1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
St Paul's Cathedral
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St Pauls Cathedral, London, is an Anglican cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of London and the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade 1 listed building and its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD604. The present church, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren and its construction, completed in Wrens lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral is one of the most famous and most recognisable sights of London and its dome, framed by the spires of Wrens City churches, dominated the skyline for 300 years. At 365 feet high, it was the tallest building in London from 1710 to 1967, the dome is among the highest in the world. St Pauls is the second-largest church building in area in the United Kingdom after Liverpool Cathedral, St Pauls Cathedral occupies a significant place in the national identity. It is the subject of much promotional material, as well as of images of the dome surrounded by the smoke. St Pauls Cathedral is a church with hourly prayer and daily services. The entry fee is £18 for adults, the location of Londiniums original cathedral is unknown. In 1995, however, a large and ornate 5th century building on Tower Hill was excavated, the Elizabethan antiquarian William Camden argued that a temple to the goddess Diana had stood during Roman times on the site occupied by the medieval St Pauls Cathedral. Wren reported that he had no trace of any such temple during the works to build the new cathedral after the Great Fire. Bede records that in AD604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberhts uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a dedicated to St Paul in London. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the site as the later medieval. On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his sons expelled Mellitus from London. The fate of the first cathedral building is unknown and this building, or a successor, was destroyed by fire in 962, but rebuilt in the same year. King Æthelred the Unready was buried in the cathedral on his death in 1016, the cathedral was burnt, with much of the city, in a fire in 1087, as recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The fourth St Pauls, generally referred to as Old St Pauls, was begun by the Normans after the 1087 fire, a further fire in 1136 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240
3.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
4.
Southwark
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Southwark is a district of Central London and part of the London Borough of Southwark. Situated 1.5 miles east of Charing Cross, it one of the oldest parts of London. It historically formed an ancient borough in the county of Surrey, made up of a number of parishes, as an inner district of London, Southwark experienced rapid depopulation during the late-19th and early-20th centuries. It is now at a stage of regeneration and is the county town of Greater London which is the location of the City Hall offices of the Greater London Authority. Southwark had a population of 30,119 in 2011, Southwark is recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as Sudweca. The name means southern defensive work and is formed from the Old English sūth, the southern location is in reference to the City of London to the north, Southwark being at the southern end of London Bridge. The ancient borough of Southwark was also simply as The Borough—or Borough—and this name. Southwark was also referred to as the Ward of Bridge Without when administered by the City. Southwark is on a marshy area south of the River Thames. Recent excavation has revealed prehistoric activity including evidence of ploughing, burial mounds. The area was originally a series of islands in the River Thames and this formed the best place to bridge the Thames and the area became an important part of Londinium owing its importance to its position as the endpoint of the Roman London Bridge. Two Roman roads, Stane Street and Watling Street, met at Southwark in what is now Borough High Street, archaeological work at Tabard Street in 2004 discovered a plaque with the earliest reference to London from the Roman period on it. Londinium was abandoned at the end of the Roman occupation in the fifth century. Archaeologically, evidence of settlement is replaced by a largely featureless soil called the Dark Earth which probably represents an urban area abandoned, Southwark appears to recover only during the time of King Alfred and his successors. Sometime about 886 AD, the burh of Southwark was created and it was probably fortified to defend the bridge and hence the re-emerging City of London to the north. He failed to force the bridge during the Norman conquest of England, Southwark appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as held by several Surrey manors. Southwarks value to the King was £16, much of Southwark was originally owned by the church—the greatest reminder of monastic London is Southwark Cathedral, originally the priory of St Mary Overie. During the early Middle Ages, Southwark developed and was one of the four Surrey towns which returned Members of Parliament for the first commons assembly in 1295
5.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
6.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
7.
Bridge House Estates
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The Bridge House Estates is a charitable trust, established in 1282 by the City of London Corporation in London, England. It was originally established to maintain London Bridge and, subsequently, funded by bridge tolls and charitable donations, the trust acquired an extensive property portfolio which made it more than self-sufficient. As well as maintaining the bridges, the estates also makes other charitable grants through the City Bridge Trust, since it was established, the trust has maintained, and on several occasions replaced, London Bridge. The trust also built Blackfriars Bridge and Tower Bridge, and purchased Southwark Bridge from the private company that built it. Most recently it took ownership and maintenance of the new pedestrian-only Millennium Bridge. Until 1995, the trust was only permitted to use its income for expenditure on its bridges, however, with a surplus of income over expenditure, a cy-près scheme was adopted in that year to allow any surplus income to be used for other charitable purposes benefiting Greater London. These grants are made though the City Bridge Trust, the Trust took its name from Bridge House, which was the administrative and maintenance centre of Old London Bridge located on the south bank of the River Thames, near the site of St Olaves Church. The site, now covered by the London Bridge Hospital and the Cottons Centre, was constituted of at least two properties in Southwark, the first was that of Peter de Colechurch the warden of the bridge from 1163 and probably a monastic dwelling. The second property was the left by will of Henry Fitz Ailwyn, first named Mayor of London. Known as the Bridge Mark, the logo of Bridge House Estates was one of the earliest logos ever in continuous use and it has been the identifying emblem of the Bridge House Estates for many centuries. But it now uses the City of London arms as an emblem, the City Bridge Trust uses the mark as a logo It was thought likely that the mark as we know it today was designed by a famous 17th century surveyor, William Leybourn. It appears drawn on a plan of 1680 which it is thought he adapted from a similar mark drawn against plots owned by Bridge House Estates on a plan of St Georges Fields in Southwark. The City sword rest from the church of St Olave, Southwark has the Bridge Mark carved onto it to balance the Citys shield, the trust was established by Royal Charter in 1282, and the sole trustee is the City of London Corporation. The trustee does not own the property of the trust — it may only be used for the purposes for which the fund was created. The Bridge House Estates are run by a committee of the City of London Corporation the chairman of which holds the title of Chief Commoner. The chairmanship is held for one year as the responsibilities are so onerous. In addition to its Royal Charter of 1282, the Bridge House Estates operates with respect to legislative powers e. g. The Fund administered by the Bridge House Estates is solely responsible for the five City Bridges, there is no financial support from the Government or any other fund
8.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
9.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
10.
Millennium Bridge, London
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The Millennium Bridge, officially known as the London Millennium Footbridge, is a steel suspension bridge for pedestrians crossing the River Thames in London, linking Bankside with the City of London. It is located between Southwark Bridge and Blackfriars Railway Bridge and it is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. Construction began in 1998, and it opened in June 2000. Londoners nicknamed the bridge the Wobbly Bridge after pedestrians felt unexpected swaying motion, the bridge was closed later on opening day, and after two days of limited access, it was closed for almost two years while modifications were made to eliminate the motion. The southern end of the bridge is near the Globe theatre, the Bankside Gallery, the bridge alignment is such that a clear view of St Pauls south façade is presented from across the river, framed by the bridge supports. The design of the bridge was the subject of a competition organised in 1996 by Southwark council, the winning entry was an innovative blade of light effort from Arup Group, Foster and Partners, and Sir Anthony Caro. Due to height restrictions, and to improve the view, the suspension design had the supporting cables below the deck level. The bridge has two piers and is made of three main sections of 81 m,144 m, and 108 m with a total structure length of 325 m. The eight suspension cables are tensioned to pull with a force of 2,000 tons against the set into each bank – enough to support a working load of 5,000 people on the bridge at one time. Ordinarily, bridges across the River Thames require an Act of Parliament, for this bridge, that was avoided by the Port of London Authority granting a licence for the structure obtaining planning permissions from the City of London and London Borough of Southwark. Construction began in late 1998 and the works were started on 28 April 1999 by Monberg & Thorsen. The bridge was completed at a cost of £18. 2M, primarily paid for by the Millennium Commission and it opened on 10 June 2000. Unexpected lateral vibration caused the bridge to be closed on 12 June 2000 for modifications, attempts were made to limit the number of people crossing the bridge. This led to long queues but was ineffective to dampen the vibrations, the tendency of a suspension bridge to sway when troops march over it in step was well known, which is why troops are required to break step when crossing such a bridge. The bridge was closed on 18 January 2007, during the Kyrill storm due to strong winds. The bridges movements were caused by a positive feedback phenomenon, known as synchronous lateral excitation, on the day of opening, the bridge was crossed by 90,000 people, with up to 2,000 on the bridge at any one time. Resonant vibrational modes due to vertical loads and wind loads are well understood in bridge design, the crucial point is that when the bridge lurches to one side, the pedestrians must adjust to keep from falling over, and they all do this at exactly the same time. Hence, the situation is similar to marching in lockstep
11.
Cannon Street station
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Cannon Street Railway Bridge is a bridge in central London, crossing the River Thames. Downstream, the bridge is London Bridge, and upstream Southwark Bridge. It carries trains over the river to Cannon Street station on the north bank and it was originally named Alexandra Bridge after Alexandra of Denmark who was the wife of the future King Edward VII. The bridge was designed by John Hawkshaw and John Wolfe-Barry for the South Eastern Railway and it was opened in 1866 after three years of construction. In its original form, it carried the railway over the Thames on five spans standing on cast-iron Doric pillars and it was the scene of the Marchioness disaster in 1989. Where Thames Smooth Waters Glide Cannon Street Railway Bridge at Structurae
12.
Arch bridge
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An arch bridge is a bridge with abutments at each end shaped as a curved arch. Arch bridges work by transferring the weight of the bridge and its loads partially into a horizontal thrust restrained by the abutments at either side, a viaduct may be made from a series of arches, although other more economical structures are typically used today. Possibly the oldest existing bridge is the Mycenaean Arkadiko bridge in Greece from about 1300 BC. The stone corbel arch bridge is used by the local populace. The well-preserved Hellenistic Eleutherna Bridge has a corbel arch. The 4th century BC Rhodes Footbridge rests on an early voussoir arch, a more complete survey by the Italian scholar Vittorio Galliazzo found 931 Roman bridges, mostly of stone, in as many as 26 different countries. Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although a number were segmental arch bridges, generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped primary arch stones of the same in size and shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early time onwards flood openings in the piers, e. g. in the Pons Fabricius in Rome, Roman engineers were the first and until the industrial revolution the only ones to construct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus caementicium. The outside was covered with brick or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge. The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into bridge construction, trajans bridge over the Danube featured open-spandrel segmental arches made of wood. This was to be the longest arch bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and individual span length, while the longest extant Roman bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida. The late Roman Karamagara Bridge in Cappadocia may represent the earliest surviving bridge featuring a pointed arch, in medieval Europe, bridge builders improved on the Roman structures by using narrower piers, thinner arch barrels and lower span-rise ratios on bridges. Gothic pointed arches were introduced, reducing lateral thrust. The 14th century in particular saw bridge building reaching new heights, the bridge at Trezzo sullAdda, destroyed in the 15th century, even featured a span length of 72 m, not matched until 1796. Constructions such as the acclaimed Florentine segmental arch bridge Ponte Vecchio combined sound engineering with aesthetical appeal, the three elegant arches of the Renaissance Ponte Santa Trinita constitute the oldest elliptic arch bridge worldwide. In China, the oldest existing bridge is the Zhaozhou Bridge of 605 AD. The Zhaozhou Bridge, with a length of 167 feet and span of 123 feet, is the worlds first wholly stone open-spandrel segmental arch bridge, Bridges with perforated spandrels can be found worldwide, such as in China
13.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
14.
John Rennie the Elder
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John Rennie FRSE FRS was a Scottish civil engineer who designed many bridges, canals, and docks. His older brother George remained to assist in the agricultural business. He seems to have employed his vacations in working as a millwright, at this early date the originality of his mind was exhibited by the introduction of cast iron pinions instead of wooden trundles. In 1784 he took a journey south for the purpose of enlarging his knowledge, visiting James Watt at Soho, the machinery was all designed by Rennie, a distinguishing feature being the use of iron instead of wood for the shafting and framing. About 1791 he started in business as an engineer on his own account in Holland Street, Blackfriars, whence he. In 1791, he moved to London and set up his own engineering business, having by then begun to expand into civil engineering, the Kennet and Avon Canal including the Dundas Aqueduct, Caen Hill Locks and Crofton Pumping Station occupied him between 1794 and 1810. In 1802 he revised the plans for the Royal Canal of Ireland from Dublin to the Shannon near Longford, for many years he was engaged in extensive drainage operations in the Lincolnshire and Norfolk fens, and in the improvement of the River Witham. The Eau Brink Cut, a new channel for the River Ouse, was completed just before his death and his later efforts in this line also show that he was a skilful architect, endowed with a keen sense of beauty of design. Waterloo Bridge was considered his masterpiece and was the most prestigious bridge project in England, the Italian sculptor Canova called it ‘the noblest bridge in the world’ and said that ‘it is worth going to England solely to see Rennie’s bridge. Southwark Bridge was built as three cast-iron spans over the river and he also designed the Old Vauxhall Bridge. He devoted much time to the preparation of plans for a government dockyard at Northfleet, Rennies last project was London Bridge, still under construction when he died in 1821 but completed by his son, also John Rennie. Dunleary harbour of Asylum was a difficult and important project. Rennie was responsible for the construction of Howth Harbour on the North side of Dublin bay a decade earlier and this was originally planned as the landing for the Holyhead packets, but it silted up to such an extent that it became unfit for purpose. An Act of Parliament of 1816 authorised the building of Dunleary harbour and he was correct as the sand has built up behind the west pier. The harbour once built was renamed The Royal Harbour of Kingstown in 1821 on the occasion of the visit of George IV, the material for the harbour is Dalkey Hill granite. The granite was provided by Richard Toucher at no cost to the construction team, the foundations of the piers are 300-0 wide and 24-0 below low water level. Many options were considered for the width of the space between the two pier heads, Rennie wrote to the Harbour Commissioners that the opening should be 430-0 wide with the pier heads turned into the harbour to control swells within the harbour. His demands were never met and the opening was built at 1
15.
Masbrough
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Masbrough is a suburb of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. It was named as the west of Rotherham by the middle of the Industrial Revolution, historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is in the Metropolitan Borough of Rotherham, centred 0.5 miles west of Rotherham town centre. Much of the suburb falls within the Rotherham West ward of Rotherham MBC, part of its land in the north lay within the manor of Kimberworth, the other contiguous western suburb of Rotherham today — Masbrough did not feature in the Domesday Book survey of 1086. Masbrough, in the township of Kimberworth, parish and union of Rotherham. ½ a mile from Rotherham and it is nearly of equal extent. In which, during the war, immense quantities of cannon and ordnance of the largest calibre were cast and it also derives benefit from the Sheffield and Rotherham branch railway. A large tract of land, forming the estate of Benjamin Badger, the Independent College, noticed under the head of Rotherham, is. here, and a Roman Catholic chapel has been built. A commemorative memorial to 50 victims of a disaster at Masborough in 1841 by Edwin Smith of Sheffield is in All Saints Church. A large memorial to the celebrated iron magnate, Walker, stands alone behind the site occupied by the 1760 Independent chapel. After being closed as a place of worship, the became a carpet showroom Allens of Rotherham. The site is connected by a short foot subway and Chapel Walk to all the buildings in central Rotherham. There were further memorials and statues within the chapel building, the chapels statue to Jonathan Walker, who was at the heart of the iron industry that led to the local areas development, depicts the man leaning on truncated column with head in hand. In 1862, the Masbrough Iron Works was the scene of a disaster when one of the boilers exploded. Traces of the works survive, particularly near to the eastern dual-carriageway road, the Masbrough community is served by both Thornhill and Ferham primary schools, with secondary provision being provided by Winterhill School in nearby Kimberworth. There are six places of worship in Masbrough, St Bedes Roman Catholic Church, St Pauls Church of England Church, the Jamia Mosque on College Road and two further mosques serve Sunni Muslims. The electoral ward largely co-extensive to Masbrough has lately been Rotherham West, respondents of this ward to the 2011 Census identified themselves with White British, White European and British Pakistani ethnicity as the largest contingents. People born in Non-UK EU countries numbered approximately 5 per cent of the population,572, Masbrough is the home of Millmoor, the former stadium of Second Division football club, Rotherham United and less than 0.5 miles north from its replacement across the riverside nature reserve. Rotherham Masborough railway station closed, having opened in 1840 by the North Midland Railway as an interchange with the Sheffield. The M1 motorway passes, at junction 34, Richmond Park, the far western neighbourhood of Masbrough, josiah Beckwith, antiquary, settled in Masbrough
16.
Rotherham
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Iron Age and Roman settlements dot the area covered by the district, including a small Roman fort to the south-west in the upper flood meadow of the Don. Rotherham was founded in the very early Middle Ages and its name is from Old English hām homestead, estate, meaning homestead on the Rother. The river name was carried into Old English from Brittonic branch of Celtic words, ro- over, chief and duβr water, thus main river and it established itself as a Saxon market town, on a Roman road near a forded part of the River Don. By the late Saxon period, Rotherham was at the centre of a parish on the Dons banks. Following the Norman Conquest an absentee lord held the most inhabited manor, the manors other resources were a church, four loosely called acres of meadow, and seven of woodland. Rotherham had a mill valued at a half of one pound sterling. His successors, the De Vesci family, rarely visited the town and did not build a castle but maintained a Friday market and a fair. In the mid 13th century, John de Vesci and Ralph de Tili gave all their possessions in Rotherham to Rufford Abbey, the monks collected tithes from the town and gained rights to an extra market day on Monday and to extend the annual fair from two to three days. The townsmen of Rotherham formed the Greaves of Our Ladys Light and it was suppressed in 1547 but revived in 1584 as the feoffees of the common lands of Rotherham, and remains in existence. In the 1480s the Rotherham-born Archbishop of York, Thomas Rotherham, instigated the building of a College of Jesus or Jesus College, Rotherham to rival the colleges of Cambridge and Oxford. It was the first brick building in what is now South Yorkshire and taught theology, religious chant and hymns, grammar, the College and new parish church of All Saints made Rotherham an enviable and modern town at the turn of the 16th century. The college was dissolved in 1547 in the reign of Edward VI, very little remains of the original building in College Street. Walls of part of the College of Jesus are encased within number 23 and Nos 2 and its fragments of walls are the earliest surviving brick structure in South Yorkshire and are remains of the key institution to Rotherhams growth into a town of regional significance. Sixty years after the Colleges dissolution Rotherham was described by a visitor as falling from a fashionable college town to having admitted gambling. The history of Thomas Rotherham and education in the town are remembered in the name of Thomas Rotherham College, the region had been exploited for iron since Roman times, but it was coal that first brought the Industrial Revolution to Rotherham. In the early Industrial Revolution major uses of iron demanded good local ore and established processing skills for iron strength, qualities found in Rotherhams smelting plants, Iron, and later steel, became the principal industry in Rotherham, surviving into the 20th century. Rotherhams cast iron industry expanded rapidly in the early 19th century, perrot, W. H. Micklethwait and John and Richard Corker of the Ferham Works. The Parkgate Ironworks was established in 1823 by Sanderson and Watson, in 1854, Samuel Beal & Co produced wrought iron plates for Isambard Kingdom Brunels famous steamship the SS Great Eastern
17.
Blackfriars Bridge
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Blackfriars Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge over the River Thames in London, between Waterloo Bridge and Blackfriars Railway Bridge, carrying the A201 road. The north end is near the Inns of Court and Temple Church, the south end is near the Tate Modern art gallery and the Oxo Tower. The first fixed crossing at Blackfriars was a 995 feet long toll bridge designed in an Italianate style by Robert Mylne, beating designs by John Gwynn and George Dance, it took nine years to build, opening to the public in 1769. It was the bridge across the Thames in the then built-up area of London, supplementing the ancient London Bridge, which dated from several centuries earlier. It was later made toll free, the Fleet can be seen discharging into the Thames at its north side. This created the junction at St Georges Circus between Westminster Bridge Road, Borough Road and the later named Blackfriars Road which crossed the largely open parish of Christchurch Surrey, the continuation to the south at the major junction at Elephant and Castle is therefore named London Road. Although it was built of Portland stone the workmanship was very faulty and this is the present bridge which in 1869 was opened by Queen Victoria. The present bridge is 923 feet long, consisting of five wrought iron arches built to a design by Joseph Cubitt, Cubitt also designed the adjacent rail bridge and it was a condition that the spans and piers of the two bridges be aligned. It was built by P. A. Thom & Co, like its predecessor it is owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. Like London Bridge the full length and its end is within the Citys borders. Due to the volume of traffic over the bridge, it was widened between 1907–10, from 70 feet to its present 105 feet. In 2005, five suspected members of the Mafia were tried in a Rome court for Calvis murder, on the piers of the bridge are stone carvings of water birds by sculptor John Birnie Philip. On the East side, the carvings show marine life and seabirds, on the north side of the bridge is a statue of Queen Victoria, to whom the bridge was dedicated. The ends of the bridge are shaped like a pulpit in a reference to Black Friars, Blackfriars Bridge station continued as a goods stop until 1964 when it was completely demolished, and much of it redeveloped into offices. The River Fleet empties into the Thames under the end of Blackfriars Bridge. The structure was given Grade II listed status in 1972, in 1774 the new bridge was mentioned in a popular song in Charles Dibdins opera The Waterman, referring to the boatmen who used to carry fashionable folks to Vauxhall Gardens and Ranelagh Gardens. And did you not hear of the jolly young waterman, Who at Blackfriars Bridge used for to ply, and he feathered his oars with such skill and dexterity, Winning each heart and delighting each eye. The name was given to one of the Bailey Bridges over the Rhine River in 1945, in Neil Gaimans Neverwhere, Blackfriars Bridge was named as the home of an unknown order of monks who held the key to an angelic prison
18.
London Bridge
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London Bridge refers to several historical bridges that have spanned the River Thames between the City of London and Southwark, in central London. The current crossing, which opened to traffic in 1973, is a box girder bridge built from concrete and this replaced a 19th-century stone-arched bridge, which in turn superseded a 600-year-old medieval structure. This was preceded by a succession of bridges, the first built by the Roman founders of London. The current bridge stands at the end of the Pool of London but is positioned 30 metres upstream from previous alignments. The traditional ends of the bridge were marked by St Magnus-the-Martyr on the northern bank. Until Putney Bridge opened in 1729, London Bridge was the only road-crossing of the Thames downstream of Kingston-upon-Thames and its importance has been the subject of popular culture throughout the ages such as in the nursery rhyme London Bridge Is Falling Down and its inclusion within art and literature. The modern bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates and it carries the A3 road, which is maintained by the Greater London Authority. The crossing also delineates an area along the bank of the River Thames. The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand, between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the rivers upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, some time before Claudius conquest of AD43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. Claudius imposed a major colonia on Camulodunum, and made it the city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of their road-building programme, around AD55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root. A smaller settlement developed at the end of the bridge. The bridge was destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire, with the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex
19.
Ernest George
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Sir Ernest George RA was an English architect, landscape and architectural watercolour painter, and etcher. Born in London in 1839, Ernest George began his training in 1856, under Samuel Hewitt. After a short period in the office of Allen Boulnois, he went on a tour of France and Germany. On his return to London, he set up a practice in 1861 with Thomas Vaughan. They had their breakthrough in 1869, when Ernest George was contacted by the tea and he was about to buy the village of Rousdon in Devon, and wanted George to build him a large mansion house south of the village, plus several other buildings. This complex became known as the Rousdon Estate, and from 1930 to 1998 the George designed mansion house served as the private boarding school Allhallows College. Vaughn suddenly died in 1869, forcing George to find another partner and he chose the young Harold Peto, mainly because of the Peto familys vast contact network in the building industry. During this partnership, George designed houses in London for the Cadogan Estate in Chelsea, in 1881 they designed Stoodleigh Court at Tiverton for Thomas Carew. In 1891 they designed an extension to West Dean House for William James, creating the Oak Room, in New Zealand, which he never visited, he designed the Theomin family house Olveston in Dunedin which was built 1904-07. He was also responsible for the current Southwark Bridge, and the Memorial to Heroic Self Sacrifice in Londons Postmans Park and he served as president of the Royal Institute of British Architects from 1908 to 1910. Ernest Georges London office was nicknamed The Eton of architects, Ethel Charles was the first woman to be elected a member of the Royal Institute of British Architects. Georges residence at 17 Bartholomew St, London Borough of Southwark is commemorated with a Southwark Council blue plaque, an album with pencil-sketches of townscapes in Ostend is kept in the Kunstmuseum aan Zee there. H. Grainger, The Architecture of Sir Ernest George and his partners N. Hostyn, Een uitzonderlijk iconografisch document voor Oostende. The Lychgate, West Wickham Church Ghent, Canal Scene San Gimignano The Rousdon Estate website
20.
Sir William Arrol & Co.
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Sir William Arrol & Co. was a leading Scottish civil engineering business founded by William Arrol and based in Glasgow. It built some of the most famous bridges in the United Kingdom including the Forth Bridge, the company was founded by William Arrol at Dunn Street in Dalmarnock in Glasgow in 1873. It later expanded to incorporate the Parkhead Crane Works in Nuneaton Street, like the ships themselves, the gantry crane was one of the largest built at the time, comparing with transporter bridges in length, height and capability. The company also built the crane for the Hikitia in 1926, the company was acquired by Clarke Chapman in 1969 and the Dalmarnock Works were closed in 1986. Sir William Arrol & Co. in the Structurae database
21.
George V
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George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936. He was the son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. From the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession behind his father and his own brother, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence. From 1877 to 1891, George served in the Royal Navy, on the death of his grandmother in 1901, Georges father became King-Emperor of the British Empire, and George was created Prince of Wales. He succeeded his father in 1910 and he was the only Emperor of India to be present at his own Delhi Durbar. His reign saw the rise of socialism, communism, fascism, Irish republicanism, the Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the elected British House of Commons over the unelected House of Lords. In 1917, George became the first monarch of the House of Windsor, in 1924 he appointed the first Labour ministry and in 1931 the Statute of Westminster recognised the dominions of the Empire as separate, independent states within the Commonwealth of Nations. He had health problems throughout much of his reign and at his death was succeeded by his eldest son. George was born on 3 June 1865, in Marlborough House and he was the second son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, Albert Edward and Alexandra. His father was the eldest son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and he was baptised at Windsor Castle on 7 July 1865 by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Longley. As a younger son of the Prince of Wales, there was expectation that George would become king. He was third in line to the throne, after his father and elder brother, George was only 17 months younger than Albert Victor, and the two princes were educated together. John Neale Dalton was appointed as their tutor in 1871, neither Albert Victor nor George excelled intellectually. For three years from 1879, the brothers served on HMS Bacchante, accompanied by Dalton. They toured the colonies of the British Empire in the Caribbean, South Africa and Australia, and visited Norfolk, Virginia, as well as South America, the Mediterranean, Egypt, Dalton wrote an account of their journey entitled The Cruise of HMS Bacchante. Between Melbourne and Sydney, Dalton recorded a sighting of the Flying Dutchman, after Lausanne, the brothers were separated, Albert Victor attended Trinity College, Cambridge, while George continued in the Royal Navy. He travelled the world, visiting many areas of the British Empire, during his naval career he commanded Torpedo Boat 79 in home waters then HMS Thrush on the North America station, before his last active service in command of HMS Melampus in 1891–92. From then on, his rank was largely honorary
22.
Mary of Teck
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Mary of Teck was Queen of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Empress of India as the wife of King-Emperor George V. Although technically a princess of Teck, in the Kingdom of Württemberg, she was born and her parents were Francis, Duke of Teck, who was of German extraction, and Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, a granddaughter of King George III. She was informally known as May, after her birth month, the following year, she became engaged to Albert Victors next surviving brother, George, who subsequently became king. Before her husbands accession, she was successively Duchess of York, Duchess of Cornwall and she supported her second son, Albert, who succeeded to the throne as George VI, until his death in 1952. She died the year, during the reign of her granddaughter Queen Elizabeth II. Princess Victoria Mary of Teck was born on 26 May 1867 at Kensington Palace and her father was Prince Francis, Duke of Teck, the son of Duke Alexander of Württemberg by his morganatic wife, Countess Claudine Rhédey von Kis-Rhéde. Her mother was Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge, the child and younger daughter of Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge. She was baptised in the Chapel Royal of Kensington Palace on 27 July 1867 by Charles Thomas Longley, before she became queen, she was known to her family, friends and the public by the diminutive name of May, after her birth month. Mays upbringing was merry but fairly strict and she was the eldest of four children, the only girl, and learned to exercise her native discretion, firmness, and tact by resolving her three younger brothers petty boyhood squabbles. They played with their cousins, the children of the Prince of Wales, may was educated at home by her mother and governess. Although her mother was a grandchild of King George III, May was only a member of the British Royal Family. Her father, the Duke of Teck, had no inheritance or wealth, however, the Duchess of Teck was granted a parliamentary annuity of £5,000 and received about £4,000 a year from her mother, the Duchess of Cambridge. Despite this, the family was deeply in debt and lived abroad from 1883, the Tecks travelled throughout Europe, visiting their various relations. They stayed in Florence, Italy, for a time, where May enjoyed visiting the art galleries, churches, in 1885, the Tecks returned to London, and took up residence at White Lodge, in Richmond Park. May was close to her mother, and acted as an secretary, helping to organise parties. She was also close to her aunt, the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, during the First World War, the Crown Princess of Sweden helped pass letters from May to her aunt, who lived in enemy territory in Germany until her death in 1916. In December 1891, May was engaged to her second cousin once removed, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. The choice of May as bride for the Duke owed much to Queen Victorias fondness for her, as well as to her strong character, however, Albert Victor died six weeks later, in a recurrence of the worldwide 1889–90 influenza pandemic
23.
Traffic and Environmental Zone
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The measures have been used since the 1990s to deter terrorism and other threats. According to a 2011 Freedom of Information Act request, the number of local government operated CCTV cameras in the City of London was 649. The number of cameras that are part of the TEZ is often wrongly quoted as 500,000. This figure relates to Greater London, which has an area of 1,572 square km compared with the 3 square km of the City of London that the ring of steel covers. Furthermore, it has been acknowledged for years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed. The figure of 500,000 comes from a study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of UrbanEye published in 2002. Based on a sample in Putney High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolate the number of surveillance cameras in Greater London to be 500,000. More reliable estimates put the number of private and local government surveillance cameras in the whole of the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011. The Traffic and Environmental Zone was officially established in 1993, the term Ring of Steel was borrowed from an earlier stage of the Troubles when the centre of Belfast was fortified against attacks, this fortified perimeter was known as the ring of steel. Roads entering the City were narrowed and small chicanes were created to force drivers to slow down and these roads typically had a concrete median with a sentry box where police could stand guard and monitor traffic. City planners call these types of precautions fortress urbanism, some roads were closed to traffic entirely. Despite the term ring of steel, the roadblocks and chicanes were created with concrete blocks, sometimes plastic coated. Initially the sentry posts were staffed by armed police almost continuously, the ring of steel consisted of plastic cones and on-duty police officers which the locals described as the ring of plastic. It served the purpose of providing a visible sign to the public that the City authorities were taking the threats of attacks by the IRA seriously. This was replaced by permanent structures consisting of concrete barriers, checkpoints. Following IRA ceasefires the police presence was curtailed, in 1996, the IRA attacked another area of central London by exploding a bomb at the Docklands, resulting in two deaths,39 other casualties and £85 million worth of damage. The attack showed that while the TEZ was able to hinder attacks inside the City itself, manned checkpoints began to be phased out after the IRA announced a ceasefire in 1994 and were no longer used after the 1990s. In December 2003, the ring of steel was widened to more businesses in the City
24.
Tower 42
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Tower 42 is the third-tallest skyscraper in the City of London and the eighth tallest in Greater London. Its original name was the NatWest Tower, having built to house NatWests international headquarters. It is still referred to as the NatWest Tower. Seen from above, the shape of the tower resembles that of the NatWest logo, the tower, designed by Richard Seifert and engineered by Pell Frischmann, is located at 25 Old Broad Street. It was built by John Mowlem & Co between 1971 and 1980, first occupied in 1980, and formally opened on 11 June 1981 by Queen Elizabeth II, the construction cost was £72 million. It is 183 metres high, which made it the tallest building in the United Kingdom until the topping out of One Canada Square at Canary Wharf in 1990 and it was the tallest building to have been built in London in the 1980s. It held the status of tallest building in the City of London for 30 years, in 2011 it was bought by the South African businessman Nathan Kirsh for £282.5 million. The original concept dates back to the early 1960s, predating the formation of the National Westminster Bank, the site was then the headquarters of the National Provincial Bank, with offices in Old Broad Street backing onto its flagship branch at 15 Bishopsgate. Early designs envisaged a tower of 137 m, this developed into a design with a 197 m tower as its centrepiece, visitors were invited to vote and overwhelmingly chose the single tower design. The final design preserved the Gibson banking hall and the height was reduced to 183 m. An annual fundraising event called Vertical Rush takes place inside Tower 42 and it is a vertical run of 932 steps to the top of the tower. Demolition of the site commenced in 1970 and the tower was completed in 1980, in total, there are 47 levels above ground, of which 42 are cantilevered. The lowest cantilevered floor is designated Level 1, but is in fact the fourth level above ground, the cantilevered floors are designed as three segments, or leaves, which approximately correspond to the three chevrons of the NatWest logo when viewed in plan. The two lowest cantilevered levels are formed of a leaf, and the next two are formed of two leaves. This pattern is repeated at the top, so that only levels 5 to 38 extend around the whole of the building and this unit remained in its existing location at 53 Threadneedle Street. Other international banking units, such as International Westminster Banks London Branch, innovative features in the design included double-decked elevators, which provide an express service between the ground/mezzanine levels and the sky lobbies at levels 23 and 24. Double decked elevators and sky lobbies were both new to the UK at the time, the tower also had its own telephone exchange in one of the basement levels – this area was decorated with panoramic photographs of the London skyline, creating the illusion of being above ground. Fire suppression design features included pressurised stairwells, smoke venting and fire retardant floor barriers, however, at the time of design, fire sprinkler systems were not mandatory in the UK and so were not installed
25.
30 St Mary Axe
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30 St Mary Axe is a commercial skyscraper in Londons primary financial district, the City of London. It was completed in December 2003 and opened in April 2004, after plans to build the 92-storey Millennium Tower were dropped,30 St Mary Axe was designed by Norman Foster and Arup Group and it was erected by Skanska, with construction commencing in 2001. The building has become a feature of London and is one of the citys most widely recognised examples of contemporary architecture. The building stands on the sites of the Baltic Exchange, the headquarters of a global marketplace for ship sales and shipping information. On 10 April 1992 the Provisional IRA detonated a bomb close to the Exchange, the Exchange Hall was a celebrated fixture of the ship trading market. The Baltic Exchange and the Chamber of Shipping sold the land to Trafalgar House in 1995, the salvaged material was eventually sold for £800,000 and moved to Tallinn, Estonia, where it awaits reconstruction as the centrepiece of the citys commercial sector. In 1996, Trafalgar House submitted plans for the Millennium Tower, the Gherkin nickname was applied to the current building at least as long ago as 1999, referring to that plans highly unorthodox layout and appearance. On 23 August 2000, Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott granted planning permission to construct a much larger than the old Exchange on the site. The site was special because it needed development, was not on any of the sight lines, the plan for the site was to reconstruct the Baltic Exchange. GMW Architects proposed a new rectangular building surrounding a restored exchange—the square shape would have the type of floor plan that banks liked. This gave the architect a free hand in the design, it eliminated the restrictive demands for a large, capital-efficient, money-making building, Swiss Res low level plan met the planning authoritys desire to maintain Londons traditional streetscape with its relatively narrow streets. The mass of the Swiss Re tower was not too imposing, like Barclays Banks former City headquarters in Lombard Street, the idea was that the passer-by in neighbouring streets would be nearly oblivious to the towers existence until directly underneath it. The building was constructed by Skanska, completed in December 2003, the primary occupant of the building is Swiss Re, a global reinsurance company, which had the building commissioned as the head office for its UK operation. The building uses energy-saving methods, which allow it to use half the power that a tower would typically consume. Gaps in each floor create six shafts that serve as a ventilation system for the entire building. The shafts create a giant double glazing effect, air is sandwiched between two layers of glazing and insulates the office space inside. Architects promote double glazing in residential houses, which avoids the inefficient convection of heat across the narrow gap between the panes, but the tower exploits this effect. The shafts pull warm air out of the building during the summer, the shafts also allow sunlight to pass through the building, making the work environment more pleasing, and keeping the lighting costs down
26.
Worshipful Company of Vintners
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The Worshipful Company of Vintners is one of the most ancient Livery Companies of the City of London, England. It probably existed as early as the century, and it received a Royal Charter in 1364. Due to the Royal Charter, the Company gained a monopoly over wine imports from Gascony, also, it acquired the right to sell wine without a licence, and it became the most powerful company in the wine trade. However, in 1553, it lost its right to sell anywhere in the country. Up to 2006, Vintners retained the right to sell wine without a licence in certain areas and this right has now been abolished, but limited privileges remain. The Vintners Company ranks eleventh in the order of precedence of Livery Companies, the Companys motto is Vinum Exhilarat Animum, Latin for Wine Cheers the Spirit. Vintners Hall is situated by Southwark Bridge, in Vintry ward, the nearby Garlickhythe was a dock where French garlic and wine were landed, from medieval times. One of the more rights of the Company involves the ceremony of swan upping
27.
Tate Modern
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Tate Modern is a modern art gallery located in London. It is Britains national gallery of modern art and forms part of the Tate group. It is based in the former Bankside Power Station, in the Bankside area of the London Borough of Southwark, Tate holds the national collection of British art from 1900 to the present day and international modern and contemporary art. Tate Modern is one of the largest museums of modern and contemporary art in the world and it is directly across the river from St Pauls Cathedral. The power station closed in 1981, prior to redevelopment, the power station was a 200 m long, steel framed, brick clad building with a substantial central chimney standing 99 m. The structure was divided into three main areas each running east-west - the huge main turbine hall in the centre, with the boiler house to the north. For many years after closure Bankside Power station was at risk of being demolished by developers, many people campaigned for the building to be saved and put forward suggestions for possible new uses. An application to list the building was refused, in April 1994 the Tate Gallery announced that Bankside would be the home for the new Tate Modern. In July of the year, an international competition was launched to select an architect for the new gallery. Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron of Herzog & de Meuron were announced as the architects in January 1995. The £134 million conversion to the Tate Modern started in June 1995, the most obvious external change was the two-story glass extension on one half of the roof. Much of the internal structure remained, including the cavernous main turbine hall. The history of the site as well as information about the conversion was the basis for a 2008 documentary Architects Herzog and de Meuron and this challenging conversion work was carried by Carillion. Tate Modern was opened by the Queen on 11 May 2000, Tate Modern received 5.25 million visitors in its first year. The previous year the three existing Tate galleries galleries had received 2.5 million visitors combined, Tate Modern had attracted more visitors than originally expected and plans to expand it had been in preparation since 2004. These plans focused on the south west of the building with the intention of providing 5, 000m2 of new display space, the southern third of the building was retained by the French power company EDF Energy as an electrical substation. In 2006, the released the western half of this holding and plans were made to replace the structure with a tower extension to the museum. The tower was to be built over the old oil storage tanks, structural, geotechnical, civil, and façade engineering and environmental consultancy was undertaken by Ramboll between 2008 and 2016
28.
The Clink
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The Clink was a prison in Southwark, England which functioned from the 12th century until 1780 either deriving its name from, or bestowing it on, the local manor, the Clink Liberty. The manor and prison were owned by the Bishop of Winchester, the Clink was possibly the oldest mens prison and probably the oldest womens prison in England. The name has become slang as a term for prison or a jail cell. There has been a prison owned by the Bishop of Winchester in one form or another since the year 860, by 1076 an archbishop had listed the types of punishment allowed, scourging with rods, solitary confinement, and bread and water in silence. The building of a chapel and mansion at Southwark by the Bishop of Winchester, the prison was any number of structures within the mansions area whereby the local miscreants were kept to await trial. The prisoners were ill treated although those with money and friends on the outside were able to pay the gaolers to make their time better, as the gaolers were very poorly paid, they found other ways to supplement their income. They hired out rooms, beds, bedding, candles and fuel to those who could afford it, food and drink were charged at twice the outside price. They accepted payments for fitting lighter irons and for removing them completely, for a fee, prisoners would be allowed outside to beg or even to work. Madams were allowed to keep a brothel going, with going to the gaolers. Poorer prisoners had to beg at the grates that led up to level and sell anything they had with them, including their clothes. Winchester House was raided by rioters protesting the Statute of Labourers in 1450, classing clerics as tax collectors, they murdered them and released prisoners from the Clink before burning it down. The rebellion was put down and Winchester House was rebuilt and extended, including a new prison. Originally, most of the prisoners had been those who had broken the rules of the Liberty, John Bradford and John Hooper were amongst the inmates. In later years it was mainly a debtors prison, in 1649 Winchester House was sold to a property developer and was divided into shops, tenements and dye houses. The Cage was removed temporarily as taxpayers had complained about the cost of upkeep, by 1707 both of these and the stocks were all unused because of the cost of upkeep, and by 1732 there were only two registered inmates. In 1745 a temporary prison was used, as the Clink was too decayed to use although, by 1776 and it was burnt down in 1780 by Gordon rioters, and was never rebuilt. The Clink Prison Museum exhibition is located on Clink Street part of the site at Bankside. The Clink Prison Museum tries to recreate the conditions of the original prison, Father John Gerard, S. J. ~1595 Father George Blackwell ~1607–1613 Matthew Wilson, alias Edward Knott, Jesuit author
29.
Shakespeare's Globe
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The original theatre was built in 1599, destroyed by fire in 1613, rebuilt in 1614, and then demolished in 1644. The modern Globe Theatre reconstruction is an approximation based on available evidence of the 1599 and 1614 buildings. It is considered realistic, though contemporary safety requirements mean that it accommodates only 1400 spectators compared to the original theatre’s 3000. Shakespeares Globe was founded by the actor and director Sam Wanamaker, built about 230 metres from the site of the theatre and opened to the public in 1997. The site also includes the Sam Wanamaker Playhouse, a theatre which opened in January 2014. This is a smaller, candle-lit space based on the indoor playhouses of Jacobean London, the Sackler Studios, an educational and rehearsal studio complex, is situated just around the corner from the main site. There is also an exhibition about Shakespeares life and work, and this inspired the founding of a number of Shakespeares Globe Centres around the world, an activity in which Wanamaker also participated. It was Wanamakers wish that the new building recreate the Globe as it existed during most of Shakespeares time there, that is, the 1599 building rather than its 1614 replacement. A study was made of what was known of the construction of The Theatre, for practical reasons, some features of the 1614 rebuilding were incorporated into the modern design, such as the external staircases. The design team consisted of architect Theo Crosby of Pentagram, structural and services engineer Buro Happold, the construction, building research and historic design details were undertaken by McCurdy & Co. The theatre opened in 1997 under the name Shakespeares Globe Theatre, Mark Rylance became the first artistic director in 1995 and was succeeded by Dominic Dromgoole in 2006. In January 2016, Emma Rice began her term as the Globes third Artistic Director, the theatre is located on Bankside, about 230 metres from the original site—measured from centre to centre. In addition, listed Georgian townhouses now occupy part of the original site, like the original Globe, the modern theatre has a thrust stage that projects into a large circular yard surrounded by three tiers of raked seating. The only covered parts of the amphitheatre are the stage and the seating areas, plays are staged during the summer, usually between May and the first week of October, in the winter, the theatre is used for educational purposes. Tours are available all year round, some productions are filmed and released to cinemas as Globe on Screen productions, and on DVD. The reconstruction was carefully researched so that the new building would be as faithful a replica of the original as possible. This was aided by the discovery of the remains of the original Rose Theatre, the building itself is constructed entirely of English oak, with mortise and tenon joints and is, in this sense, an authentic 16th century timber-framed building, as no structural steel was used. The seats are simple benches and the Globe has the first, the modern thatch is well protected by fire retardants, and sprinklers on the roof ensure further protection against fire
30.
Financial Times
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The Financial Times is an English-language international daily newspaper with a special emphasis on business and economic news. The paper, published and owned by Nikkei Inc. in Tokyo, was founded in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley, and merged in 1945 with its closest rival, the Financial Times has an average daily readership of 2.2 million people worldwide. FT. com has 4.5 million registered users and over 285,000 digital subscribers, FT Chinese has more than 1.7 million registered users. The world editions of the Financial Times newspaper had an average daily circulation of 234,193 copies in January 2014. In February 2014 the combined sale of the editions of the Financial Times was 224,000 copies. In October 2013 the combined print and digital circulation of the Financial Times reached nearly 629,000 copies. In December 2016 print sales for the paper stood at 193,211, on 23 July 2015 Nikkei Inc. agreed to buy the Financial Times from Pearson for £844m. On 30 November 2015 Nikkei completed the acquisition, the FT was launched as the London Financial Guide on 10 January 1888, renaming itself the Financial Times on 13 February the same year. Describing itself as the friend of The Honest Financier, the Bona Fide Investor, the Respectable Broker, the Genuine Director, the readership was the financial community of the City of London, its only rival being the slightly older and more daring Financial News. After 57 years of rivalry the Financial Times and the Financial News were merged in 1945 by Brendan Bracken to form a single six-page newspaper, the Financial Times brought a higher circulation while the Financial News provided much of the editorial talent. The Lex column was introduced from Financial News. Pearson bought the paper in 1957, over the years the paper grew in size, readership and breadth of coverage. It established correspondents in cities around the world, reflecting early moves in the economy towards globalisation. On 1 January 1979 the first FT was printed outside the UK, since then, with increased international coverage, the FT has become a global newspaper, printed in 22 locations with five international editions to serve the UK, continental Europe, the U. S. The European edition is distributed in continental Europe and Africa and it is printed Monday to Saturday at five centres across Europe reporting on matters concerning the European Union, the Euro and European corporate affairs. In 1994 FT launched a lifestyle magazine, How To Spend It. In 2009 it launched a website for the magazine. On 13 May 1995 the Financial Times group made its first foray into the world with the launch of FT. com
31.
Ofcom
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Ofcom has wide-ranging powers across the television, radio, telecoms and postal sectors. It has a duty to represent the interests of citizens and consumers by promoting competition. Some of the main areas Ofcom presides over are licensing, research, codes and policies, complaints, competition, the regulator was initially established by the Office of Communications Act 2002 and received its full authority from the Communications Act 2003. The creation of Ofcom was announced in the Queens Speech to the UK Parliament, the new body, which would replace several existing authorities, was conceived as a super-regulator to oversee media channels that were rapidly converging through digital transmission. It will no longer play a role in making policy, and the policy-making functions it has today will be transferred back fully to the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. On 1 October 2011, Ofcom took over responsibility for regulating the postal services industry from the Postal Services Commission. In April 2015, Ofcom announced that as of 1 July, the streamlining of these charges must be printed in each customers contract and monthly bills. The change will affect over 175 million phone numbers making it the biggest overhaul of telephoning in over a decade, on 1 January 2016, the regulation of video on demand was transferred to Ofcom from ATVOD, the Authority for Television On Demand. On 13 July former Prime Minister Gordon Brown urged Ofcom to launch an investigation, on 22 July it was reported that Ofcom had begun an investigation into whether the phone-hacking scandal may have changed BSkyBs status as the fit and proper holder of a UK broadcasting licence. In the letter Richards confirmed that Ofcom considers that News Corporations current shareholding of 39, in April 2012, Ofcoms probe moved from a monitoring phase to a evidence gathering phase. Ofcom licenses all UK commercial television and radio services in the UK, broadcasters must comply by the terms of their licence, or risk having it revoked. Ofcom also publishes the Broadcasting Code, a series of rules which all broadcast content on television, the broadcasting of pornography with a BBFC R18 certificate is not permitted. In 2010 Ofcom revoked the licences of four television channels for promoting adult chat services during daytime hours. The companies involved were fined £157,250, Ofcoms jurisdiction does not cover television and radio channels which are broadcast in the UK but licensed abroad. In 2012 Ofcom lodged a complaint with the Dutch media regulator regarding the content of adult television channels which are broadcast in the UK. As the regulatory body for media broadcasts, part of Ofcoms duties are to examine specific complaints by viewers or listeners about programmes broadcast on channels that it has licensed and it does not oversee unlicensed channels broadcast to UK viewers. When Ofcom receives a complaint, it asks the broadcaster for a copy of the programme, Ofcom requests response from the broadcaster to the complaint. On the basis of response, Ofcom will mark the complaint as either upheld or not upheld
32.
Frieze
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In architecture the frieze /ˈfriːz/ is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs. Even when neither columns nor pilasters are expressed, on a wall it lies upon the architrave and is capped by the moldings of the cornice. A frieze can be found on many Greek and Roman buildings, the Parthenon Frieze being the most famous and this style is typical for the Persians. In interiors, the frieze of a room is the section of wall above the picture rail, by extension, a frieze is a long stretch of painted, sculpted or even calligraphic decoration in such a position, normally above eye-level. Frieze decorations may depict scenes in a sequence of discrete panels, the material of which the frieze is made of may be plasterwork, carved wood or other decorative medium. In an example of a frieze on the façade of a building. A pulvinated frieze is convex in section, such friezes were features of 17th-century Northern Mannerism, especially in subsidiary friezes, and much employed in interior architecture and in furniture. The concept of a frieze has been generalized in the construction of frieze patterns. Media related to Friezes at Wikimedia Commons Frieze
33.
River Thames frost fairs
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During that time the British winter was more severe than now, and the river was wider and slower, and impeded by Old London Bridge. So, of the 24, the totals are, 15th 2, 16th 5, 17th 10, 18th 6. Frost fairs were far more common elsewhere in Europe, for example in the Netherlands, the Thames freezes over more often upstream, beyond the reach of the tide, especially above the weirs, of which Teddington Lock is the lowest. The last great freeze of the higher Thames was in 1962–63, during the Great Frost of 1683–84, the worst frost recorded in England, the Thames was completely frozen for two months, with the ice reaching a thickness of 11 inches in London. Solid ice was reported extending for miles off the coasts of the southern North Sea, near Manchester, the ground was frozen to 27 inches, in Somerset, to more than four feet. One of the earliest accounts of the Thames freezing comes from AD250, as long ago as 923 the river was open to wheeled traffic for trade and the transport of goods for 13 weeks, in 1410, it lasted for 14 weeks. The period from the century to the 19th century in Europe is called the Little Ice Age because of the severity of the climate. The Thames was broader and shallower in the Middle Ages – it was yet to be embanked, in winter, large pieces of ice would lodge against these timber casings, gradually blocking the arches and acting like a dam for the river at ebb tide. The first recorded frost fair was in 1608, for sixpence, the printer Croom sold souvenir cards written with the customers name, the date, and the fact that the card was printed on the Thames, and was making five pounds a day. The cold weather was not only a cause for merriment, as Evelyn explained, The fowls, fish and birds, hackney coaches plied there as in the streets. There were also bull-baiting, and a great many shows and tricks to be seen and this day the frost broke up. And this day an ox was roasted whole, over against Whitehall, king Charles and the Queen ate part of it. Thames frost fairs were often brief, scarcely commenced before the weather lifted, rapid thaws sometimes caused loss of life and property. In January 1789, melting ice dragged a ship which was anchored to a public house, pulling the building down. Porteus and myself walked over it from Fulham to Putney, the frost fair of 1814 began on 1 February, and lasted four days. An elephant was led across the river below Blackfriars Bridge, a printer named George Davis published a 124-page book, Frostiana, or a History of the River Thames in a Frozen State. The entire book was type-set and printed in Daviss printing stall and this was the last frost fair. In the pedestrian tunnel under the bank of Southwark Bridge, there is an engraving by Southwark sculptor Richard Kindersley, made of five slabs of grey slate
34.
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix (film)
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Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is a 2007 British-American fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. It is based on the novel of the name by J. K. Rowling. The film, which is the fifth instalment in the Harry Potter film series, was written by Michael Goldenberg and produced by David Heyman, the story follows Harry Potters fifth year at Hogwarts as the Ministry of Magic is in denial of Lord Voldemorts return. The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harrys best friends Ron Weasley and it is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire and is followed by Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. Post-production on the film continued for months afterwards to add in visual effects. The films budget was reportedly between £75 and 100 million. Warner Bros. released the film in the United Kingdom on 12 July 2007 and in North America on 11 July, the film was nominated for two BAFTA Film Awards in 2008. While trying to outrun a storm Harry Potter and Dudley are attacked by Dementors, back at the dursleys Harry recevies a letter saying he is expelled from Hogwarts. The Order of the Phoenix, an organization founded by Albus Dumbledore. Then they take him to their headquarters and inform him that the Ministry of Magic is oblivious to Lord Voldemorts return, Harrys godfather, Sirius Black, mentions that Voldemort is after an object he did not have during his previous attack. Dumbledore arrives at the hearing and convinces the Minister of Magic Cornelius Fudge to let Harry return to Hogwarts, at the school Harry learns that Fudge has appointed a new Defence Against the Dark Arts professor, Dolores Umbridge. She and Harry immediately clash, and she punishes Harry for his lies by forcing him to write a message with a magic quill, scarring his hand. When Ron and Hermione notice Harrys scars they are outraged, but Harry refuses to go to Dumbledore, as Umbridges control over the school increases, Ron and Hermione aid Harry in forming a secret group to train students in defensive spells, calling themselves Dumbledores Army. Umbridge recruits the Slytherin students to expose the group, meanwhile, Harry and Cho Chang develop romantic feelings for each other. Harry has an involving a attack upon Arthur Weasley, from the point of view of Arthurs attacker. Concerned that Voldemort will exploit this connection to Harry, Dumbledore instructs Severus Snape to give Harry Occlumency lessons to defend his mind from Voldemorts influence, the connection between Harry and Voldemort leads Harry to further isolate himself from his friends. Meanwhile, Bellatrix Lestrange, Siriuss deranged Death Eater cousin, escapes from Azkaban along with nine other Death Eaters, at Hogwarts, Umbridge and her Inquisitorial Squad expose Dumbledores Army. Dumbledore escapes as Fudge orders his arrest, Harrys relationship with Cho falls apart, as he believes she betrayed Dumbledores Army to Umbridge
35.
Our Mutual Friend
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Our Mutual Friend, written in the years 1864–65, is the last novel completed by Charles Dickens and is one of his most sophisticated works, combining savage satire with social analysis. It centres on, in the words of critic J. Hillis Miller, money, money, money, in the opening chapters a body is found in the Thames and identified as that of John Harmon, a young man recently returned to London to receive his inheritance. Were he alive, his fathers will would require him to marry Bella Wilfer, instead, the money passes to the working-class Boffins, and the effects spread into various corners of London society. John Harmon – is heir to the Harmon estate, under the condition that he marry Bella Wilfer, Harmon also uses the alias Julius Handford upon first returning to London. Harmons death and subsequent resurrection as Rokesmith/Handford is consistent with Dickenss recurring theme in the novel of rebirth from the water and his upward social mobility through his own efforts is presented as favourable, in contrast with Headstone, Hexam, and the Lammles. She learns of the money can bring when taken in by the newly-rich Boffins. Bella rejects Rokesmiths proposal at first but later accepts, initially described as a mercenary young woman, with no more character than a canary bird, Bella undergoes a significant moral change in the novel. Although originally completely preoccupied with money, her complexity is eventually displayed in her ability to defy the societal pressures in order to achieve happiness unrelated to wealth and she is praised for her vivacity and lifelikeness, with greater complexity than some of the other, more static characters. Her relationship with her father is more like that of a mother and son, as she dotes upon him. She treats him like a child, which provides a stark contrast to the strained, nicodemus Boffin, the Golden Dustman – becomes a member of the nouveaux-riches when Old Mr Harmons heir is considered dead. He is illiterate, but wants very much to fit the image of a wealthy man, however, he is nearly blackmailed by Wegg. He assumes the role of a miser to show Bella the dangers of wealth, Boffins innocence, naïve curiosity, and desire to learn contrast with his elaborate performances as Boffin the miser. Critics speculate that Dickenss decision to have Boffin playing a part may not have been planned, Boffins inheritance of old Harmons money is appropriate because Harmon had attained it by combing the dust heaps, because this suggests social mobility. Boffin represents a wholesome contrast to such characters as the Veneerings and Podsnaps, and may have been based on Henry Dodd. Mrs Henrietta Boffin – is Noddy Boffins wife, and a motherly woman. This indicates another progressive development for Dickens as his characters undertake a more active role in social reform. Lizzie Hexam – is a daughter of Gaffer Hexam and sister of Charley Hexam, later she is rejected by Charley after she remains in poverty. Pursued romantically by both Bradley Headstone and Eugene Wrayburn, she fears Headstones violent passion and yearns for Wrayburns love, Lizzie saves Wrayburn from Headstones attack and the two are married
36.
Little Dorrit
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Little Dorrit is a novel by Charles Dickens, originally published in serial form between 1855 and 1857. It satirises the shortcomings of both government and society, including the institution of debtors prisons, where debtors were imprisoned, unable to work, the prison in this case is the Marshalsea, where Dickenss own father had been imprisoned. In addition he satirises the stratification of society that results from the British class system, Little Dorrit was published in nineteen monthly instalments, each consisting of 32 pages with two illustrations by Hablot Knight Browne whose pen name was Phiz. Each instalment cost a shilling except for the last, an issue which cost two shillings. Arthur Clennam is returning to London to see his mother after the death of his father, with whom he had lived for twenty years in China. On his deathbed, his father had him a mysterious watch murmuring Your mother, which Arthur naturally assumed was intended for Mrs. Clennam. Inside the watch casing was an old paper with the initials DNF worked into it in beads. It was a message, but when Arthur showed it to the harsh and implacable Mrs Clennam, a fanatic, she refused to tell him what it meant. Little Dorrit, devoted to her father, has been supporting them both through her sewing, once in London, Arthur is reacquainted with his former fiancée Flora Finching, who is now overweight and simpering. His supposed mother, Mrs Clennam, though arthritic and wheelchair-bound, still runs the business with the help of her servant Jeremiah Flintwinch. When Arthur learns that Mrs Clennam has employed Little Dorrit as a seamstress, showing her unusual kindness, suspecting his mother was partially responsible for the misfortunes of the Dorrits, Arthur follows the girl to the Marshalsea. He vainly tries to inquire about William Dorrits debt in the poorly run Circumlocution Office, assuming the role of benefactor towards Little Dorrit, her father, and her brother. While at the Circumlocution Office he meets the struggling inventor Daniel Doyce, the grateful Little Dorrit falls in love with Arthur, but Arthur fails to recognise Little Dorrits interest. At last, aided by the indefatigable rent-collector Pancks, Arthur discovers that William Dorrit is the lost heir to a large fortune, the newly freed Dorrit decides that they should tour Europe as a newly respectable family. They travel over the Alps and take up residence for a time in Venice, eventually, after a spell of delirium, William Dorrit dies as does his distraught brother Frederick, a kind-hearted musician who has always stood by him. Little Dorrit, left alone, returns to London to stay with newly married Fanny and her husband, the foppish Edmund Sparkler. The fraudulent dealings of Edmund Sparklers stepfather, Mr. Merdle, end with Merdles suicide and the collapse of his bank business, Clennam is now himself imprisoned in the Marshalsea, where he becomes ill and is nursed back to health by Amy. The French villain Rigaud, now in London, discovers that Mrs. Clennam has been hiding the fact that Arthur is not her real son, the latter insisted on bringing up little Arthur and denying his mother the right to see him
37.
Mary Poppins (film)
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Mary Poppins is a 1964 American musical-fantasy film directed by Robert Stevenson and produced by Walt Disney, with songs written and composed by the Sherman Brothers. The screenplay is by Bill Walsh and Don DaGradi, loosely based on P. L. Travers book series Mary Poppins, Dick Van Dyke, David Tomlinson, and Glynis Johns are featured in supporting roles. The film was entirely at the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank. In 2013, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. Mary Poppins is widely considered to be Walt Disneys crowning achievement, in Edwardian London,1910, Bert entertains a crowd when he senses a change in the wind. Afterwards, he addresses the audience and gives them a tour of Cherry Tree Lane. George Banks returns home from his job at the bank to learn from Winifred that Katie Nanna has left their service after Jane and they are returned shortly after by the local constable, who reveals the children were chasing a lost kite. The children ask their father to build a better kite. Taking it upon himself to hire a nanny, George advertises for a stern, the next day, a queue of elderly, sour-faced nannies appear outside. However, a strong gust of wind blows the nannies away, outside, they meet Bert who now works as a screever, Mary uses her magic to transport the group into one of the drawings. While the children ride on a carousel, Mary Poppins. Mary enchants the carousel horses and participates in a race which she wins. While being asked to describe her victory, Mary announces the nonsense word Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious, however, the outing is ruined when a thunderstorm demolishes Berts drawings, returning the group back to London. On another outing, the four meet Uncle Albert who has floated up in the air due to his uncontrollable laughter, George becomes increasingly annoyed by the cheery atmosphere of his family and threatens to fire Mary. Instead, Mary inverts his attempt by convincing him to take the children to the bank for a day, George takes Jane and Michael to the bank, where they meet Mr. Dawes Sr. and his son. Dawes aggressively attempts to have Michael invest his tuppence in the bank, Michael demands it back, causing other customers to misinterpret and all demand their money back, causing a bank run. Jane and Michael flee the bank, getting lost in the East End until they run into Bert, Jane and Michael give their father Michael’s tuppence in the hope to make amends. George walks through London to the bank, where he is given a humiliating cashiering and is dismissed, looking to the tuppence for words, he raucously blurts out, Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
38.
Historic England
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Historic England is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. It is tasked with protecting the environment of England by preserving and listing historic buildings, ancient monuments. The body was created by the National Heritage Act 1983. Historic England has a remit to and complements the work of Natural England which aims to protect the natural environment. Historic England inherits English Heritages position as the UK governments statutory adviser and this includes archaeology on land and under water, historic buildings sites and areas, designated landscapes and the historic elements of the wider landscape. It monitors and reports on the state of Englands heritage and publishes the annual the Heritage at Risk survey which is one of the UK Governments Official statistics and it is tasked to secure the preservation and enhancement of the man-made heritage of England for the benefit of future generations. Giving grants national and local organisations for the conservation of buildings, monuments. In 2013/14 over £13 million worth of grants were made to support heritage buildings, advising central UK government on which English heritage assets are nationally important and should be protected by designation. Administering and maintaining the register of Englands listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered battlefields, conservation areas and protected parks and this is published as an online resource as The National Heritage List for England. Advising local authorities on managing changes to the most important parts of heritage, providing expertise through advice, training and guidance to improve the standards and skills of people working in heritage, practical conservation and access to resources. In 2009–2010 it trained around 200 professionals working in local authorities, consulting and collaborating with other heritage bodies, local and national planning organisations e. g. It is not responsible for approving alterations to listed buildings, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government. It also owns the National Heritage Collection of nationally important historic sites, however they do not run these sites as this function is instead carried out by the English Heritage Trust under licence until 2023. Britain from Above, presents the unique Aerofilms collection of photographs from 1919-1953. Images of England website Heritage Explorer, Education site for teachers Department for Culture Media and Sport
39.
Vauxhall Bridge
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Vauxhall Bridge is a Grade II* listed steel and granite deck arch bridge in central London. It crosses the River Thames in a south–east north–west direction between Vauxhall on the bank and Pimlico on the north bank. The original bridge was built on the site of a former ferry, the building of both bridges was problematic, with both the first and second bridges requiring several redesigns from multiple architects. The original bridge, the first iron bridge over the Thames, was built by a private company and operated as a toll bridge before being taken into public ownership in 1879. The second bridge, which eight years to build, was the first in London to carry trams. With the exception of alterations to the layout and the balustrade. The bridge today is an important part of Londons road system, in the early 13th century, Anglo-Norman mercenary Falkes de Breauté built a manor house in the then empty marshlands of South Lambeth, across the River Thames from Westminster. The lands surrounding his Lambeth manor house continued to be known as Falkes Hall, in 1809 a new bill was presented to Parliament, and the proprietors of Battersea Bridge agreed to allow it to pass and to accept compensation. The Bill incorporated the Vauxhall Bridge Company, allowing it to raise up to £300,000 by means of mortgages or the sale of shares, and to keep all profits from any tolls raised. From these profits, the Vauxhall Bridge Company was obliged to compensate the proprietors of Battersea Bridge for any drop in revenue caused by the new bridge, dodd submitted a scheme for a bridge at Vauxhall of 13 arches. However, soon after the 1809 Act was passed, he was dismissed by the Vauxhall Bridge Company, john Rennie was commissioned to design and build the new bridge, and a stone bridge of seven arches was approved. On 9 May 1811, Lord Dundas laid the stone of the bridge on the northern bank. Rennie submitted a new design for a bridge of eleven spans. Rennies design was rejected, and instead construction began on a nine arch iron bridge designed by Samuel Bentham, concerns were raised about the construction of the piers, and engineer James Walker was appointed to inspect the work. On 4 June 1816, over five years after construction began, the opened, initially named Regent Bridge after George, Prince Regent. The bridge cost £175,000 to build, with the costs of approach roads and compensation payments, exemptions were granted for mail coaches, soldiers on duty and parliamentary candidates during election campaigns. However, the area around the failed to develop as expected. Meanwhile, the large Millbank Penitentiary was built near the end of the bridge
40.
Lambeth Bridge
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Lambeth Bridge is a road traffic and footbridge crossing the River Thames in an east-west direction in central London. The river flows north at the crossing point, downstream, the next bridge is Westminster Bridge, upstream, the next bridge is Vauxhall Bridge. This is in contrast to Westminster Bridge, which is predominantly green, on the east side, in Lambeth, are Lambeth Palace, the Albert Embankment, St. Thomas Hospital, and the International Maritime Organization. On the west side, in Westminster, are Thames House, behind which is Horseferry House, and Clelland House and Abell House, the Palace of Westminster is a short walk downstream to the north through the Victoria Tower Garden. Lambeth Bridge is on the site of a ferry between the Palace of Westminster and Lambeth Palace on the south bank. Its name lives on in Horseferry Road, which forms the approach to the bridge on the north bank, the first modern bridge was a suspension bridge,828 feet long, designed by Peter W. Barlow. It ceased to be a bridge in 1879 when the Metropolitan Board of Works assumed responsibility for its upkeep — it was by then severely corroded. The London County Council prepared a masterplan for the area, including a replacement road bridge linking to a widened Horseferry Road, before work had started on the project, the 1928 Thames flood caused extensive destruction of property in the Millbank area. During the period of delay, the bridge was redesigned to be able to cope with a higher weight of motorised traffic. It formerly carried four lanes of traffic from a roundabout junction by the Lambeth Palace northwards to another roundabout. The bridge is notable at road level for the pairs of obelisks at either end of the bridge, which are surmounted by stone pinecones. However, there is an urban legend that they are pineapples, as a tribute to Lambeth resident John Tradescant the younger. The bridge was declared a Grade II listed structure in 2008, the listing designation includes the parapets, lamps, obelisks and the approach walls
41.
Westminster Bridge
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Westminster Bridge is a road-and-foot-traffic bridge over the River Thames in London, linking Westminster on the west side and Lambeth on the east side. The bridge is painted green, the same colour as the leather seats in the House of Commons which is on the side of the Palace of Westminster nearest to the bridge. This is in contrast to Lambeth Bridge, which is red, in 2005–2007, it underwent a complete refurbishment, including replacing the iron fascias and repainting the whole bridge. It links the Palace of Westminster on the west side of the river with County Hall, the next bridge downstream is the Hungerford footbridge and upstream is Lambeth Bridge. Westminster Bridge was designated a Grade II* listed structure in 1981, for over 600 years, the nearest bridge to London Bridge was at Kingston. A bridge at Westminster was proposed in 1664, but opposed by the Corporation of London, despite further opposition in 1722, and after a new timber bridge was built at Putney in 1729, the scheme received parliamentary approval in 1736. Financed by private capital, lotteries and grants, Westminster Bridge was built between 1739–1750, under the supervision of the Swiss engineer Charles Labelye, the City of London responded to Westminster Bridge by removing the buildings on London Bridge and widening it in 1760–63. The City also commenced work on the Blackfriars Bridge, which opened in 1769, other bridges from that time include Kew Bridge, Battersea Bridge, and Richmond Bridge. The bridge was required for traffic from the expanding West End to the developing South London as well as to south coast ports, without the bridge, traffic from the West End would have to negotiate the congested routes to London Bridge such as the Strand and New Oxford Street. Roads south of the river were also improved, including the junction at the Elephant & Castle in Southwark, by the mid–19th century the bridge was subsiding badly and expensive to maintain. The current bridge was designed by Thomas Page and opened on 24 May 1862, with a length of 820 feet and a width of 85 feet, it is a seven-arch, cast-iron bridge with Gothic detailing by Charles Barry. It is the oldest road bridge across the Thames in central London, on 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack started on the bridge and continued into Bridge Street and Old Palace Yard. Five people - three pedestrians, one officer, and the attacker - died as a result of the incident. A colleague of the officer was armed and shot the attacker, more than 50 people were injured. An investigation is ongoing by the Metropolitan Police, in the 2002 British horror film 28 Days Later, the protagonist awakes from a coma to find London deserted and walks over an eerily empty Westminster Bridge whilst looking for signs of life. Westminster Bridge is the start and finish point for the Bridges Handicap Race, william Wordsworth wrote the sonnet Composed upon Westminster Bridge, September 3,1802. In the finale of the 24th James Bond film Spectre, Blofelds helicopter crashes into Westminster Bridge, Westminster Bridge at Structurae Westminster Bridge at Structurae Interactive Panorama, Westminster Bridge
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Hungerford Bridge and Golden Jubilee Bridges
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The Hungerford Bridge crosses the River Thames in London, and lies between Waterloo Bridge and Westminster Bridge. The north end of the bridge is Charing Cross railway station, and is near Embankment Pier, the south end is near Waterloo station, County Hall, the Royal Festival Hall, and the London Eye. Each pedestrian bridge has steps and lift access, the first Hungerford Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, opened in 1845 as a suspension footbridge. It was named after the then Hungerford Market, because it went from the South Bank to Hungerford Market on the side of the Thames. In 1859 the original bridge was bought by the railway company extending the South Eastern Railway into the newly opened Charing Cross railway station. The railway company replaced the bridge with a structure designed by Sir John Hawkshaw, comprising nine spans made of wrought iron lattice girders. The chains from the old bridge were re-used in Bristols Clifton Suspension Bridge, the buttress on the South Bank side still has the entrances and steps from the original steamer pier Brunel built on to the footbridge. Walkways were added on each side, with the one later being removed when the railway was widened. Another walkway was added in 1951 when an Army Bailey bridge was constructed for the Festival of Britain. In 1980 a temporary walkway was erected on the side while the downstream railway bridge. It is one of three bridges in London to combine pedestrian and rail use, the others being Fulham Railway Bridge. The footbridge gained a reputation for being narrow, dilapidated and dangerous, in the mid-1990s a decision was made to replace the footbridge with new structures on either side of the existing railway bridge, and a competition was held in 1996 for a new design. It was felt, especially following the Marchioness disaster, that these should be clad in concrete at water level, the Golden Jubilee Bridges achieved this protection at no cost to Railtrack. The concept design for the new footbridges was won by architects Lifschutz Davidson Sandilands, detailed design of the two bridges was carried out by consulting engineers Gifford, now Ramboll UK. Despite extensive surveys of the riverbed, London Underground was unwilling to accept these risks and preliminary works were stopped in 2000. The design was modified so that the structure on the north side. Excavation near the lines was carried out when the tube was closed. The two new 4-metre wide footbridges were completed in 2002 and they were named the Golden Jubilee Bridges, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of Queen Elizabeth IIs accession, although in practice they are still referred to as the Hungerford Footbridges
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Waterloo Bridge
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Waterloo Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge crossing the River Thames in London, between Blackfriars Bridge and Hungerford Bridge. Its name commemorates the victory of the British, the Dutch, thanks to its location at a strategic bend in the river, the views from the bridge are widely held to be the finest from any spot in London at ground level. The first bridge on the site was designed in 1809–10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge Company, before its opening it was known as the Strand Bridge. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a place for suicide attempts. In 1841 the American daredevil Samuel Gilbert Scott was killed performing a act in which he hung by a rope from a scaffold on the bridge. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem The Bridge of Sighs, paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and the English Romantic John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and placed under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works, Michael Faraday tried in 1832 to measure the potential difference between each side of the bridge caused by the ebbing salt water flowing through the Earths magnetic field. From 1884 serious problems were found in Rennies bridge piers, after scour from the river flow after Old London Bridge was demolished damaged their foundations. In 1925, a steel framework was built on top of the existing bridge. London County Council decided to demolish the bridge and replace it with a new designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. The engineers were Ernest Buckton and John Cuerel of Rendel Palmer & Tritton, Scott, by his own admission, was no engineer and his design, with reinforced concrete beams under the footways, leaving the road to be supported by transverse slabs, was difficult to implement. The beams were shaped to look as much like arches as and they are clad in Portland stone, which cleans itself whenever it rains. To guard against the possibility of further subsidence from scour each pier was given a number of jacks that can be used to level the structure, the new bridge was partially opened on Tuesday 11 March 1942 and was completed in 1945. It is the only Thames bridge to have been damaged by German bombers during the Second World War, the building contractor was Peter Lind & Company Limited. It is frequently asserted that the force was largely female. Granite stones from the bridge were subsequently presented to various parts of the British world to further historic links in the British Commonwealth of Nations. The monument, built in 1945, is on Queens Wharf and it includes a bronze likeness of Paddy, a drinking fountain and drinking bowls below for dogs. The north end of the bridge passes above the Victoria Embankment where the road joins the Strand and this end housed the southern portal of the Kingsway Tramway Subway until the late 1950s
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Garden Bridge
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The Garden Bridge is a proposed pedestrian bridge over the River Thames in London, England. Consequent on an idea of Joanna Lumley, Thomas Heatherwick worked with Arup on a proposal by Transport for London for a new bridge across the Thames between Waterloo and Blackfriars bridges, the proposed concrete, steel, cupronickel clad structure is intended to carry pedestrians. It will be located some 200m from Waterloo Bridge and 300m from Blackfriars Bridge, the project includes a commercial building, built on former green space at the southern end of the bridge. The bridge will be open from 6am to midnight, save for closures for preparation for and holding up to 12 events per year, to raise funds for the Bridge. A planning condition requires annual maintenance costs to be guaranteed by a third party, the maintenance costs are variously estimated at between £2m and £3. 5m, before allowing for repayment of loan capital and interest. In July 2016 preparatory work for the bridge was halted and the Garden Bridge Trust put contractors on standby whilst they cleared outstanding issues such as securing land rights. In September 2016 the Mayor of London announced a review by Margaret Hodge of the government’s procurement processes in relation to the bridge project. In January 2017, the accounts of the Garden Bridge Trust stated that it was not a going concern, in February 2017 the Charity Commission found the financial management of the trust to be satisfactory, albeit with criticisms as to the trustees approach. The company was incorporated on 30 October 2013 under reference 08755461, lord Davies of Abersoch is chairman of the trust and a director of the limited company. The bridge will be 366 metres long and 30 metres across at its widest point and it will run from the roof of Temple station at the foot of Arundel Street on the north bank to a new building on Queens Walk next to the ITV building on the South Bank. The bridge will feature trees and shrubs, hedging plants and climbers, perennials, ferns and grasses, the bridge will be planted with some 270 immature trees. In order to limit the wind loading on the structure the trees would be maintained so that they do not exceed a height of 15m at the bridge piers. Dan Pearson has been appointed as landscape designer, in November 2014, it was claimed that the bridge would be off limits to groups of eight or more people and to cyclists. The Garden Bridge Trust since stated that groups of eight or more would not be banned and cyclists would be allowed to use the bridge if they dismount and push their cycles. Further, the charity proposes to rent the rooftop of the bridges South Bank landing podium for commercial purposes on every weekend between May and October, nine bridges already span the two miles between Westminster Bridge and London Bridge, seven of which can be crossed by foot. Projections of visitor numbers suggest that the bridge would add another 3.5 million visitors a year, in 2014, critics of the project began campaigning to have it brought under judicial review or another appeal process through the secretary of state. The bridges private owners claim that conditions are similar to those of the Royal Parks, by August 2016, the proposed cost of the bridge had risen to £185 million, from the original estimate of £60m. It was then agreed in November 2015 that £20m of TfL funds would be repaid over a period of 50 years as a loan, further, the City of Westminster granted planning permission conditionally upon provision of a guarantee of maintenance costs
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Blackfriars Railway Bridge
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Blackfriars Railway Bridge is a railway bridge crossing the River Thames in London, between Blackfriars Bridge and the Millennium Bridge. There have been two structures with the name, the first bridge was opened in 1864 and was designed by Joseph Cubitt for the London, Chatham and Dover Railway. Massive abutments at each end carried the insignia, preserved and restored on the south side. Following the formation of the Southern Railway in 1924, inter-city and continental services were concentrated on Waterloo, for this reason, the use of the original bridge gradually declined. The second bridge, built further downstream, was originally called St Pauls Railway Bridge. It was designed by John Wolfe-Barry and Henry Marc Brunel and is made of wrought iron and it was built by Lucas & Aird. When St Pauls railway station changed its name to Blackfriars in 1937 the name of the bridge was changed as well. At the southern end of the bridge was Blackfriars Bridge railway station opened in 1864 before closing to passengers in 1885 following the opening of what is today the main Blackfriars station. Blackfriars Bridge railway station continued as a stop until 1964 when it was completely demolished. As part of the Thameslink Programme, the platforms at Blackfriars station have been extended across the Thames, the project is designed by Will Alsop and built by Balfour Beatty. The work also includes the installation of a covered with photovoltiac solar panels. It is the largest of three solar bridges in the world. Other green improvements include sun pipes and systems to collect rain water, Blackfriars Railway Bridge at Structurae Blackfriars Railway Bridge at Structurae
