1.
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39
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Launch Complex 39 is a rocket launch site at the John F. Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island in Florida, United States. The site and its collection of facilities were built for the Apollo program. As of 2017, only Launch Complex 39A is active, launching SpaceXs Falcon 9. LC-39 is also being modified to support launches of the SpaceXs Dragon 2 and Falcon Heavy, as well as NASAs Space Launch System, with a new, smaller pad, C, added to support smaller launches. SpaceX leases Launch Pad 39A from NASA and has modified the pad to support Falcon Heavy launches in 2017 and beyond. NASA began modifying Launch Pad 39B in 2007 to accommodate the now defunct Project Constellation, Pad C was originally planned but never built for Apollo, and would have been a copy of pads 39A and 39B. A smaller pad, designated 39C was constructed from January to June 2015 to accommodate small-class vehicles, NASA launches from LC-39A and 39B have been supervised from the NASA Launch Control Center, located 3 miles from the launch pads. LC-39 is one of launch sites that share radar and tracking services of the Eastern Test Range. During the 1920s, Peter E. Studebaker Jr. son of the automobile magnate, in 1948, the Navy transferred the former Banana River Naval Air Station located south of Cape Canaveral, to the Air Force for use in testing captured German V-2 rockets. The sites location on the East Florida coast was ideal for this purpose in that launches would be over the ocean and this site became the Joint Long Range Proving Ground in 1949, and was renamed Patrick Air Force Base in 1950. The Air Force annexed part of Cape Canaveral to the North in 1951, forming the Air Force Missile Test Center, Missile and rocketry testing and development would take place here through the 1950s. After the creation of NASA in 1958, the CCAFS launch pads were used for NASAs civilian unmanned and manned launches, including those of Project Mercury, in 1961, President Kennedy proposed to Congress the goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. NASA began acquisition of land in 1962, taking title to 131 square miles by outright purchase, on July 1,1962, the site was named the Launch Operations Center. At the time, the highest numbered launch pad on CCAFS was Launch Complex 37 and it was designed to handle launches of the Saturn V rocket, at the time the largest, most powerful rocket then designed, required to take Apollo to the Moon. Initial plans included four pads evenly spaced 8,700 feet apart to damage in the event of an explosion on the pad. Three were scheduled for construction and two would have built at a later date. The numbering of the pads at the time was from north to south, with the northernmost being 39A, Pad 39A was never built, and 39C became 39A in 1963. With todays numbering, 39C would have been north of 39B, Pad 39E would have been due north of the mid-distance between 39C and 39D, with 39E forming the top of a triangle, and equidistant from 39C and 39D
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39
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An aerial view of Launch Complex 39
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39
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Apollo-Saturn 506 with Apollo 11 spacecraft being moved from the VAB to LC39A
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39
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Apollo era walkway and
white room, on display at
Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex
Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39
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Warning lamps showing the planned 3 pads including the unbuilt Pad C
2.
STS-127
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STS-127 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission to the International Space Station. It was the flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour. It also tied the record of thirteen people in space at any one time, the first launch attempt, on 13 June 2009, was scrubbed due to a gaseous hydrogen leak observed during tanking. A decision was made to allow the shuttle to attempt a launch on 17 June 2009. The second launch attempt on 17 June 2009 was also scrubbed due to hydrogen leak issues seen from the Ground Umbilical Carrier Plate. Due to conflicts with the launch of the LRO, and due to a beta angle constraint, a successful tanking test for leak checks was performed on 1 July 2009, with modified GUCP seals allowing launch preparations to proceed as scheduled. Because of lightning strikes near the launch pad during the evening of 10 July 2009, NASA scrubbed the launch for the third time, due to a Return To Launch Site weather violation, NASA scrubbed the launch for the fourth time on the evening of 12 July 2009. STS-127s fifth launch attempt, on 13 July 2009, was scrubbed due to anvil clouds and lightning within 10 nautical miles of the launch site. STS-127 finally launched successfully on its sixth launch attempt, on 15 July 2009 at 18,03 EDT, pieces of foam were observed falling off of the External Tank during the ascent, the same occurrence that had led to the loss of Columbia in 2003. However, Endeavour only received minor scuffs to its heat shield, the shuttle landed at Kennedy Space Center 16 days later at 10,48 EDT on 31 July 2009. The exposed facility is a part of Kibo that will allow astronauts to perform experiments that are exposed to the vacuum of space. The exposed section is similar to the module on the Kibo laboratory. Once its payloads were transferred to the JEM EF, the ELM-ES was returned to the payload bay, also inside the payload bay was an Integrated Cargo Carrier-Vertical Light Deployable, containing a variety of equipment and spare components for the station. Two satellites were carried by the orbiter, for deployment when the mission ended. After release, the two picosatellites remained attached for two orbits to collect GPS data, and separated during the third orbit, one of the satellites, Pollux, is running Arduino libraries, with its payload programmed and built by students. The docking module was mounted with the DragonEye 3D Flash LIDAR ranging system manufactured by Advanced Scientific Concepts. The module was launched to test the system which will be used by the commercial SpaceX Dragon re-usable cargo carrier to send supplies to the ISS during the post-shuttle era. The Dragon spacecraft made its maiden flight in December 2010
STS-127
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Endeavour as seen from ISS before docking. Payload including JEF and ICC-VLD visible in the shuttle bay
STS-127
STS-127
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Payload bay of the shuttle being loaded.
STS-127
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ICC-VLD1 STS-127
3.
HMS Endeavour
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The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majestys Bark the Endeavour. She departed Plymouth in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, and she then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south, stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain. In September 1769, she anchored off New Zealand, the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasmans Heemskerck 127 years earlier. In April 1770, Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia, Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast. She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef and he then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull. On 10 October 1770, she limped into port in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs, her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited. She resumed her journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771. Largely forgotten after her voyage, Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands. As of 2016 her wreck had not been located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor. Relics, including six of her cannon and an anchor, are displayed at maritime museums worldwide, a replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour. The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty-cent coin and she was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, and a long box-like body with a deep hold. A flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo. Her hull, internal floors, and futtocks were built from white oak, her keel and stern post from elm. Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel, floors, some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts, as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only, and not the mast plan. If correct, this would produce an oddly truncated mast a full 9 feet shorter than the standards of the day,1794 at the top of this page. The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson, on 16 February 1768, the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun. The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman
HMS Endeavour
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HMS Endeavour off the coast of New Holland, by Samuel Atkins c. 1794
HMS Endeavour
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Earl of Pembroke, later HMS Endeavour, leaving Whitby Harbour in 1768. By
Thomas Luny, dated 1790.
HMS Endeavour
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An 1893 chart showing Endeavour' s track
HMS Endeavour
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Endeavour beached at
Endeavour River for repairs after her grounding on the Great Barrier Reef in 1770. By Johann Fritzsch, published 1786.
4.
California Science Center
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The California Science Center is a state agency and museum located in Exposition Park, Los Angeles, next to the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County and the University of Southern California. Billed as the West Coasts largest hands-on science center, the California Science Center is a partnership between the State of California and the California Science Center Foundation. The California Natural Resources Agency oversees the California Science Center and the California African American Museum, founded in 1951 as the California Museum of Science and Industry, the Museum was remodeled and renamed in 1998 as the California Science Center. The California Science Center hosts the California State Science Fair annually, admission includes access to the permanent exhibits, such as the Space Shuttle Endeavour and other prominent aircraft and spacecraft, and to various demonstrations. A separate ticket is required for the IMAX movies, most special traveling exhibitions, and special activities include a climbing wall, motion simulator. The Center has been accredited by the American Alliance of Museums and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums, the museum is also an affiliate in the Smithsonian Affiliations program. An area with activities and exhibits that explore innovation and invention, with themes involving construction, energy. The brick and terra cotta building, designed by William D. Coates, Jr. state architect, after World War II, the building also featured exhibits about state science and technology industries. In 1951, the became the California Museum of Science. The State Exhibition building was renamed in honor of major donor, the hands-on interactive exhibits included themes on agriculture, transportation, electricity, energy, industries, and minerals. Interaction stations demonstrated different concepts including celestial mechanics, the Möbius strip, multiplication, symmetry, the original exhibit closed in 1998, and is now on display at the New York Hall of Science. The Hall of Health was added in 1968, in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics, the museum added new exhibits on earthquakes and economics, and a IMAX theatre. The opening and closing ceremonies for the games were held in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, in 1994, the museums building was damaged by the Northridge earthquake. The California Museum of Science and Industry closed in 1996 to prepare for a new facility, the California Aerospace Museum was also opened in 1984 adjacent to and operated by the California Museum of Science and Industry to coincide with the Summer Olympics. The museum focused on the States history as a leader in the aviation and aerospace industries and featured a giant, hangar-like space with aircraft and space vehicles, the building, now known as the Air and Space Gallery, was closed in 2011. In 2012 the building was listed on the California Register of Historical Resources, in 1988 the museums leadership began a to develop a three-phase, 25-year master plan to transform the institution from a science museum to a science education facility. This new facility would be known as the California Science Center, the original museum building closed its doors in 1996 to prepare for the new construction. The new construction was designed by Portland, Oregon-based Zimmer Gunsul Frasca Partnership, changes included, Redesign of the original main building
California Science Center
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California Science Center
California Science Center
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View of entire building
California Science Center
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IMAX Theater at the California Science Center
California Science Center
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SKETCH Foundation Gallery, Air and Space Exhibits
5.
STS-49
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STS-49 was the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The primary goal of its mission was to retrieve an Intelsat VI satellite, attach it to a new upper stage. After several attempts, the capture was completed with a three-person extra-vehicular activity and this was the first time that three people from the same spacecraft walked in space at the same time, and as of 2014 it was the only such EVA. It would also stand until STS-102 in 2001 as the longest EVA ever undertaken, the satellite was subsequently released into orbit and the new motor fired to put the spacecraft into a geosynchronous orbit for operational use. An Assembly of Station by EVA Methods structure was erected in the bay by the crew to serve as a platform to aid in the hand capture. A planned EVA also was performed by astronauts Thornton and Akers as part of the ASEM experiment to demonstrate and verify maintenance, the ASEM space walk, originally scheduled for two successive days, was cut to one day because of the lengthy Intelsat retrieval operation. Other payloads of opportunity experiments conducted included, Commercial Protein Crystal Growth, Ultraviolet Plume Imager, the mission was extended by two days in order to complete all the mission objectives. The following records were set during the STS-49 mission, First flight of the shuttle Endeavour First EVA involving three astronauts, second and fourth longest EVAs to date,8 hours and 29 minutes and 7 hours and 45 minutes. First Shuttle mission to feature four EVAs, the second longest EVA time for a single Shuttle mission,25 hours and 27 minutes, or 59,23 person hours. First Shuttle mission requiring three rendezvous with an orbiting spacecraft, First use of a drag chute during a Shuttle landing. NASA mission summary STS-49 Video Highlights
STS-49
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Mission Specialists Richard Hieb, Thomas Akers and Pierre Thuot capture the
Intelsat 603 satellite during STS-49
STS-49
STS-49
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Thuot during one of the capture attempts
STS-49
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Re-deployment of Intelsat 603
6.
STS-134
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STS-134 was the penultimate mission of NASAs Space Shuttle program and the 25th and last spaceflight of Space Shuttle Endeavour. This flight delivered the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier to the International Space Station, Mark Kelly served as the mission commander. STS-134 was expected to be the space shuttle mission if STS-135 did not receive funding from Congress. However, in February 2011, NASA stated that STS-135 would fly regardless of the funding situation, STS-135, flown by Atlantis, took advantage of the processing for STS-335, the Launch On Need mission that would have been necessary if the STS-134 crew became stranded in orbit. Changes in the design of the payload, AMS-02, as well as delays to STS-133. The first launch attempt on 29 April 2011 was scrubbed at 12,20 pm by launch managers due to problems with two heaters on one of the auxiliary power units. Endeavour launched successfully at 08,56,28 EDT on 16 May 2011, NASA announced the STS-134 crew on 10 August 2009. On 19 June 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed the NASA Authorization Act of 2008, giving NASA funding for one additional mission to deliver science experiments to the station. The same mandate was included in the U. S. Senate version of the NASA Authorization Act that was approved by the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science. It was amended and passed by the full Senate on 25 September 2008, passed by the House on 27 September 2008, Bush had previously opposed any additional shuttle missions, as they could delay the transition to Project Constellation. In the spring of 2009, the Obama Administration included funds for the STS-134 mission in its proposed 2010 NASA budget and it was also originally scheduled to coincide with Expedition 26 before delays in the Space Shuttle launch schedule pushed it past that Expedition. If STS-134 had launched during Expedition 26, then Mark Kelly, Shuttle Commander Mark Kellys wife, U. S. On 16 May, Giffords was again at KSC for the launch, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2 was carried to the ISS in Endeavours payload bay, and was attached to the ISSs S3 truss segment. The AMS-02 unit is a particle physics detector which contains a permanent magnet. According to the design plan, a cryogenic, superconducting magnet system was developed for the AMS-02. This was reported by NASA to be a technology, granting the instrument the high sensitivity needed to achieve mission objectives. Late in its development, however, poorly understood anomalous heating in the magnet system was discovered. As a result, the AMS-02 experiment leader, Samuel C. C, ting, decided to replace the superconducting magnet inside the spectrometer with the permanent magnet previously used in AMS-01
STS-134
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Endeavour docked to the ISS, taken from
Soyuz TMA-20
STS-134
STS-134
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Mission poster, based on a
Star Trek promotional poster.
STS-134
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The crew arrive at the Shuttle Landing Facility in
T-38 jets on 26 April 2011.
7.
Mir
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Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, run by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996 and it had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit and it holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, with Valeri Polyakov spending 437 days and 18 hours on the station between 1994 and 1995. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half out of its fifteen-year lifespan. Following the success of the Salyut programme, Mir represented the stage in the Soviet Unions space station programme. The first module of the station, known as the module or base block, was launched in 1986. Proton rockets were used to all of its components except for the docking module. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components, power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km and 421 km altitude and traveled at an speed of 27,700 km/h. Mir was deorbited in March 2001 after funding was cut off, the cost of the Mir programme was estimated by former RKA General Director Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over its lifetime. Mir was authorized on a 17 February 1976 decree, to design a model of the Salyut DOS-17K space stations. Four Salyut space stations had been launched since 1971, with three more being launched during Mirs development, by August 1978, this had evolved to the final configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station. It was originally planned that the ports would connect to 7. 5-tonne modules derived from the Soyuz spacecraft and these modules would have used a Soyuz propulsion module, as in Soyuz and Progress, and the descent and orbital modules would have been replaced with a long laboratory module. However, following a February 1979 governmental resolution, the programme was consolidated with Vladimir Chelomeis manned Almaz military space station programme, the docking ports were reinforced to accommodate 20-tonne space station modules based on the TKS spacecraft. NPO Energia was responsible for the space station, with work subcontracted to KB Salyut, due to ongoing work on the Energia rocket and Salyut 7, Soyuz-T. KB Salyut began work in 1979, and drawings were released in 1982 and 1983, by early 1984, work on Mir had halted while all resources were being put into the Buran programme in order to prepare the Buran spacecraft for flight testing. Funding resumed in early 1984 when Valentin Glushko was ordered by the Central Committees Secretary for Space and Defence to orbit Mir by early 1986 and it was clear that the planned processing flow could not be followed and still meet the 1986 launch date. It was decided on Cosmonauts Day 1985 to ship the flight model of the block to the Baikonur cosmodrome and conduct the systems testing
Mir
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Mir
Mir
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A diagram showing the Konus drogue and module movements around Mir' s docking node
Mir
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Kvant-1 (Astrophysics Module)
Mir
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Kvant-2 (Augmentation Module)
8.
International Space Station
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The International Space Station is a space station, or a habitable artificial satellite, in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest man-made body in space, the ISS consists of pressurised modules, external trusses, solar arrays, and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets, the ISS serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields. The station is suited for the testing of systems and equipment required for missions to the Moon. The ISS maintains an orbit with an altitude of between 330 and 435 km by means of reboost manoeuvres using the engines of the Zvezda module or visiting spacecraft and it completes 15.54 orbits per day. The ISS is the space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian Salyut, Almaz. The station has continuously occupied for 16 years and 156 days since the arrival of Expedition 1 on 2 November 2000. This is the longest continuous presence in low Earth orbit. It has been visited by astronauts, cosmonauts and space tourists from 17 different nations, Soyuz has very limited downmass capability. The ISS programme is a joint project among five participating space agencies, NASA, Roscosmos, JAXA, ESA, the ownership and use of the space station is established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements. The station is divided two sections, the Russian Orbital Segment and the United States Orbital Segment, which is shared by many nations. As of January 2014, the American portion of ISS is being funded until 2024, Roscosmos has endorsed the continued operation of ISS through 2024 but has proposed using elements of the Russian Orbital Segment to construct a new Russian space station called OPSEK. On 28 March 2015, Russian sources announced that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on the development of a replacement for the current ISS. NASA later issued a statement expressing thanks for Russias interest in future co-operation in space exploration. According to the original Memorandum of Understanding between NASA and Rosaviakosmos, the International Space Station was intended to be a laboratory, observatory and factory in low Earth orbit. It was also planned to provide transportation, maintenance, and act as a base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given roles of serving commercial, diplomatic. The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, the ISS simplifies individual experiments by eliminating the need for separate rocket launches and research staff
International Space Station
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International Space Station
International Space Station
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Sunrise at Zvezda
International Space Station
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Fisheye view of several labs
International Space Station
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CubeSats are deployed by the
NanoRacks CubeSat Deployer attached to the end of the Japanese robotic arm
9.
Space Shuttle orbiter
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The Space Shuttle orbiter was the reusable spaceplane component of the Space Shuttle program. Six orbiters were built for flight, Enterprise, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, all were built in Palmdale, California, by the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania-based Rockwell International company. The first orbiter, Enterprise, made its flight in 1977. An unpowered glider, it was carried by a modified Boeing 747 airliner called the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and released for a series of atmospheric test flights, Enterprise was partially disassembled and retired after completion of critical testing. The remaining orbiters were fully operational spacecraft, and were launched vertically as part of the Space Shuttle stack, Columbia was the first space-worthy orbiter, and made its inaugural flight in 1981. Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis followed in 1983,1984 and 1985 respectively, in 1986, Challenger was destroyed in an accident shortly after launch. Endeavour was built as Challengers replacement, and was first launched in 1992, in 2003, Columbia was destroyed during re-entry, leaving just three remaining orbiters. Discovery completed its flight on March 9,2011. Atlantis completed the last ever Shuttle flight, STS-135, on July 21,2011, additionally, two reusable solid rocket boosters provided additional thrust for approximately the first two minutes of launch. The orbiters themselves did carry hypergolic propellants for their RCS thrusters, the vertical stabilizer of the orbiter had a leading edge that was swept back at a 45-degree angle. There were four elevons mounted at the edges of the delta wings. These, along with a movable body flap located underneath the main engines, controlled the orbiter during later stages of descent through the atmosphere, overall, the Space Shuttle orbiter was roughly the same size as a McDonnell Douglas DC-9 airliner. This control system carried out the usual attitude control along the pitch, roll, and yaw axes during all of the phases of launching, orbiting. This system also executed any needed orbital maneuvers, including all changes in the altitude, orbital plane. These were all operations that required a lot more power and energy than mere attitude control, the forward rockets of the Reaction Control System, located near the nose of the Space Shuttle orbiter, included 14 primary and two vernier RCS rockets. The aft RCS engines were located in the two Orbital Maneuvering System pods at the rear of the orbiter, and these included 12 primary and two vernier engines in each pod. The RCS also controlled the attitude of the orbiter during most of its re-entry into the Earths atmosphere – until the air became dense enough that the rudder, elevons and body flap became effective. During the early process of the orbiter, the forward RCS thrusters were to be hidden underneath retractable doors
Space Shuttle orbiter
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Discovery approaches the
ISS on
STS-121
Space Shuttle orbiter
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Space Shuttle forward reaction control thrusters
Space Shuttle orbiter
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Space Shuttle
glass cockpit
Space Shuttle orbiter
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Atlantis 's main engines during launch
10.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
NASA
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1963 photo showing Dr. William H. Pickering, (center) JPL Director, President John F. Kennedy, (right). NASA Administrator James Webb in background. They are discussing the
Mariner program, with a model presented.
NASA
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Seal of NASA
NASA
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At launch control for the May 28, 1964,
Saturn I SA-6 launch.
Wernher von Braun is at center.
NASA
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Mercury-Atlas 6 launch on February 20, 1962
11.
Space Shuttle program
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When its mission was complete, the orbiter would re-enter the Earths atmosphere and land like a glider at either the Kennedy Space Center or Edwards Air Force Base. The Shuttle is the only winged manned spacecraft to have achieved orbit and landing, and its missions involved carrying large payloads to various orbits, providing crew rotation for the space station, and performing service missions. The orbiter also recovered satellites and other payloads from orbit and returned them to Earth, the stalled plans for a U. S. space station evolved into the International Space Station and were formally initiated in 1983 by U. S. The first experimental orbiter Enterprise was a glider, launched from the back of a specially modified Boeing 747. The Space Shuttle program finished with its last mission, STS-135 flown by Atlantis, in July 2011, the Space Shuttle program formally ended on August 31,2011. Since the Shuttles retirement, many of its duties are performed by an assortment of government. The European ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle supplied the ISS between 2008 and 2015, classified military missions are being flown by the US Air Forces unmanned space plane, the X-37B. Crew service to the ISS is currently provided by the Russian Soyuz while work on the Commercial Crew Development program proceeds, for missions beyond low Earth orbit, NASA is building the Space Launch System and the Orion spacecraft. Before the Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969, NASA began early studies of space shuttle designs, in 1969, President Richard Nixon formed the Space Task Group, chaired by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew. Smaller goals included a variety of vehicles for moving spacecraft around in orbit. Presenting the plans to Nixon, Agnew was told that the administration would not commit to a Mars mission and he was then told to select one of the two remaining proposals. During early shuttle development there was debate about the optimal shuttle design that best balanced capability, development cost. Ultimately the current design was chosen, using a reusable winged orbiter, reusable solid rocket boosters, the shuttle program was formally launched on January 5,1972, when President Nixon announced that NASA would proceed with the development of a reusable space shuttle system. The prime contractor for the program was North American Rockwell, the company responsible for building the Apollo Command/Service Module. The contractor for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters was Morton Thiokol, for the tank, Martin Marietta. All Space Shuttle missions were launched from the Kennedy Space Center, the weather criteria used for launch included, but were not limited to, precipitation, temperatures, cloud cover, lightning forecast, wind, and humidity. The Shuttle was not launched under conditions where it could have been struck by lightning, the first fully functional orbiter was Columbia, built in Palmdale, California. It was delivered to Kennedy Space Center on March 25,1979, Challenger was delivered to KSC in July 1982, Discovery in November 1983, Atlantis in April 1985 and Endeavour in May 1991
Space Shuttle program
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Space Shuttle program
Space Shuttle program
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Early U.S. space shuttle concepts.
Space Shuttle program
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STS-1 at liftoff. The External Tank was painted white for the first two Space Shuttle launches. From
STS-3 on, it was left unpainted. [
citation needed]
Space Shuttle program
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Space Shuttle Endeavour docked with the
International Space Station (ISS)
12.
Space Shuttle
–
The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development, the first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, the Shuttle fleets total mission time was 1322 days,19 hours,21 minutes and 23 seconds. Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle, a pair of solid rocket boosters. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OVs three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, at the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976, used in Approach, four fully operational orbiters were initially built, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in accidents, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger, the Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21,2011. Nixons post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all components except the Shuttle. The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, the program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21,2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, the first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these and it was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1, sL-J was partially funded by Japan
Space Shuttle
–
Discovery lifts off at the start of
STS-120.
Space Shuttle
–
STS-129 ready for launch
Space Shuttle
–
President Nixon (right) with
NASA Administrator Fletcher in January 1972, three months before Congress approved funding for the Shuttle program
Space Shuttle
–
STS-1 on the launch pad, December 1980
13.
STS-135
–
STS-135 was the 135th and final mission of the American Space Shuttle program. It used the orbiter Atlantis and hardware originally processed for the STS-335 contingency mission, STS-135 launched on 8 July 2011, and landed on 21 July 2011, following a one-day mission extension. The four-person crew was the smallest of any shuttle mission since STS-6 in April 1983, the missions primary cargo was the Multi-Purpose Logistics Module Raffaello and a Lightweight Multi-Purpose Carrier, which were delivered to the International Space Station. The flight of Raffaello marked the time that Atlantis carried an MPLM. Although the mission was authorized, it initially had no appropriation in the NASA budget, on 20 January 2011, program managers changed STS-335 to STS-135 on the flight manifest. This allowed for training and other mission specific preparations, on 13 February 2011, program managers told their workforce that STS-135 would fly regardless of the funding situation via a continuing resolution. Until this point, there had no official references to the STS-135 mission in NASA official documentation for the general public. The mission was included in NASAs 2011 authorization, which was signed into law on 11 October 2010, United Space Alliance signed a contract extension for the mission, along with STS-134, the contract contained six one-month options with NASA in order to support continuing operations. The U. S. federal budget approved in April 2011 called for $5.5 billion for NASAs space operations division, including the shuttle, according to NASA, the budget running through 30 September 2011 ended all concerns about funding the STS-135 mission. NASA announced the STS-335/135 crew on 14 September 2010, only four astronauts were assigned to this mission, versus the normal six or seven, because there were no other shuttles available for a rescue following the retirement of Discovery and Endeavour. If the shuttle was seriously damaged in orbit, the crew would have moved into the International Space Station and returned in Russian Soyuz capsules, one at a time, all STS-135 crew members were custom-fitted for a Russian Sokol space suit and molded Soyuz seat liner for this possibility. The reduced crew size allowed the mission to maximize the payload carried to the ISS. It was the time that a Shuttle crew of four flew to the ISS. The last shuttle mission to fly with just four crew members occurred 28 years earlier, the bill still needed the approval of the full Senate. A draft NASA reauthorization bill considered by the House Science & Technology Committee did not provide for a shuttle mission. On 22 July 2010, during a meeting of the House Science Committee, on 5 August 2010, the Senate passed its version of the NASA reauthorization bill, just before lawmakers left for the traditional August recess. On 20 August 2010, NASA managers approved STS-135 mission planning targeting a 28 June 2011 launch, on 29 September 2010, the House of Representatives approved the Senate-passed bill on a 304–118 vote. The bill, approved by the U. S. Congress, on 11 October 2010, Obama signed the legislation into law, allowing NASA to move forward with STS-135, though without specific funding
STS-135
–
Atlantis lands at the Kennedy Space Center, bringing the Space Shuttle program to an end
STS-135
STS-135
–
STS-135 mission poster.
STS-135
–
Stephen Colbert, host of
The Colbert Report, salutes the crew during their appearance for a taping of his television show.
14.
Space Shuttle Atlantis
–
Space Shuttle Atlantis is a Space Shuttle orbiter belonging to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the spaceflight and space exploration agency of the United States. Its maiden flight was STS-51-J from 3 to 7 October 1985, Atlantis embarked on its 33rd and final mission, also the final mission of a space shuttle, STS-135, on 8 July 2011. STS-134 by Endeavour was expected to be the flight before STS-135 was authorized in October 2010. STS-135 took advantage of the processing for the STS-335 Launch On Need mission that would have been necessary if STS-134s crew became stranded in orbit, Atlantis landed for the final time at the Kennedy Space Center on 21 July 2011. By the end of its mission, Atlantis had orbited the Earth a total of 4,848 times. Atlantis is named after RV Atlantis, a sailing ship that operated as the primary research vessel for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution from 1930 to 1966. Weight,151,315 pounds Length,122.17 feet Height,56.58 feet Wingspan,78.06 feet Atlantis was completed in half the time it took to build Space Shuttle Columbia. When it rolled out of the Palmdale assembly plant, weighing 151,315 lb, Atlantis is the lightest shuttle of the remaining fleet, weighing three pounds less than the Space Shuttle Endeavour. Space Shuttle Atlantis lifted off on its voyage on 3 October 1985, on mission STS-51-J. It flew one mission, STS-61-B, the second night launch in the shuttle program. Atlantis was then used for ten flights between 1988 and 1992, two of these, both flown in 1989, deployed the planetary probes Magellan to Venus and Galileo to Jupiter. With STS-30 Atlantis became the first shuttle to launch an interplanetary probe, during another mission, STS-37 flown in 1991, Atlantis deployed the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Beginning in 1995 with STS-71, Atlantis made seven flights to the former Russian space station Mir as part of the Shuttle-Mir Program. When linked, Atlantis and Mir together formed the largest spacecraft in orbit at the time, Shuttle Atlantis also delivered several vital components for the construction of the International Space Station. During the February 2001 mission STS-98 to the ISS, Atlantis delivered the Destiny Module, the five hour 25 minute third spacewalk performed by astronauts Robert Curbeam and Thomas Jones during STS-98 marked NASAs 100th extra vehicular activity in space. The Quest Joint Airlock, was flown and installed to the ISS by Atlantis during the mission STS-104 in July 2001. The successful installation of the airlock gave on-board space station crews the ability to stage repair, the first mission flown by Atlantis after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster was STS-115, conducted during September 2006. The mission carried the P3/P4 truss segments and solar arrays to the ISS, on ISS assembly flight STS-122 in February 2008, Atlantis delivered the Columbus laboratory to the ISS
Space Shuttle Atlantis
–
Atlantis launching on the
STS-122 mission to dock with the
International Space Station in February 2008
Space Shuttle Atlantis
–
Space Shuttle Atlantis as it
transits the
Sun
Space Shuttle Atlantis
–
Atlantis docked to the International Space Station during STS-132 mission.
Space Shuttle Atlantis
–
Atlantis heads toward Earth orbit at the beginning of
STS-129.
15.
United States Congress
–
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
United States Congress
United States Congress
–
In 1868, this committee of representatives prosecuted president
Andrew Johnson in his impeachment trial, but the Senate did not convict him.
United States Congress
–
George Washington presiding over the signing of the
United States Constitution.
16.
Space Shuttle Challenger
–
Space Shuttle Challenger was the second orbiter of NASAs space shuttle program to be put into service following Columbia. The shuttle was built by Rockwell Internationals Space Transportation Systems Division in Downey and its maiden flight, STS-6, started on April 4,1983. It was the first of two shuttles to be destroyed in flight, the other being Columbia in 2003, the accident led to a two-and-a-half year grounding of the shuttle fleet, flights resumed in 1988 with STS-26 flown by Discovery. Challenger itself was replaced by Endeavour which was built using structural spares ordered by NASA as part of the contracts for Discovery. The Apollo 17 lunar module that landed on the Moon in 1972 was also named Challenger. Because of the low volume of orbiters, the Space Shuttle program decided to build a vehicle as a Structural Test Article, STA-099. The contract for STA-099 was awarded to North American Rockwell on July 26,1972, after STA-099s rollout, it was sent to a Lockheed test site in Palmdale, where it spent over 11 months in vibration tests designed to simulate entire shuttle flights, from launch to landing. In order to prevent damage during structural testing, qualification tests were performed to a factor of safety of 1.2 times the limit loads. The qualification tests were used to validate computational models, and compliance with the required 1.4 factor of safety was shown by analysis. STA-099 was essentially a complete airframe of a Space Shuttle orbiter, with only a crew module installed. Modifying her for flight article status would have far too difficult, expensive. Since STA-099 was not as far along in the construction of its airframe, because STA-099s qualification testing prevented damage, NASA found that rebuilding STA-099 as OV-099 would be less expensive than refitting Enterprise. Work on converting STA-099 into Challenger began in January 1979, starting with just the crew module as the rest of the orbiter was used by Lockheed. STA-099 returned to the Rockwell plant in November 1979, and the original unfinished crew module was replaced with the newly constructed model. Major portions of STA-099, including the bay doors, body flap, wings and vertical stabilizer. By early 1981, most of these components had returned to Palmdale and were reinstalled on the orbiter, work continued on the conversion until July 1982. Challenger had fewer tiles in its Thermal Protection System than Columbia, most of the tiles on the payload bay doors, upper wing surfaces, and rear fuselage surfaces were replaced with DuPont white Nomex felt insulation. These modifications as well as a lighter structure allowed Challenger to carry 2,500 lb more payload than Columbia
Space Shuttle Challenger
–
Challenger is launched on its first mission,
STS-6
Space Shuttle Challenger
–
Challenger being prepared in 1985 for its second-to-last flight STS-61-A
Space Shuttle Challenger
–
Challenger broke apart after launch in 1986, killing all crew on board.
Space Shuttle Challenger
–
Challenger' s rollout from Orbiter Processing Facility (OPF) to the
Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). Photo 1983-8-25 courtesy of NASA.
17.
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
–
The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11,39 EST. Disintegration of the vehicle began after an O-ring seal in its solid rocket booster failed at liftoff. The O-ring was not designed to fly under unusually cold conditions as in this launch and this led to the separation of the right-hand SRBs aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic forces broke up the orbiter, the crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after a lengthy search and recovery operation. The exact timing of the death of the crew is unknown, the shuttle had no escape system, and the impact of the crew compartment with the ocean surface was too violent to be survivable. The Rogers Commission found NASAs organizational culture and decision-making processes had been key contributing factors to the accident, NASA managers had known since 1977 that contractor Morton Thiokols design of the SRBs contained a potentially catastrophic flaw in the O-rings, but they had failed to address this problem properly. Approximately 17 percent of Americans witnessed the launch live because of the presence of Payload Specialist Christa McAuliffe, media coverage of the accident was extensive, one study reported that 85 percent of Americans surveyed had heard the news within an hour of the accident. The Challenger disaster has been used as a study in many discussions of engineering safety. Each of the Space Shuttles two Solid Rocket Boosters was constructed of seven sections, six of which were joined in pairs at the factory. For each flight, the four resulting segments were then assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at Kennedy Space Center, the factory joints were sealed with asbestos-silica insulation applied over the joint, while each field joint was sealed with two rubber O-rings. During the Space Shuttle design process, a McDonnell Douglas report in September 1971 discussed the safety record of solid rockets, while a safe abort was possible after most types of failures, one was especially dangerous, a burnthrough by hot gases of the rockets casing. The report stated that if burnthrough occurs adjacent to tank or orbiter, timely sensing may not be feasible and abort not possible, Morton Thiokol was the contractor responsible for the construction and maintenance of the shuttles SRBs. This phenomenon, known as joint rotation, caused a drop in air pressure. This made it possible for combustion gases to erode the O-rings, in the event of widespread erosion, a flame path could develop, causing the joint to burst—which would have destroyed the booster and the shuttle. Evidence of serious O-ring erosion was present as early as the space shuttle mission, STS-2. Contrary to NASA regulations, the Marshall Center did not report this problem to senior management at NASA, by 1985, Marshall and Thiokol realized that they had a potentially catastrophic problem on their hands. They began the process of redesigning the joint with three inches of steel around the tang. This tang would grip the inner face of the joint and prevent it from rotating and they did not call for a halt to shuttle flights until the joints could be redesigned, but rather treated the problem as an acceptable flight risk
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
–
Space Shuttle Challenger ' s smoke plume after its in-flight breakup, resulting in its destruction and the deaths of all seven crew members.
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
–
STS-51-L crew: (front row)
Michael J. Smith,
Dick Scobee,
Ronald McNair; (back row)
Ellison Onizuka,
Christa McAuliffe,
Gregory Jarvis,
Judith Resnik.
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
–
Ice on the launch tower hours before Challenger launch
Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
–
Gray smoke escaping from the right side
SRB
18.
Space Shuttle Discovery
–
Space Shuttle Discovery is one of the orbiters from NASAs Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built. Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to September 5,1984, over 27 years of service it launched and landed 39 times, gathering more spaceflights than any other spacecraft to date. Discovery became the third operational orbiter to enter service, preceded by Columbia and Challenger. It embarked on its last mission, STS-133, on February 24,2011 and touched down for the time at Kennedy Space Center on March 9. Discovery performed both research and International Space Station assembly missions and it also carried the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit. Discovery was the first operational shuttle to be retired, followed by Endeavour, Discovery launched the Hubble Space Telescope and conducted the second and third Hubble service missions. It also launched the Ulysses probe and three TDRS satellites, project Mercury astronaut John Glenn, who was 77 at the time, flew with Discovery on STS-95 in 1998, making him the oldest person to go into space. Had plans to launch United States Department of Defense payloads from Vandenberg Air Force Base gone ahead and its first West Coast mission, STS-62-A, was scheduled for 1986, but canceled in the aftermath of Challenger. Discovery was retired after completing its mission, STS133 on March 9,2011. The spacecraft is now on display in Virginia at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, Discovery weighed 6,870 pounds less than Columbia when it was brought into service due to optimizations determined during the construction and testing of Enterprise, Columbia and Challenger. Beginning in late 1995, the orbiter underwent a nine-month Orbiter Maintenance Down Period in Palmdale and this included outfitting the vehicle with a 5th set of cryogenic tanks and an external airlock to support missions to the International Space Station. After STS-105, Discovery became the first of the fleet to undergo Orbiter Major Modification period at the Kennedy Space Center. Work began in September 2002 to prepare the vehicle for Return to Flight and this included scheduled upgrades and additional safety modifications. Discovery is 6 pounds heavier than Atlantis and 363 pounds heavier than Endeavour, Discovery was decommissioned on March 9,2011. Discovery replaced Enterprise in the Smithsonians display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia, Discovery was transported to Washington Dulles International Airport on April 17,2012, and was transferred to the Udvar-Hazy on April 19 where a welcome ceremony was held. Afterwards, at around 5,30 pm, Discovery was rolled to its final stop in the Udvar Hazy Center. By its last mission, Discovery had flown 149 million miles in 39 missions, completed 5,830 orbits, Discovery flew more flights than any other Orbiter Shuttle, including four in 1985 alone. Discovery flew all three return to flight missions after the Challenger and Columbia disasters, STS-26 in 1988, STS-114 in 2005, Discovery flew the ante-penultimate mission of the Space Shuttle program, STS-133, having launched on February 24,2011
Space Shuttle Discovery
–
Space Shuttle Discovery launches from
NASA Kennedy Space Center Launch Pad 39A on mission
STS-124.
Space Shuttle Discovery
–
Discovery rollout ceremony in October 1983
Space Shuttle Discovery
–
Discovery riding piggy-back on
SCA N905NA on the last flyover of the
National Mall at around 10:15 am EDT, during its 11:05 am landing at
Dulles airport on April 17, 2012.
Space Shuttle Discovery
19.
Space Shuttle Enterprise
–
Space Shuttle Enterprise was the first orbiter of the Space Shuttle system. Rolled out on September 17,1976, it was built for NASA as part of the Space Shuttle program to perform atmospheric test flights after being launched from a modified Boeing 747. It was constructed without engines or a heat shield, and was therefore not capable of spaceflight. Originally, Enterprise had been intended to be refitted for orbital flight to become the second space-rated orbiter in service, similarly, Enterprise was considered for refit to replace Challenger after the latter was destroyed, but Endeavour was built from structural spares instead. Enterprise was restored and placed on display in 2003 at the Smithsonians new Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Virginia. The design of Enterprise was not the same as that planned for Columbia, the first flight model, the aft fuselage was constructed differently, instead of a thermal protection system, its surface was primarily covered with simulated tiles made from polyurethane foam. Fiberglass was used for the edge panels in place of the reinforced carbon–carbon ones of spaceflight-worthy orbiters. Only a few sample thermal tiles and some Nomex blankets were real, Enterprise used fuel cells to generate its electrical power, but these were not sufficient to power the orbiter for spaceflight. Enterprise was equipped with Lockheed-manufactured zero-zero ejection seats like those its sister Columbia carried on its first four missions, construction began on Enterprise on June 4,1974. Designated OV-101, it was planned to be named Constitution and unveiled on Constitution Day. Fans of Star Trek asked US President Gerald Ford, through a campaign, to name the orbiter after the television shows fictional starship. White House advisors cited hundreds of thousands of letters from Trekkies—one of the most dedicated constituencies in the country—as a reason for giving the shuttle the name. Although Ford did not publicly mention the campaign, the president said that he was partial to the name Enterprise, in mid-1976 the orbiter was used for ground vibration tests, allowing engineers to compare data from an actual flight vehicle with theoretical models. On September 17,1976, Enterprise was rolled out of Rockwells plant at Palmdale, in recognition of its fictional namesake, Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry and most of the principal cast of the original series of Star Trek were on hand at the dedication ceremony. On January 31,1977, Enterprise was taken by road to Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards Air Force Base to begin operational testing, while at NASA Dryden Enterprise was used by NASA for a variety of ground and flight tests intended to validate aspects of the shuttle program. The initial nine-month testing period was referred to by the acronym ALT, for Approach and these tests included a maiden flight on February 18,1977, atop a Boeing 747 Shuttle Carrier Aircraft to measure structural loads and ground handling and braking characteristics of the mated system. Ground tests of all orbiter subsystems were carried out to verify functionality prior to atmospheric flight, the mated Enterprise/SCA combination was then subjected to five test flights with Enterprise unmanned and unactivated. The purpose of these test flights was to measure the characteristics of the mated combination
Space Shuttle Enterprise
–
Enterprise at
SLC-6 at
Vandenberg AFB
Space Shuttle Enterprise
–
Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry, the Star Trek cast and NASA administrators attending Enterprise 's rollout ceremony
Space Shuttle Enterprise
–
Enterprise as it banks on its second Approach and Landing Test, September 13, 1977.
Space Shuttle Enterprise
–
Fred Haise and
Gordon Fullerton (wearing oxygen mask) in Enterprise 's cockpit, 1977.
20.
STS-118
–
STS-118 was a space shuttle mission to the International Space Station flown by the orbiter Endeavour. STS-118 lifted off on 8 August 2007 from launch pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, STS-118 pilot Charles Hobaugh had been the entry team CAPCOM for STS-107. Columbia would have chosen for this mission, for what would have been its 29th mission. The mission is referred to as ISS-13A.1 by the ISS program. The mission added two more components to the ISS and brought supplies for its crew, on 31 August 2007, NASA reported that the damaged tiles had been removed in the Orbiter Processing Facility, and engineers had found no evidence of heat-related damage to the orbiter itself. Astronaut Clayton Anderson originally was slated to be launched to the ISS on this mission, NASA press releases and media briefing documents stated that STS-118 was the first flight of a Mission Specialist Educator due to the presence of Barbara Morgan. The Educator Astronaut Project is the successor to NASAs Teacher in Space Project, also, the official STS-118 mission patch included a flame of knowledge that represented the importance of education, and honored teachers and students everywhere. The tip of the flames touched Morgans name on the patch, the mission was also the final flight to include the Spacehab Logistics Single Module. It returned cargo, including the MISSE PEC3 &4, launched in July 2006, the MISSE PEC-3 &4 contained over 850 materials specimens that will be studied to determine the effects of long-term exposure to the environment of space. The mission was scheduled to be flown by Columbia, STS-118 would have marked that orbiters 29th flight. However, the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster altered the flight schedules. STS-118 served as Endeavours return to flight after a planned orbiter re-fit, one of the most important modifications that debuted during STS-118 is an upgraded power-distribution module, the Station-Shuttle Power Transfer System. SSPTS allows Endeavour to tap into the ISS power supply, converting up to eight kilowatts of power from 120-volts direct-current ISS main voltage to the 28VDC system used by the orbiter. SSPTS was outfitted to the ISS Pressurized Mating Adapter-2 during STS-116, Endeavour also received several systems that the other orbiters had already been equipped with, such as a glass cockpit, improved wing leading-edge sensors and the OBSS. STS-118 included mission specialist Barbara Morgan, the first Mission Specialist Educator, Morgan trained as the backup to Christa McAuliffe, NASAs Teacher in Space candidate from 1985 to 1986. McAuliffe was killed in the space shuttle Challenger accident on 28 January 1986, Morgan completed two years of training and evaluation and began official duties in 2000. An Educator Astronaut is a fully trained astronaut who all the same duties that a regular astronaut does. Morgan became the first Mission Specialist Educator in space on STS-118, on 10 July 2007, Endeavour moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Launch Pad 39A
STS-118
–
Endeavour rendezvous with the ISS
STS-118
STS-118
–
From top to bottom: Orbiter docking system, Spacehab, S5 truss, ESP-3. The CMG is the globe bottom left.
STS-118
–
New components added to the International Space Station after flight STS-118/13A.1. (NASA)
21.
Stratosphere
–
The stratosphere is the second major layer of Earths atmosphere, just above the troposphere, and below the mesosphere. About 20% of the mass is contained in the stratosphere. The stratosphere is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth, the increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Suns ultraviolet radiation by the ozone. This is in contrast to the troposphere, near the Earths surface, the border between the troposphere and stratosphere, the tropopause, marks where this temperature inversion begins. Near the equator, the starts at 18 km, at mid latitudes, it starts at 10–13 km and ends at 50 km, at the poles. Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons, in particular with the polar night, the greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere, those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes. The mechanism describing the formation of the layer was described by British mathematician Sydney Chapman in 1930. Molecular oxygen absorbs high energy sunlight in the UV-C region, at shorter than about 240 nm. The oxygen atoms produced combine with oxygen to form ozone. Ozone in turn is photolysed much more rapidly than molecular oxygen as it has an absorption that occurs at longer wavelengths. Ozone photolysis produces O and O2, the oxygen atom product combines with atmospheric molecular oxygen to reform O3, releasing heat. The rapid photolysis and reformation of ozone heats the stratosphere resulting in a temperature inversion and this increase of temperature with altitude is characteristic of the stratosphere, its resistance to vertical mixing means that it is stratified. Within the stratosphere temperatures increase with altitude, the top of the stratosphere has a temperature of about 270 K, overall the attenuation of solar UV at wavelengths that damage DNA by the ozone layer allows life to exist on the surface of the planet outside of the ocean. All air entering the stratosphere must pass through the tropopause, the minimum that divides the troposphere and stratosphere. The rising air is literally freeze dried, the stratosphere is a dry place. The top of the stratosphere is called the stratopause, above which the temperature decreases with height and we now know that there are additional ozone loss mechanisms, and that these mechanisms are catalytic meaning that a small amount of the catalyst can destroy a great number of ozone molecules. The first is due to the reaction of hydroxyl radicals OH· with ozone, OH is formed by the reaction of electronically excited oxygen atoms produced by ozone photolysis, with water vapor. While the stratosphere is dry, additional water vapor is produced in situ by the oxidation of methane
Stratosphere
–
Space Shuttle Endeavour appears to straddle the stratosphere and
mesosphere in this photo. "The orange layer is the
troposphere, where all of the weather and clouds which we typically watch and experience are generated and contained. This orange layer gives way to the whitish Stratosphere and then into the Mesosphere." (The shuttle is actually orbiting at more than 200 miles in altitude, far above this transition layer.)
Stratosphere
–
Diagram of the atmosphere (layers to scale). Distance from the surface to the top of the stratosphere is just under 1% of Earth's radius.
Stratosphere
–
This image shows the temperature trend in the Lower Stratosphere as measured by a series of satellite-based instruments between January 1979 and December 2005. The Lower Stratosphere is centered around 18 kilometers above Earth's surface. The stratosphere image is dominated by blues and greens, which indicates a cooling over time.
22.
Mesosphere
–
The mesosphere is the layer of the Earths atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as the altitude increases, the upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below −143 °C. The stratosphere, mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the middle atmosphere, the mesopause, at an altitude of 80–90 km, separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere—the second-outermost layer of the Earths atmosphere. This is also around the altitude as the turbopause, below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies. Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform, the heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses. Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing height, due to decreasing solar heating and increasing cooling by CO2 radiative emission, the top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause, is the coldest part of Earths atmosphere. Temperatures in the mesosphere fall as low as −101 °C, varying according to latitude. The main dynamic features in this region are strong winds, atmospheric tides, internal atmospheric gravity waves. Most of these tides and waves start in the troposphere and lower stratosphere, in the mesosphere, gravity-wave amplitudes can become so large that the waves become unstable and dissipate. This dissipation deposits momentum into the mesosphere and largely drives global circulation, noctilucent clouds are located in the mesosphere. The upper mesosphere is also the region of the known as the D layer. The D layer is present during the day, when some ionization occurs with nitric oxide being ionized by Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation. The ionization is so weak that when night falls, and the source of ionization is removed, the mesosphere has been called the ignorosphere because it is poorly studied relative to the stratosphere and the thermosphere. A5 km deep sodium layer is located between 80–105 km, made of unbound, non-ionized atoms of sodium, the sodium layer radiates weakly to contribute to the airglow. The sodium has a concentration of 400,000 atoms per cubic centimeter. This band is regularly replenished by sodium sublimating from incoming meteors, astronomers have begun utilizing this sodium band to create guide stars as part of the adaptive optical correction process used to produce ultra-sharp ground-based observations. Millions of meteors enter the Earths atmosphere, averaging 40 tons per year, the mesosphere lies above altitude records for aircraft and balloons, and below the minimum altitude for orbital spacecraft. It has only been accessed through the use of sounding rockets, as a result, it is the least-understood part of the atmosphere
Mesosphere
–
Space Shuttle Endeavour appears to straddle the
stratosphere and mesosphere in this photo. The
troposphere, which contains clouds, appears orange in this photo.
Mesosphere
–
Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50 km or 31 mi) is just under 1.2% of Earth's radius.
23.
James Cook
–
Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
James Cook
–
James Cook, portrait by
Nathaniel Dance-Holland, c. 1775,
National Maritime Museum,
Greenwich
James Cook
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Portrait of Mrs. Elizabeth Cook by William Henderson, dated 1830.
James Cook
–
James Cook's 1775 chart of
Newfoundland
James Cook
–
Endeavour replica in
Cooktown, Queensland harbour — anchored where the original Endeavour was beached for seven weeks in 1770.
24.
First voyage of James Cook
–
The first voyage of James Cook was a combined Royal Navy and Royal Society expedition to the south Pacific Ocean aboard HMS Endeavour, from 1768 to 1771. It was the first of three Pacific voyages of which Cook was the commander, the aims of this first expedition were to observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun, and to seek evidence of the postulated Terra Australis Incognita or unknown southern land. The voyage was commissioned by King George III and commanded by Lieutenant James Cook, departing from Plymouth-Dock in August 1768, the expedition crossed the Atlantic, rounded Cape Horn and reached Tahiti in time to observe the transit of Venus. In September 1769 the expedition reached New Zealand, being the second Europeans to visit there, Cook and his crew spent the following six months charting the New Zealand coast, before resuming their voyage westward across open sea. In April 1770 they became the first Europeans to reach the east coast of Australia, making landfall at Point Hicks, the expedition continued northward along the Australian coastline, narrowly avoiding shipwreck on the Great Barrier Reef. In October 1770 the badly damaged Endeavour came into the port of Batavia in the Dutch East Indies and they resumed their journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771, and reached the English port of Deal on 12 July. The voyage lasted almost three years, the year following his return Cook set out on a second voyage of the Pacific, which lasted from 1772 to 1775. His third and final voyage lasted from 1776 to 1779, the Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a Navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman. The impasse was broken when the Admiralty proposed James Cook, an officer with a background in mathematics. Acceptable to both parties, Cook was promoted to Lieutenant and named as commander of the expedition, the vessel chosen by the Admiralty for the voyage was a merchant collier named Earl of Pembroke, launched in June 1764 from the coal and whaling port of Whitby in North Yorkshire. She was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, a flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in shallow waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo and for basic repairs without requiring a dry dock. Her hull was sheathed and caulked, and a third internal deck installed to provide cabins, a longboat, pinnace and yawl were provided as ships boats, as well as a set of 28 ft sweeps to allow the ship to be rowed if becalmed or demasted. Alcohol supplies consisted of 250 barrels of beer,44 barrels of brandy and 17 barrels of rum, on 30 July 1768 the Admiralty authorised a ships company for the voyage, of 73 sailors and 12 Royal Marines. The voyage was commanded by 40-year-old Lieutenant James Cook and his second lieutenant was Zachary Hicks, a 29-year-old from Stepney with experience as acting commander of the Hornet, a 16-gun cutter. The third lieutenant was John Gore, a 16-year Naval veteran who had served as mate aboard HMS Dolphin during its circumnavigation of the world in 1766. Other notable people on the expedition include the official astronomer, Charles Green, then assistant to the Astronomer Royal, Joseph Banks had been appointed to the voyage as the official botanist. Banks funded seven others to him, a Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander
First voyage of James Cook
–
Earl of Pembroke, later HMS Endeavour, leaving Whitby Harbour in 1768. By
Thomas Luny, dated 1790
First voyage of James Cook
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Route of the first voyage of
James Cook
First voyage of James Cook
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Cook's map of New Zealand
First voyage of James Cook
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E. Phillips Fox, Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770, 1902
25.
Apollo Command/Service Module
–
The Command/Service Module was one of two spacecraft, along with the Lunar Module, used for the United States Apollo program which landed astronauts on the Moon. It was built for NASA by North American Aviation and it was launched by itself on three suborbital and low Earth orbit Apollo test missions using the Saturn IB launch vehicle. It was also launched twelve times on the larger Saturn V launch vehicle and it made a total of nine manned flights to the Moon aboard the Saturn V. The Service Module was cast off and allowed to burn up in the atmosphere before the Command Module re-entered, the Apollo 1 flight was cancelled after a cabin fire killed the entire crew and destroyed the Command Module during a launch rehearsal test. Corrections of the problems caused the fire were applied to the Block II spacecraft. Therefore, design proceeded without a means of docking the Command Module to a Lunar Excursion Module, but the change to lunar orbit rendezvous, plus several technical obstacles encountered in some subsystems, soon made it clear that substantial redesign would be required. Block II would be the version, including a docking hatch and incorporating weight reduction. Detailed design of the docking capability depended on design of the LEM, by January 1964, North American started presenting Block II design details to NASA. Block I spacecraft were used for all unmanned Saturn 1B and Saturn V test flights, initially two manned flights were planned, but this was reduced to one in late 1966. This mission, designated AS-204 but named Apollo 1 by its crew, was planned for launch on February 21,1967. After a thorough investigation by the Apollo 204 Review Board, it was decided to terminate the manned Block I phase, the two blocks were essentially similar in overall dimensions, but several design improvements resulted in weight reduction in Block II. Also, the Block I Service Module propellant tanks were slightly larger than in Block II, the Apollo 1 spacecraft weighed approximately 45,000 pounds, while the Block II Apollo 7 weighed 36,400 lb. In the specifications given below, unless noted, all weights given are for the Block II spacecraft. The total cost of the CSM for development and the produced was $36. 9B in 2016 dollars. The Command Module was a truncated cone 10 feet 7 inches tall with a diameter of 12 feet 10 inches across the base, the forward compartment contained two reaction control engines, the docking tunnel, and the components of the Earth Landing System. The inner pressure vessel housed the crew accommodations, equipment bays, controls and displays, the last section, the aft compartment, contained 10 reaction control engines and their related propellant tanks, fresh water tanks, and the CSM umbilical cables. The Command Module consisted of two basic structures joined together, the structure and the outer structure. The inner structure was a sandwich construction which consisted of a welded aluminum inner skin, adhesively bonded aluminum honeycomb core
Apollo Command/Service Module
–
Apollo 15 Command and Service Module in lunar orbit
Apollo Command/Service Module
–
Apollo Command Module cabin arrangement
Apollo Command/Service Module
–
Apollo command module G&N equipment
Apollo Command/Service Module
–
Apollo 14 Command Module at Kennedy Space Center.
26.
Apollo 15
–
Apollo 15 was the ninth manned mission in the United States Apollo program, the fourth to land on the Moon, and the eighth successful manned mission. It was the first of what were termed J missions, long stays on the Moon and it was also the first mission on which the Lunar Roving Vehicle was used. The mission began on July 26,1971, and ended on August 7, at the time, NASA called it the most successful manned flight ever achieved. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin spent three days on the Moon, including 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar extra-vehicular activity, the mission landed near Hadley rille, in an area of the Mare Imbrium called Palus Putredinus. The crew explored the area using the first lunar rover, which allowed them to travel farther from the Lunar Module than had been possible on missions without the rover. They collected 77 kilograms of lunar surface material, Scott had attended the University of Michigan, but left before graduating to accept an appointment to the United States Military Academy. The crewmen did their work at either the United States Military Academy or the United States Naval Academy. C. Gordon Fullerton Joseph P. Allen Robert A. Parker Karl G.5 km Apogee,171.3 km Inclination,29. 679° Period,87. There had been a rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all United States Navy. Originally Apollo 15 would have been an H mission, like Apollos 12,13 and 14, but on September 2,1970, NASA announced it was canceling what were to be the current incarnations of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 19 missions. To maximize the return from the missions, Apollo 15 would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first lunar rover. One of the changes in the training for Apollo 15 was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had trained in field geology. Scott and Irwin would train with Leon Silver, a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the Precambrian, Silver had been suggested by Harrison Schmitt as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of uranium into lead in the late 1950s, crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. The CAPCOM was accompanied by a group of geologists unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the descriptions to interpret the findings. The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970, the Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites — Hadley Rille or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway, to David Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being exploration at its finest
Apollo 15
–
Jim Irwin with the Lunar Roving Vehicle on the first lunar surface EVA of Apollo 15
Apollo 15
Apollo 15
–
Commander
David Scott during geology training in
New Mexico on March 19, 1971
Apollo 15
–
Apollo 15 launches on July 26, 1971
27.
Senatobia, Mississippi
–
Senatobia is a city in and the county seat of Tate County, Mississippi, and is the 16th largest municipality in the Memphis Metropolitan Area. The population was 8,165 at the 2010 census, Senatobia is the home of Northwest Mississippi Community College, a state community college that provides two-year academic and technical degree programs. Northwests system-wide enrollment exceeds 8,000 on three campuses in Senatobia, Southaven and Oxford, also located in Senatobia is the Baddour Center, a residential care facility for intellectually disabled adults. On April 13,1834 early settler James Peters purchased two sections of land from the Chickasaw Nation for the sum of $1.25 per acre and this land was later developed as the town of Senatobia. The name Senatobia, given by Charles Meriweather, was derived from the Indian word Senatohoba, Senatobia received its charter as a municipality in 1860. Tate County was organized in 1873, during the Reconstruction era, during the Civil War, the towns business section was burned twice by Federal troops. Two Academy Award-nominated films have been filmed in the town, The Client. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 10.8 square miles. The population density was 621.7 people per square mile, there were 2,239 housing units at an average density of 208.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 61. 1% non-Hispanic White,35. 0% non-Hispanic African American,2. 4% Hispanic or Latino of any race, and 1. 6% in other racial/ethnic categories. 26. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.15. In the city, the population was out with 24. 8% under the age of 18,20. 1% from 18 to 24,26. 0% from 25 to 44,17. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 29 years, for every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.4 males, the median income for a household in the city was $33,698, and the median income for a family was $43,088. Males had an income of $34,022 versus $22,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,434, about 13. 0% of families and 17. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21. 3% of those under age 18 and 18. 5% of those age 65 or over. Senatobia is served by the Senatobia Municipal School District and Magnolia Heights School, aron Burton, blues bass guitarist Robert Earl Jones an American actor James Kamala Harris, wrestler O. B. McClinton, country and R&B singer/songwriter Dan A. Sullivan, Republican member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from Jonesboro, Arkansas, city website Senatobia Municipal School District Magnolia Heights School Tate County Democrat Northwest Mississippi Community College
Senatobia, Mississippi
–
Senatobia, Mississippi
28.
Tallulah Falls School
–
Tallulah Falls School is a private boarding and day school located in the town of Tallulah Falls, Georgia, United States, within Habersham and Rabun Counties. The school is located on a campus in Northeast Georgia on the southern slopes of Cherokee Mountain at the foothills of the Appalachian chain. The school was founded in 1909 by Mary Ann Lipscomb of Athens, the school is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. In the fall of 2014, TFS opened its expanded and renovated upper school academic building, on the same day as the dedication, school officials broke ground on a new gymnasium project on the middle school campus. The $4.5 million structure is slated for completion in the fall of 2016
Tallulah Falls School
–
The Light In The Mountains [
citation needed]
Tallulah Falls School
–
An aerial view of the school captured in Fall 2014. This image showcases the recently expanded and renovated upper school academic building. Photo/Marie Nease-Wing Dreamer Photography
29.
Tallulah Falls, Georgia
–
This article refers to the town. For the lake, see Lake Tallulah Falls, for the waterfalls and gorge, see Tallulah Gorge and for the river, Tallulah Falls is a town in Habersham and Rabun counties in the U. S. state of Georgia near the Tallulah River. The population was 168 at the 2010 census and it started out in the 1880s as a tourist town for the multitude of visitors to Tallulah Falls. Tallulah Falls was the location for portions of the 1972 film Deliverance. Tallulah Bankhead was named after her grandmother, who in turn was named after Tallulah Falls. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 8.6 square miles. U. S. Highway 23-441, one of the principal thoroughfares into the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky Mountains, as of the census of 2000, there were 164 people,71 households, and 47 families residing in the town. The population density was 20.1 people per square mile, there were 106 housing units at an average density of 13.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 100. 00% White,28. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the family size was 2.83. In the town, the population was out with 22. 6% under the age of 18,7. 3% from 18 to 24,25. 0% from 25 to 44,31. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 100.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.4 males, the median income for a household in the town was $40,833, and the median income for a family was $52,500. Males had an income of $43,750 versus $25,000 for females. The per capita income for the town was $26,663, about 4. 2% of families and 10. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under the age of eighteen and 34. 4% of those sixty five or over. Official website for the Town of Tallulah Falls
Tallulah Falls, Georgia
–
Location in
Habersham County and the state of
Georgia
30.
George H. W. Bush
–
George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
George H. W. Bush
–
George H. W. Bush
George H. W. Bush
–
George Bush in his
TBM Avenger on the carrier
USS San Jacinto in 1944
George H. W. Bush
–
Bush with President
Dwight D. Eisenhower
George H. W. Bush
–
Bush as ambassador to the United Nations, 1971
