1.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
2.
Laayoune
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Laayoune is the largest city of the disputed territory of Western Sahara. The modern city is thought to have founded by the Spanish colonizer Antonio de Oro in 1938. In 1940, Spain designated it as the capital of the Spanish Sahara, laâyoune is the capital of the Laâyoune-Sakia El Hamra region administered by Morocco under the supervision of the UN peace-keeping mission in Western Sahara. The town is divided in two by the dry river of Saguia el Hamra, on the south side is the old lower town, constructed by Spanish colonists. A cathedral from that era is still active, its priests serve this city, laâyoune orEl Aaiún are respectively the French and Spanish transliterations of the Maghrebi Arabic name Layoun which means the water springs. Laâyoune has a desert climate, moderated by the Canary Current with an average annual temperature of 20 °C. The city has a population of 196,331 and is the largest city in Western Sahara and it is a growing economic hub. The city is a hub for fishing and for mining in the region. In 2010 that country was negotiating a new fishing agreement with Europe over offshore fishing, the football club of the city is Jeunesse Massira. The club plays in the Moroccan Premier League, the highest football league in the country, Jeunesse Massira uses Stade Sheikh Mohamed Laghdaf in training and games. Laâyoune is served by Hassan I Airport, there is a Spanish international school, Colegio Español La Paz, owned by the Spanish government
3.
Morocco
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Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
4.
Polisario Front
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It is an observer member of the Socialist International. The United Nations considers the Polisario Front to be the representative of the Sahrawi people. The Polisario Front is outlawed in the parts of Western Sahara under Moroccan control and they called themselves the Constituent Congress of the Polisario Front. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed, on 20 May, the new organization attacked El-Khanga, where there was a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun and rifles seized. At this point, Polisarios manpower included perhaps 800 men and women, with Algerias help, Polisario set up headquarters in Tindouf. Upon Spains withdrawal, and in application of the Madrid Accords in 1976, the Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1976, and waged a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The World Court at The Hague had issued its verdict on the former Spanish colony just weeks before, for the next two years the movement grew tremendously as Sahrawi refugees continued flocking to the camps and Algeria and Libya supplied arms and funding. Within months, its army had expanded to several thousand armed fighters, camels were replaced by modern jeeps, the reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerrilla-style hit-and-run attacks against opposing forces in Western Sahara and in Morocco and Mauritania proper. A comprehensive peace treaty was signed on 5 August 1979, in which the new government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara, Mauritania withdrew all its forces and would later proceed to formally recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, causing a massive rupture in relations with Morocco. King Hassan II of Morocco immediately claimed the area of Western Sahara evacuated by Mauritania, a cease-fire between the Polisario Front and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO, has been in effect since 6 September 1991, on the promise of a referendum on independence the following year. However, the referendum stalled over disagreements on voter rights, numerous attempts to restart the process seem to have failed. The Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume if a referendum cannot be held. Pressures on the leadership from the population to resume fighting are apparent. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007 and this led to the negotiations process known as the Manhasset negotiations. Four rounds were held in 2007 and 2008, no progress was made, however, Polisario agreed to add autonomy as per the Moroccan proposal to a referendum ballot, but refused to relinquish the concept of an independence referendum itself, as agreed in 1991 and 1997. Morocco, in its turn, insisted on negotiating the terms of autonomy offered. The Polisario is first and foremost a nationalist organization, whose goal is the independence of Western Sahara. It has stated that ideological disputes should be left for a future democratic Western Sahara to deal with and it views itself as a front encompassing all political trends in Sahrawi society, and not as a political party
5.
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
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SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on February 27,1976, in Bir Lehlou, Western Sahara, a former communist liberation force which has since reformed its ideological and political views. The SADR government controls about 20–25% of the territory it claims and it calls the territories under its control the Liberated Territories or the Free Zone. Morocco controls and administers the rest of the territory and calls these lands its Southern Provinces. The SADR government considers the Moroccan-held territory to be occupied territory, the claimed capital of the SADR is El-Aaiún, while the temporary capital has been moved from Bir Lehlou to Tifariti. The Sahrawi Republic maintains diplomatic relations with 40 UN states, and is a member of the African Union. On 26 February 1976, Spain informed the United Nations that as of date it had terminated its presence in Western Sahara and relinquished its responsibilities. Neither Morocco nor Mauritania gained international recognition, and war ensued with the independence-seeking Polisario Front, on February 27,2008, the provisional capital was formally moved to Tifariti. Day-to-day business, however, is conducted in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, the broad guidelines laid down for an eventual Western Saharan state in the constitution include eventual multi-party democracy with a market economy. The constitution also defines Sahrawis as a Muslim, African and Arab people, the Constitution also declares a commitment to the principles of human rights and to the concept of a Greater Maghreb, as a regional variant of Pan-Arabism. The SADRs government structure consists of a Council of Ministers, a judicial branch, since its inception in 1976, the various constitutional revisions have transformed the republic from an ad hoc managerial structure into something approaching an actual governing apparatus. Its various ministries are responsible for a variety of services and functions, the judiciary, complete with trial courts, appeals courts and a supreme court, operates in the same areas. As a government-in-exile, many branches of government do not fully function, among other things, it has added a ban on the death penalty to the constitution, and brought down the government in 1999 through a vote of no-confidence. The composition of the Sahrawi National Council is as follows, The SADR acted as a government administration in the Sahrawi refugee camps located in the Tindouf Province of western Algeria. The government of the SADR claims sovereignty over all of the Western Sahara territory, several foreign aid agencies, including the UN High Commission for Refugees, and nongovernmental organizations are continually active in the camps. As of 2016, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has been recognized by 85 states, of these,37 have since frozen or withdrawn recognition for a number of reasons. A total of 40 UN states maintain diplomatic relations with the SADR, Sahrawi embassies exist in 18 states. Although it is not recognised by the United Nations, the SADR has held membership of the African Union since 1982. The SADR participates as guest on meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement or the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership, on the other hand, Moroccos claim to Western Sahara is supported by the Arab League
6.
Foreign relations of Morocco
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Moroccos relationships vary greatly between African, Arab, and Western states. Morocco has had ties to the West in order to gain economic. France and Spain remain the trade partners, as well as the primary creditors. From the total investments in Morocco, the European Union invests approximately 73. 5%, whereas. Many countries from the Persian Gulf and Maghreb regions are getting involved in large-scale development projects in Morocco. Foreign relations have had a significant impact on economic and social development in Morocco, certain evidence of foreign influence is through the many development projects, loans, investments, and free trade agreements that Morocco has with other countries. An example of recent foreign influence is through loan agreements, Morocco signed three loan agreements with the French Development Agency in 2009, totalling up to 155 million euros. These were for the purpose of reforming the system, rural roads and rehabilitation. Policies associated with foreign relations are determined by the king, King Mohamed VI, Morocco has had a history of monarch rule. For example, the king of Morocco in 1965 suspended parliament and this was in response to the discovery of a plot on the kings life, of which the political party, UNFP, was accused. Foreign relations with western powers became strained as a result of this, portraying Morocco as a democratic state became important if Morocco wished to receive loans and investments by foreign powers. Moroccos current relations with some countries are related to its colonial history, Morocco was secretly partitioned by Spain and France and in 1912 Morocco became a protectorate. After achieving independence in 1956, Morocco still has a relationship with its former colonizers. Spain and France are currently the largest exporting and importing partners to Morocco, French is still popularly spoken and remains the second language in Morocco whilst Spanish is also widespread, particularly in the northern regions. France now is home to more than a million Moroccans legally residing in the country and this is the largest population of Moroccans in a country, followed next by Spain. These former colonizers remain influential in matters, such as development projects, investments, trade. Relations with foreign powers, especially with the West, have also strengthened as Morocco has liberalized its economy. In 1993 there was major privatization and markets were opened up to foreign powers, Morocco now is focusing more on promoting foreign direct investments
7.
Moroccan Western Sahara Wall
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The Moroccan Wall of Western Sahara is an approximately 2,700 km long structure, mostly a sand wall, running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco. It separates the Moroccan occupied, and controlled, areas and the Polisario-controlled areas that lies along its eastern and southern border. According to maps from the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara or the UNHCR, the fortifications lie in uninhabited or very sparsely inhabited territory. They consist of sand and stone walls or berms about 3 m in height, with bunkers, the barrier minebelt that runs along the structure is thought to be the longest continuous minefield in the world. The following is one observers description of the Berm, In all, the main line of fortifications extends for about 2,500 km. A section extends about 200 km into southeastern Morocco Significant lines of fortifications also lie deep within the Moroccan-controlled area and their exact number and location are a source of some confusion for overseas commentators. All major settlements, the capital El Aaiún, and the mine at Bou Craa lie far into the Moroccan-held side. The fortifications were built by Moroccan forces starting in 1981. Effectively, after the completion of the wall, Morocco has controlled the bulk of Western Sahara territory that lies to the north and west of it, the Polisario-founded Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic controls the mostly uninhabited Free Zone, which comprises all areas to the east of the barrier. Units from the United Nations mission MINURSO separate the two sides, and enforce regulations on their troops. In the summer of 2005, the Moroccan Army accelerated the expulsion of illegal immigrants detained in northern Morocco to the side of the wall. The Polisario Front and the MINURSO rescued several dozen lost in the desert, by October, the Polisario had received 22 immigrants in Mehaires,46 in Tifariti and 97 in Bir Lehlu. They were from African countries, except a group of 48 who were from Bangladesh, Western attention to the wall, and to the Moroccan annexation of the Western Sahara in general, has been minimal, apart from Spain. In Africa, the annexation of Western Sahara by Morocco has attracted more attention. Algeria supports the Polisario Front in its long-running desert war to oppose Moroccan control of the disputed area, the Organization of African Unity/African Union and United Nations have proposed negotiated solutions, though the African Unions stance on Western Sahara led to Moroccos exit from the organisation. Since 2008, a demonstration called The Thousand Column is held annually in the desert against the barrier by international human rights activists, in the 2009 edition, a teenage Sahrawi refugee named Ibrahim Hussein Leibeit lost half of his right leg in a landmine explosion. The incident happened when Ibrahim and dozens of young Sahrawis crossed the line into a minefield while aiming to throw stones to the side of the wall. The wall was built in six stages, and the area behind the wall was expanded from an area near Morocco in the north to most of the western
8.
Political status of Western Sahara
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Western Sahara, formerly the Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara, is a disputed territory claimed by both the Kingdom of Morocco and the Polisario Front. It is listed by the United Nations, as a territory and is thus included in the United Nations List of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Since the Madrid Accords of 1975, a part of Western Sahara has been administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces, another section, the Liberated Territories, is administered by the Polisario Front as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Mauritania administers temporally the western half of the Ras Nouadhibou Peninsula, a UN-monitored cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991. Overall, the annexation has not garnered as much attention in the community as many other disputed annexations. The UN recognizes neither Moroccan nor SADR sovereignty over Western Sahara, the official position of the Kingdom of Morocco since 1963 is that all of Western Sahara is an integral part of the kingdom. The Moroccan government refers to Western Sahara only as Moroccan Sahara, according to the Moroccan government, in 1958 the Moroccan Army of Liberation fought Spanish colonizers and almost liberated what was then Spanish Sahara. The fathers of many of the Polisario leaders were among the veterans of the Moroccan Southern Army, Morocco is supported in this view by a number of former Polisario founders and leaders. It began as a movement of students who felt torn between the divergent Spanish and Moroccan influences on the country, the Polisario engaged in guerrilla warfare with the Moroccan and Mauritanian forces. It evacuated the Sahrawi population to the Tindouf refugee camps due to Royal Moroccan Air Force bombing of the camps on Sahrawi land with napalm. The Polisario Front has called for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara to be decided through a referendum, the Polisario Front argues that Moroccos position is due to economical interests and political reasons. The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in Bir Lehlou, claims on Western Sahara had proliferated since the 1960s, fuelled by Mauritanian President Moktar Ould Daddah. In April 1976, Mauritania and Morocco partitioned the country into three parts, Mauritania getting the one, which was named Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Mauritania waged four years of war against Polisario guerrillas, conducting raids on Nouakchott, attacks on the Zouerate mine train, the Moroccan Army immediately took control of the former Mauritanian territory. Mauritania recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1984, algeria has supported the independence of the whole of Western Sahara since 1975, when Spanish forces and settlers withdrew from the area. It is one of the few countries to do so in the Arab League and it has provided aid to the Polisario Front. Algerias role became indirect, through political and military support for the Polisario Front, algeria recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 6 March 1976. On the UN list of territories to be decolonized, when it was still a Spanish colony and it has retained that status due to the persistence of the conflict
9.
Sahrawi refugee camps
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With most of the original refugees still living in the camps, the situation is among the most protracted in the world. The limited opportunities for self-reliance in the desert environment have forced the refugees to rely on international humanitarian assistance for their survival. However, the Tindouf camps differ from the majority of camps in the level of self-organization. Most affairs and camp life organization is run by the refugees themselves, the camps are divided into five wilayas named after towns in Western Sahara, Laayoune, Awserd, Smara, Dakhla and more recently Cape Bojador. In addition comes the smaller satellite camp February 27, surrounding the school for women. The encampments are spread out over a large area. While Laayoune, Smara, Awserd, February 27 and Rabouni all lie within an hours drive of the Algerian city of Tindouf, the camps are also the headquarters of the 6th military region of the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic. The refugee camps are governed by Polisario, being part of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. SADRs government in exile and administration are located in the Rabouni camp, the Tindouf camps are divided into administrative sub-units electing their own officials to represent the neighbourhoods in political decision-making. Each of the four wilayas are divided into six or seven daïras, local committees distribute basic goods, water and food, while daïra authorities made up by the representatives of the hays organize schools, cultural activities and medical services. Some argue that this results in a form of democracy on the level of camp administration. Women are active on several levels of administration, and UNHCR has appraised their importance in camp administration, according to Polisario, Algeria does not intervene in their organization, treating the area as effectively under Sahrawi self-rule, though statements by former Polisario responsibles contradict that. While the Algerian military has a significant presence in the city of Tindouf. Camp residents are subject to the constitution and laws of SADR, a local justice system, with courts and prisons, is administered by Polisario. Local qadis have jurisdiction over personal status and family law issues, while teaching materials are still scarce, the literacy rate has increased from about 5% at the formation of the camps to 90% in 1995. Childrens education is obligatory, and several thousands have received university educations in Algeria, Cuba, one former camp resident claimed to have been forcefully sent as a child to an indoctrination camp in Cuba, where he was taught ot use firearms. The camps have 27 clinics, a hospital and four regional hospitals. Men perform military service in the forces of the SADR
10.
Human rights in Western Sahara
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The Government of Morocco sees Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. The Moroccan government considers the Polisario Front as a separatist movement given the alleged Moroccan origins of some of its leaders, the United States, the European Union, the African Union and the United Nations do not recognize the sovereignty of Morocco over Western Sahara. Neither claim has met with support abroad, the USA, EU, AU and UN refused to include the Polisario Front on their lists of terrorist organizations. Human rights are repressed in the Moroccan-controlled territories of Western Sahara, according to Amnesty International in 2003, while the situation has improved since the early 1990s, the political liberalization in Morocco has not had the same effect on Western Sahara according to Amnesty International in 2004. When it comes to having a pro-independence position, there are allegations of police abuse and torture by Polisario-organisations. and suspected dissidents are harassed. The United States State Department reported in 2000 that there were arbitrary arrests of Sahrawis, prisoners of conscience were kept in squalid conditions according to Polisario-groups. Some Sahrawis also complain of discrimination in favor of Moroccan settlers. The Moroccan response to the demonstrations of 2005 was very aggressive, in a criticised mass trial in December 2005,14 leading Sahrawi activists were sentenced to prison sentences, many more had previously been detained. Most of these prisoners were released by royal decree in the spring of 2006. According to the US State Departments 2006 report on Morocco The law generally provides for freedom of speech, the government generally respected these rights in practice, as long as Islam, the monarchy, and territorial integrity were not criticized. Throughout the year several publications tested the boundaries of press freedom, foreign journalists and visiting missions have been prevented from visiting the territory and in some instances deported from it. Sahrawi human rights organizations have been refused permission to operate in Morocco, the Sahrawi branch of the Moroccan Forum for Truth and Justice was dissolved in 2003, and its members arrested. They were later released in the royal amnesties of 2006, or before that, Morocco has responded by blockading Internet access to these sites in Morocco and in Western Sahara, prompting accusations of Internet censorship. These websites, promoting independence for Western Sahara, have been censored since the beginning of December it reports. In 2010 around 520 Sahrawi civilians remained disappeared by Moroccan forces, according to human rights groups, since then, there have been no further releases of disappeared prisoners. Amnesty International stated in a 1999 report that, in May 2005, the remains of 43 Sahrawi disappeared were exhumed from secret prisons on the south of Morocco. They were detained in Western Sahara & southern Morocco in the 1970s & 1980s, many civilians were launched into space from helicopters or buried alive simply for being Sahrawis. Also, the testimonies of witnesses have not been published yet, in March 2010, a new grave was found by Bou Craa workers on a phosphate mine with 7 corpses, supposedly Sahrawi nomads killed by Moroccan forces during the mid-1970s
11.
Francoist Spain
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It is the opinion of several historians that during the Spanish Civil War, Francos goal was to turn Spain into a totalitarian state based on fascism like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Franco was also able to take advantage of the resources of the Axis Powers, Francos regime evolved into a more classic autocratic regime. The Spanish Civil War started as a coup by the Spanish military on the peninsula, the coup escalated into a civil war lasting for three years once Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany agreed to support Franco, starting with airlifting of the africanistas onto the mainland. However, the Falange remained the party throughout Francos regime and its ideology, National Syndicalism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regimes own figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger, and disease related to the conflict. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. On July 26,1947 Spain was declared a kingdom, Franco was to be succeeded by his Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government with the intention of continuing the Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination. With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain and he initiated the countrys subsequent transition to democracy, ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. After Francos victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the legal party in Spain. The Organic Law made the government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, as all ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco as the Chief of state and government, he was effectively the only source of legislation. The law of national referendums, passed in 1945 approved for all laws to be approved by a popular referendum. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through elections, however, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on the same year and Franco named a civilian, Carlos Arias Navarro as the countrys new Prime Minister. Concerns about the situation, Spains possible entry into World War II. The army maintained a strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the war, Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Francos rule. During the Algerian War, Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria, despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, the year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War. Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, in 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spains colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco
12.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
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Media related to Spanish Sahara at Wikimedia Commons
