman Allan Maclean successfully lobbied King George III for permission to recruit Loyalist Scots throughout North America. In April, he received permission to raise a regiment known as the Royal Highland Emigrants by recruiting retired Scottish soldiers living in North America. These recruiters were also aware that Allan MacDonald, husband of the famous Jacobite heroine Flora MacDonald was already actively recruiting in North Carolina and their arrival at New Bern was cause for suspicion by members of North Carolinas Committee of Safety, but they were not arrested. He sent word to the recruiters that he expected them to deliver recruits to the coast by February 15, Mclean optimistically reported to Martin that he would raise and equip 5,000 Regulators and 1,000 Scots. Martin is reported to have said This is the moment when this country may be delivered from anarchy, in a meeting of Scots and Regulator leaders at Cross Creek on February 5, there was disagreement on how to proceed. The Scots wanted to wait until the British troops had arrived before mustering. The views of the latter prevailed since they claimed to be able to raise 5,000 men, when the forces mustered on February 15, there were about 3,500 men, but the number rapidly dwindled over the next few days. Many men had expected to be met and escorted by British troops, when they marched three days later, Brigadier General Donald MacDonald led between 1,400 and 1,600 men, predominantly Scots. This number was reduced over the coming days as more men deserted the column. With the reaction of the war, word of the Cross Creek meeting reached members of the Revolutionary North Carolina Provincial Congress a few days after it happened. The colonies were broadly prosperous on the eve of the American Revolution, local committees of safety in Wilmington and New Bern also had active militia organizations, led by Alexander Lillington and Richard Caswell respectively. On February 15 the Patriot forces began to mobilize, Moore led 650 Continentals out of Wilmington with the objective of preventing the Loyalists from reaching the coast. They camped on the shore of Rockfish Creek on February 15
31.
Battle of the Rice Boats
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The battle pitted the Patriot militia from Georgia and South Carolina against a small fleet of the Royal Navy. In December 1775, the British Army was besieged in Boston, in need of provisions, a Royal Navy fleet was sent to Georgia to purchase rice and other supplies. Some of the ships were burned to prevent their seizure, some were recaptured. Governor Wright escaped from his confinement and safely reached one of the fleets ships and his departure marked the end of British control over Georgia, although it was briefly restored when Savannah was retaken by the British in 1778. Wright again ruled from 1779 to 1782, when British troops were withdrawn during the closing days of the war. In April 1775, tensions over British colonial policies in the Thirteen Colonies boiled over into war with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Following those events, Patriot colonists surrounded the city of Boston, placing it under siege, although the encirclement was incomplete, news of this action and the June Battle of Bunker Hill fanned the flames of independence throughout the colonies. The dispute in Georgia reached a point when British men-of-war began arriving at Tybee Island in January 1776. On January 12, three ships were seen at anchor off Tybee Island, by January 18 the fleet consisted of the HMS Cherokee, HMS Siren, HMS Raven, HMS Tamar, and a number of smaller vessels. Wrights opinion, expressed to Joseph Clay and others, was that the fleet had been sent to punish the local rebels, in fact, these ships were the beginnings of a fleet assembled to acquire provisions in Savannah for the beleaguered British troops in Boston. In December 1775 General William Howe had ordered an expedition to purchase rice, by early February the entire fleet had assembled off Tybee Island. The arrival of the first ships in January prompted the Georgia Committee of Safety to order the arrest of Wright and other provincial representatives of the Crown on January 18. Joseph Habersham, a major in the Georgia militia, placed Governor Wright under house arrest, Wright, who continued to be harassed in spite of his confinement, feared for his life, and escaped the mansion on the night of February 11. He made his way to the plantation of a Loyalist supporter and was taken there to the Scarborough. In the meantime, Georgias provincial assembly had met, elected representatives to the Second Continental Congress, Georgia had, along with the other twelve colonies, in 1774 adopted the terms of the Continental Association created by the First Continental Congress banning trade with Great Britain. With negotiations effectively failed, Barclay ordered his fleet into action on February 29 and his objective was a number of merchant vessels docked at Savannah, whose owners were desirous of moving their goods, something that became possible on March 1 when the previous constraints expired. On March 1, Scarborough, Tamar, Cherokee, and Hinchinbrook sailed up the Savannah River to Five-Fathom Hole, Hinchinbrook and one of the transports then sailed up the Back River. The transport anchored opposite the area, while Hinchinbrook, in an attempt to take a position above the town
32.
Battle of Sullivan's Island
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The Battle of Sullivans Island or the Battle of Fort Sullivan was fought on June 28,1776, during the American Revolutionary War. It took place near Charleston, South Carolina, during the first British attempt to capture the city from American rebels and it is also sometimes referred to as the First Siege of Charleston, owing to a more successful British siege in 1780. The British organized an expedition in early 1776 for operations in the southern colonies of North America. Delayed by logistical concerns and bad weather, the reached the coast of North Carolina in May 1776. Finding conditions unsuitable for their operations, General Henry Clinton and Admiral Sir Peter Parker decided instead to act against Charleston, General Charles Lee, commanding the southern Continental theater of the war, would provide supervision. The land assault was frustrated when the channel between the two islands was found to be too deep to wade, and the American defenses prevented an amphibious landing, the naval bombardment had little effect due to the sandy soil and the spongy nature of the forts palmetto log construction. Careful fire by the defenders wrought significant damage on the British fleet, the British withdrew their expedition force to New York, and did not return to South Carolina until 1780. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, the city of Charleston in the colony of South Carolina was a center of commerce in southern North America, British army forces in North America were primarily tied up with the Siege of Boston in 1775. Seeking bases of operations where they had control, the British planned an expedition to the southern colonies. The plan was beset by difficulties from the start, Clinton left Boston on January 20 with two companies of light infantry, and first stopped at New York City to confer with William Tryon, New Yorks royal governor. Major General Charles Lee, sent by Major General George Washington to see to the defense of New York, New York was at that time extremely tense, Patriot forces were beginning to disarm and evict Loyalists, and the British fleet anchored there was having difficulty acquiring provisions. Despite this, Clinton made no secret that his target was in the south. Lee observed that this was certainly a droll way of proceeding and this was not even the first notice of the expedition to the colonists, a letter intercepted in December had already provided intelligence that the British were planning to go to the South. Clinton arrived at Cape Fear on March 12, expecting to find the European convoy already there, Clinton also received pleas for assistance from the royal governor of Georgia, James Wright, who had been arrested, and then escaped to a navy ship. Parkers fleet had a difficult crossing. Battered by storms and high seas, the first ships of the fleet did not arrive at Cape Fear until April 18, and Cornwallis did not arrive until May 3. After several weeks there, in which the British troops raided Patriot properties, Clinton, Cornwallis and these forces were further augmented by the arrival of Continental regiments from North Carolina and Virginia, as well as militia numbering 2,700 from Charleston and the surrounding backcountry. Later it would also have to pass the end of James Island
33.
Battle of Thomas Creek
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The encounter was the only major engagement in the second of three failed attempts by American forces to invade East Florida in the early years of the American Revolutionary War. The invasion attempt consisted of a flotilla carrying Continental Army troops. The flotilla was delayed in reaching the point, and British intelligence had learned of the expedition. The British established an ambush, which broke up and scattered the cavalry, Indians with the British forces were reported to kill a number of the captives in cold blood afterward, in revenge for the death of one of their own in an earlier skirmish. Colonel Samuel Elbert, the commander, abandoned the expedition when his flotilla was confronted by narrow channels. A1778 expedition against East Florida failed due to leadership disagreements, mcIntosh and Gwinnett were bitter political enemies, and could not agree on issues of command and strategy. As a consequence, Howe and the Georgia legislature gave command of the operation to Colonel Elbert, in addition to the 300 Continentals from the 1st and 2nd Georgia Regiments, the expedition included some militia cavalry led by Colonel John Baker. Sources vary on the size of Bakers company, it is reported to be either about 100 or 200 men. The expedition left Sunbury on May 1, Baker reached Sawpit Bluff on May 12. The flotilla, under the command of Commodore Oliver Bowen, was delayed by contrary winds, East Florida Governor Patrick Tonyn was alerted to the Georgia plans in April, and reported that Bakers company had crossed the St. Marys River on May 10. Brown wanted to one of the Georgians for questioning, but Bakers patrols were vigilant. On the night of May 14–15 Brown sent 15 Indians to steal Bakers horses and they successfully took some of Bakers horses, but were chased down by Bakers men. In the ensuing skirmish the horses were recovered, however, at least one Indian was killed, Governor Tonyns report of the action, written on June 18, noted that this greatly exasperated the Savages, which would prove to have disastrous consequences for the Americans. Meanwhile, Browns Indians and rangers had been reinforced by British regulars under the command of Major Mark Prevost and their scouts located the American camp on the night of May 16–17. Browns Indians and rangers set up an ambush ahead of Bakers route, when Bakers column reached the ambush around 9,00 am, Browns men delivered a surprise volley at 50 yards from the front and flank. Baker and his men turned to flee, directly into Prevosts oncoming regulars, the Patriots, already shaken, were quickly overwhelmed by the large numbers of rangers and Indians appearing in the underbrush. About half of the Georgians fled at first sight of the enemy, Baker, his horse taken by one of his companions, casualty reports from the encounter vary. David Russell reports that three Georgians were killed, nine wounded, and 31 captured, and that many of the captured were later killed by vengeful Creeks, charles Jones reports similar numbers, except that 34 were taken prisoner, a captive count echoed by William Nester
34.
Capture of Savannah
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He was to be assisted by troops under the command of Brigadier General Augustine Prevost that were marching up from Saint Augustine in East Florida. After landing near Savannah on December 23, Campbell assessed the American defenses, which were comparatively weak, Campbell and Prevost followed up the victory with the capture of Sunbury and an expedition to Augusta. The British held off a Franco-American siege in 1779, and held the city late in the war. In June and July 1778 Clinton successfully removed his troops from Philadelphia back to New York, in November, after dealing with the threat of a French fleet off New York and Newport, Rhode Island, Clinton turned his attention to the south. Clintons basic plan, first proposed by Thomas Brown in 1776, began with the capture of the capital of Georgia, Clinton gave command of the detachment from New York to Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell. Campbell sailed from New York on November 26 and arrived off Tybee Island, near the mouth of the Savannah River, the state of Georgia was defended by two separate forces. Howe and Georgia authorities had previously squabbled over control of military expeditions against Prevost in East Florida, Lincoln had not yet arrived when word reached Howe that Clinton was sending troops to Georgia. During November 1778 British raids into Georgia became more and more threatening to the population centers. Despite the urgency of the situation, Governor Houstoun refused to allow Howe to direct the movements of the Georgia militia, on November 18, Howe began marching south from Charleston, South Carolina with 550 Continental Army troops, arriving in Savannah late that month. He learned that Campbell had sailed from New York on December 6, on December 23 sails were spotted off Tybee Island. The next day, Governor Houstoun assigned 100 Georgia militia to Howe, a war council decided to attempt a vigorous defense of Savannah, in spite of the fact that they were likely to be significantly outnumbered, hoping to last until Lincolns troops arrived. Due the large number of potential landing points, Howe was forced to hold most of his army in reserve until the British had actually landed, the place Campbell selected for landing was Girardeaus Plantation, located about 2 miles below the city. When word reached Howe that the landing had started on December 29, Campbell realized that the bluffs would need to be controlled before the majority of his forces could land, and dispatched two companies of the 71st Regiment to take control of them. The Continentals opened fire at about 100 yards, the British, rather than returning fire, advanced rapidly with bayonets fixed, the Continentals retreated, having killed four and wounded five at no cost to themselves. By noon, Campbell had landed his army and began to proceed cautiously toward the city, Howe held a council that morning, and ground was chosen at which to make a stand. About one-half mile south of the city he established a line of defense in the shape of an open V, on the left Howe placed Georgia Continentals and militia under Samuel Elbert, while on the right he put South Carolina Continentals and militia under Isaac Huger and William Thomson. The line was supported by four pieces of artillery. Most of Howes troops, including the Continentals, had little or no action in the war
35.
Battle of Beaufort
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The Battle of Beaufort, also known as the Battle of Port Royal Island, was fought on February 3,1779, near Beaufort, South Carolina, during the American Revolutionary War. The battle took place not long after British forces consolidated control around Savannah, Georgia, brigadier General Augustine Prevost sent 200 British regulars to seize Port Royal Island at the mouth of the Broad River in South Carolina in late January 1779. The battle was inconclusive, but the British withdrew first and suffered heavier casualties than the Americans, the British began their southern strategy by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine, East Florida to capture Savannah, Georgia late in 1778. The New York expedition, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, arrived first, remnants of Savannahs defenders combined with South Carolina militia under Major General Benjamin Lincoln at an encampment at Purrysburg, South Carolina to oppose the British. Prevost decided thereafter to send a force to occupy Port Royal Island just up the coast in South Carolina, the only major defense establishment on Port Royal Island was Fort Lyttelton, which was garrisoned by a company of Continental Army troops under Captain John DeTreville. When he learned that a comparatively large British force was moving in his direction, he spiked the forts cannons and this force arrived at the main Port Royal ferry on the 31st, not long after DeTreville had finished destroying the fort. They crossed over to the island on February 1 and occupied Beaufort, Gardners men landed on Port Royal Island at the plantation of Andrew Deveaux, a Loyalist who may have guided them, on February 2. Gardner sent a detachment to secure the island side of the ferry and these men retreated when they encountered Patriot troops, and Gardner began to move his main force toward Beaufort to face the Americans. Early on February 3 General Moultrie was alerted to the British presence, the two forces met near the highest ground on Port Royal Island, a rise called Grays Hill that was about 3 miles south of the ferry and in the middle of the island. Gardner lined his men up at the edge of woods near the top of the hill. The Americans approached and lined up in a field outside musket range. General Moultrie positioned two six-pound field cannons in the center of his line, with a smaller two-pounder on the right, the Americans opened fire first with the artillery, and then with musket volleys. The battle continued for about 45 minutes, at point the Americans were running low on ammunition. Moultrie had begun a withdrawal when the British were also observed to retreat, a company of light horse militia chased after the British, very nearly cutting them off from their boats. They successfully captured 26 men, but were unable to hold all of them due to their small numbers, in addition to the prisoners taken, the British reportedly suffered 40 killed or wounded, although deserters reported that nearly half of Gardners men had been hit by American fire. The Americans, in contrast, suffered only 8 killed and 22 wounded, Gardner was criticized by Prevost for the mauling his detachment received because he strayed too far from his boats. It was not Gardners fault, however, that he had no Loyalist support, the victory of a largely militia force over British regulars was a boost to the Americans morale. However, severe losses incurred in early March at Brier Creek delayed American plans to move against Prevosts forces in Georgia
36.
Battle of Kettle Creek
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The Battle of Kettle Creek was a major encounter in the back country of Georgia during the American Revolutionary War. It was fought in Wilkes County about eight miles from present-day Washington, a militia force of Patriots decisively defeated and scattered a Loyalist militia force that was on its way to British-controlled Augusta. The victory demonstrated the inability of British forces to hold the interior of the state, the British, who had already decided to abandon Augusta, recovered some prestige a few weeks later, surprising a Patriot force in the Battle of Brier Creek. Georgias back country would not come fully under British control until after the 1780 Siege of Charleston broke Patriot forces in the South. The British began their southern strategy by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine, East Florida to capture the port of Savannah, Georgia in late 1778. Leaving Savannah on January 24, Campbell and more than 1,000 men arrived near Augusta a week later, with only minimal harassment from Georgia Patriot militia on the way. Augusta had been defended by South Carolina General Andrew Williamson leading about 1,000 militia from Georgia and South Carolina and his rear guard briefly skirmished with Campbells men before withdrawing across the Savannah River into South Carolina. By February 10,1779, about 1,100 men signed up, Campbell then began requiring oaths of loyalty, on pain of forfeiture of property, many took this oath insincerely, quickly letting Williamson know their true feelings. Boyd met with success and recruited several hundred men, as he traveled south back toward Augusta, more Loyalists joined his company until it numbered over 600 men in central South Carolina. As this column moved on, the men plundered and pillaged along the way, the Continental Army commander in the South, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, based in Charleston, South Carolina, had been unable to respond adequately to the capture of Savannah. With only limited resources, he was able to raise about 1,400 South Carolina militia, on January 30, he was further reinforced at Charleston by the arrival of 1,100 North Carolina militia under General John Ashe. These he immediately dispatched to join Williamson on the South Carolina side of the Savannah River near Augusta, when about 250 South Carolina militia under Colonel Andrew Pickens arrived, Pickens and Dooly joined forces to conduct offensive operations into Georgia, with Pickens taking overall command. They were at some point joined by a few companies of North Carolina light horse militia, on February 10, Pickens and Dooly crossed the Savannah River to attack a British Army camp southeast of Augusta. Finding the camp unoccupied, they learned that the company was out on an extended patrol, suspecting they would head for a stockaded frontier post called Carrs Fort, Pickens sent men directly there while the main body chased after the British. The British made it into the fort, but were forced to abandon their horses, Pickens then besieged the fort until he learned that Boyd was passing through the Ninety Six district of South Carolina with seven to eight hundred Loyalists, headed for Georgia. He reluctantly raised the siege and moved to intercept Boyd, Pickens established a strong presence near the mouth of the Broad River, where he expected Boyd might try to cross. However, Boyd, his force grown by then to 800 men and he first tried Cherokee Ford, the southernmost fording of the Savannah River, where he was met with some resistance known as the Engagement at McGowens Blockhouse. The encounter consisted of a detachment of eight Patriots commanded by Capt. Robert Anderson with two swivel guns in an entrenched position, who thwarted Boyds approach to Cherokee Ford
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Battle of Brier Creek
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The Battle of Brier Creek was an American Revolutionary War battle fought on March 3,1779 near the confluence of Brier Creek with the Savannah River in eastern Georgia. A Patriot force consisting principally of militia from North Carolina and Georgia was surprised, the battle occurred only a few weeks after a resounding American Patriot victory over the British at Kettle Creek, north of Augusta, reversing its effect on morale. The British began their southern strategy by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine, East Florida to capture Savannah, the New York expedition, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell, arrived first, and successfully captured the town on December 29,1778. Leaving Savannah on January 24, Campbell and more than 1,000 men arrived near Augusta a week later, with only minimal harassment from Georgia Patriot militia on the way. Augusta had been defended by South Carolina General Andrew Williamson leading about 1,000 militia from Georgia and South Carolina and this rear guard skirmished with Campbells men before withdrawing across the Savannah River into South Carolina. About 1,100 men signed up, but relatively few actually formed militia companies, Campbell then began requiring oaths of loyalty, on pain of forfeiture of property, many took this oath insincerely, quickly letting Williamson know their true feelings. The arrival of more than 1,000 North Carolina Patriot militia under General John Ashe in Williamsons camp prompted Campbell to decide on February 12 to abandon Augusta. Two days later, the day that Boyds force of 600–700 was defeated in the Battle of Kettle Creek, Campbell withdrew from Augusta. Campbell did not find out about the Kettle Creek battle until after he had already left Augusta, during the occupation of Augusta, he had suffered only a single casualty, but the means of that loss was cause for anger among his regulars. One of the 71st Regiment men had been assigned as a safeguard in a private residence and this soldier had been killed by Patriot partisans, and neither Williamson nor Lincoln wanted to prosecute them for the violation. Campbell led the south until they reached Ebenezer, burning the bridge across Brier Creek on the way. At Ebenezer he turned command of the column over to General Prevosts younger brother, Lieutenant Colonel Mark Prevost, General Ashe trailed after Campbell, and on February 26 camped near the confluence of Brier Creek and the Savannah River, about 15 miles to the north. Ashe set his men to repairing the bridge, while encamped there, he was joined by about 200 light cavalry and some additional light infantry units, swelling his force to about 1,300 men. Brier Creek itself is a riverine watercourse traversing much of eastern Georgia between the Ogeechee River and the Savannah River and it arises between Warrenton in Warren County and Thomson in McDuffie County in the lower portion of the Piedmont. The upper portion of the creek is surrounded by open pit kaolin mines as it passes through the fall line, from there it enters the upper coastal plain and courses down past towns like Wrens and Waynesboro before joining the Savannah River in eastern Screven County near Sylvania. This waterway has a length of approximately 80 miles, in many places along the length of its course it is 30 to 50 feet in width. Near its mouth it is sometimes as broad as 80 feet, much of the lowest portion of the creek is bordered by the Tuckahoe Wildlife Management Area, which contains a significant portion of the battlefield. The joining of Brier Creek with the Savannah River forms a significant geographic constraint upon movement in area between the forks formed by the creek and river
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Chesapeake raid
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The Chesapeake Raid was an American Revolutionary War campaign by British naval forces under the command of Commodore Sir George Collier and land forces led by Major General Edward Mathew. Between 10 May and 24 May 1779 these forces raided economic and military targets up, the speed with which the British moved caught many of the bays communities by surprise, so there was little to no resistance. The British destroyed economically important supplies of tobacco and coal, and destroyed ships, port facilities. The American Revolution in the Southern Colonies
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Battle of Stono Ferry
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The Battle of Stono Ferry was an American Revolutionary War battle, fought on June 20,1779, near Charleston, South Carolina. The rear guard from a British expedition retreating from an attempt to take Charleston held off an assault by poorly trained militia forces under American General Benjamin Lincoln. In December 1778, however, Savannah was captured and Charleston again exposed to danger, at the time, it was the site of the Continental Armys southern command under General Benjamin Lincoln. The British garrison at Savannah was about the size as his own. Throughout the early months of 1779, Lincoln was reinforced by local militia as well as militia from North Carolina and this buildup of forces prompted the British to withdraw their force from Augusta back to Ebenezer, Georgia, across the river from Purrysburg. During these maneuvers a Loyalist force was defeated in the Battle of Kettle Creek, by mid-April Lincoln felt strong enough to move in force with the goal of tightening the cordon around Savannah, cutting the British off from local resources. He marched from Purrysburg on April 23 toward Augusta and his movement toward Augusta left the rich lands of coastal South Carolina protected by a minimal militia force. When British General Augustine Prevost learned of this movement, he decided to counterthrust against the forces at Purrysburg. As Moultrie retreated, local men deserted his force in order to protect their homes, Prevost decided to pursue Moultrie, and chased him to the gates of Charleston. On May 10, companies from the two forces skirmished near Ashley Ferry, about seven miles from Charleston, two days later Prevost intercepted a message from which he learned that Lincoln was rapidly marching back to Charleston, and decided to retreat. Prevost placed Lieutenant Colonel John Maitland in charge of the rear guard, a bridgehead was established on the north side of an area now known as New Cut Church Flats, this was meant to cover Stono Ferry. Three strong redoubts were built, circled by an abatis and manned by Highlanders from the 71st Foot, Hessians from the Regiment von Trumbach, Lincoln, on his arrival in Charleston, decided to mount an attack on this outpost. Even though he commanded five to seven men, he was only able to raise about 1,200 men, primarily from the poorly trained local militia. General Moultrie led a secondary effort to the east against a small group of British soldiers on Johns Island. Lincoln deployed his troops after a march of eight miles from the Ashley Ferry. Immediately upon their arrival at dawn, they began struggling through thick woods, Continental Army troops, under General Isaac Huger, made up the left wing, they carried four guns into battle. With Huger was a group of infantry under John Henderson. The battle began well for the Patriots and they engaged the British positions with small arms and cannon fire for an hour, at which point they advanced to the abatis
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Siege of Savannah
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The Siege of Savannah or the Second Battle of Savannah was an encounter of the American Revolutionary War in 1779. The year before, the city of Savannah, Georgia, had captured by a British expeditionary corps under Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell. The siege itself consisted of a joint Franco-American attempt to retake Savannah, on October 9 a major assault against the British siege works failed. During the attack, Polish nobleman Count Casimir Pułaski, leading the cavalry forces on the American side, was mortally wounded. With the failure of the joint American-French attack, the failed. This was one of the most significant foreign contributions to the American Revolutionary War and this French-colonial force had been established six months earlier and included hundreds of soldiers of color in addition to white soldiers and a couple black slaves. Their first step was to control of the southern ports of Savannah, Georgia and Charleston. An expedition in December 1778 took Savannah with modest resistance from ineffective militia, the Continental Army regrouped, and by June 1779 the combined army and militia forces guarding Charleston numbered between 5,000 and 7,000 men. French Admiral the Comte dEstaing spent the first part of 1779 in the Caribbean, where his fleet and he took advantage of conditions to capture Grenada in July before acceding to American requests for support in operations against Savannah. Lincoln and the French emissaries agreed on a plan of attack on Savannah, captain Moncrief of the Royal Engineers was tasked with constructing fortifications to repulse the invaders. The British Royal Navy contributed two frigates, both over-age and they landed their guns and most of their men to reinforce the land forces. In addition, the British also deployed the armed brig Keppel and the armed ship Germaine, there were two galleys, Comet, and Thunder, the latter too from East Florida. Lastly, the British armed two merchant vessels, Savannah, and Venus, dEstaing began landing troops below the city on September 12. By September 16 he was moving in on the city, confident of victory, and believing that Maitland would be prevented from reaching Savannah by Lincoln, he offered Prevost the opportunity to surrender. Prevost temporized and asked for 24 hours of truce, prevosts response to dEstaings offer was a polite refusal, even though Lincoln had also arrived outside the city. On 19 September, as Charles-Marie de Trolong du Rumain moved his squadron up the river, he exchanged fire with Comet, Thunder, Savannah, and Venus. The next day the British scuttled Rose, which was leaking badly and they also burnt Savannah and Venus. By scuttling Rose in a part of the channel, the British effectively blocked it
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Siege of Charleston
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The Siege of Charleston was a major engagement fought between March 29 to May 12,1780 during the American Revolutionary War. The British, following the collapse of their strategy and their withdrawal from Philadelphia. By late 1779, two major British strategic efforts had failed, meanwhile, a strategic effort led by Sir William Howe to capture the Revolutionary capital of Philadelphia had met with initial success. The British were persuaded that there was a strong Loyalist sentiment in the south, largely due to the extensive business and it was expected that these Loyalists would rise against the American Patriots in large numbers. The opening British move was the Capture of Savannah, Georgia in December 1778, Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Newport, Rhode Island on October 25,1779, and left the substantial garrison of New York City under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen. In December, he sailed southward with 8,500 troops to join Colonel Mark Prevost at Savannah, the joint British naval-army forces were led overall by Sir Henry Clinton, with his subordinate, Lord Cornwallis as his second-in-command. The British regular troops were led by Brigadier General Alexander Leslie, the ground and naval forces were composed thus, The Franco-American garrison of Charleston was overall led by Benjamin Lincoln. The Continental Army troops were led by Brigadier General William Moultrie The ground and naval forces were composed thus. Cutting the city off from relief, he began a siege of the city on April 1, the following day, the British begun to dig their siege works, approximately 800 yards from the American lines. During these first few days, the British troops were under an artillery fire from the Americans. By April 6, the British fleet had moved into the harbour, Benjamin Lincoln held a council of war, and was advised by de Laumoy to surrender, with the American situation becoming untenable. On April 21, a parlay was made between Clinton and Lincoln, with Lincoln offering to surrender, should he be granted the honours of war, Clinton refused the terms, and the siege resumed with a heavy artillery exchange. On April 23, Lord Cornwallis crossed the Cooper River, assuming command of the British forces blocking an escape by land. On April 29, the British advanced down the end of a strategically important canal that fronted Charlestons defences, intending to destroy the dam. The Americans harried the British efforts with stiff resistance, however, by May 6, most of the water had drained. On the same day, Fort Moultrie surrendered, on May 8, Clinton called for Lincolns unconditional surrender, but Lincoln again attempted to negotiate for the honours of war. On May 11, the British fired red-hot shot into the city, burning several homes, on May 12, Lincoln, with over 5,000 troops, surrendered to the British. When word reached the back-country, the American troops holding Ninety-Six, following the surrender, the captured ordnance was brought to a powder magazine
