1.
Spanish Sahara (song)
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Spanish Sahara is a song by English indie rock band Foals. Although not a single, it was the first song to be released from the bands second album. It was premiered on 1 March 2010, on BBC Radio 1, later that night, a music video for the single was put up on the Foals website. On 6 March, when the Total Life Forever site went up, the fifth sample was a synthesizer sample of Spanish Sahara. The single was released on 17 April only as a 7, only 1000 copies were printed and sold through independent record stores. The remix of the song by Mount Kimbie was later available as a free MP3 given to members of the Foals website, Yannis Philippakis once stated that it was probably the first song to be completed of the album. Regarding the meaning of the song, Philippakis said, It has no relevance to the real Spanish Sahara. Its kind of an imaginary place - somewhere thats quite nightmarish, Spanish Sahara peaked at number 148 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was one in the NME top 50 songs of the year 2010. In February 2011, it won the award for Best Song at the NME Awards, in October 2011, NME eventually placed it at number 14 on its list 150 Best Tracks of the Past 15 Years. In January 2011, the song was voted Number 98 on the Triple J Hottest 100 for 2010, the song was used in a promotional trailer for Season 7 of the HBO TV show Entourage and in a Series 2 episode of Misfits. It was also used in the finale of the video game. The music video, directed by Dave Ma, is intended to represent internal horror and it features lead singer Yannis Philippakis dragging an animal carcass up a hillside in Scotland and later burning it. According to Philippakis, the location they chose was similar to the place he had in mind when writing the song. Official website Lyrics of this song at MetroLyrics
Spanish Sahara (song)
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"Spanish Sahara"
2.
Flag of Spanish Sahara
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It has been used since the disengagement of the Spanish forces in 1976, when the Polisario proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, as the state that represents the territory. The flag of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a combination of the Pan-Arab colors of black, green, white, and red, on 27 February 1976 the flag was adopted as the official flag of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. It was slightly modified in June 1991 and it is said to be designed by El Uali Mustapha Sayed, the first president of the SADR. This flag is referred to as the flag of Western Sahara. The flag is a tricolor of three horizontal stripes overlaid by a red triangle issuing from the hoist. There is a red star and crescent in the middle stripe, the flag is extremely similar to the flags of the Baath Party, Jordan, Palestine, and the Arab Federation all of which draw their inspiration from the Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule. Prior to being the flag of Palestine, it was the flag of the short lived Arab Federation of Iraq, the flag of the Arab Revolt had the same graphic form, but the colours were arranged differently. Its design is based on that of the Palestinian flag, which in turn was derived from the used in the Arab Revolt. The star and crescent are considered symbols of Islam, and can be seen on flags of other neighbouring Islamic countries such as Algeria and Mauritania, Morocco has not adopted a flag for Western Sahara and uses the national flag of Morocco. On May 8,2010, a Moroccan flag with a size of 60,409.78 meters squared and it was certified by the Guinness Book of World Records as the largest flag ever draped until it was bested by a Lebanese flag. In the late 19th-century, Western Sahara became a Spanish colony, after the Madrid Accords of 1975, Spain disengaged itself leaving the territory to Morocco and Mauritania, who split the territory, giving two thirds to the former. The Polisario Front rejected this and declared in exile, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the representing a independent Western Sahara. In 1979, Mauritania signed a treaty with the Polisario front. A U. N. -brokered ceasefire was signed in 1991 between the two parties, but the sovereignty of the territory remains unresolved pending ongoing peace-talks, in the 1976–1997 provincial division of Morocco, three provinces included parts of Western Sahara. The provinces were, however, reorganized in 1997, consequently, some of these flags are no longer in official use. Flag of Morocco Coats of arms of Western Sahara Gallery of flags with crescents Western Sahara at Flags of the World
Flag of Spanish Sahara
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Construction of the flag
Flag of Spanish Sahara
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Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Flag of Spanish Sahara
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Construction of the star and crescent
Flag of Spanish Sahara
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Colors of the flag
3.
Coat of arms of Spanish Sahara
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The territory of Western Sahara is a disputed territory, claimed by, Morocco, which controls and administers about 80% of the territory. Currently, the coats of arms of the Moroccan regions of Western Sahara are used in part of Western Sahara. The Polisario Front and the government-in-exile of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic or SADR claim the independence of the territory, the coat of arms of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic are used by these two bodies. The Coat of arms of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a created by the Polisario Front. The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on February 27,1976, the symbol depicts two crossed rifles with the SADR flag hanging from either Mauser. Centered above them is a red crescent and star, Islamic and Arabic imagery, surrounding the guns and crescent are two olive branches, one on either side. At the bottom is written in Arabic the Polisario motto حرية ديمقراطية وحدة in black on a red banner, until June 1991 when it was modified, it also contained a hammer between the rifles. The Polisario Front rejected this move and declared in Bir Lehlou. In 1979, Mauritania signed a treaty with the Polisario front. A U. N. -brokered ceasefire was signed in 1991 between the two parties, but the sovereignty of the territory remains unresolved pending ongoing peace-talks, the Coat of arms of Spanish Sahara was used for the Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara. Its interior portion consisted of a camel, a palm tree. This interior portion was surrounded by a red bordure with four yellow castles and three gray lions rampant
Coat of arms of Spanish Sahara
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Coat of arms of Laayoune region
Morocco
Coat of arms of Spanish Sahara
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Coat of arms of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
4.
Spanish Empire
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The Spanish Empire was one of the largest empires in history. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power of its time and was the first to be called the empire on which the sun never sets, the Spanish Empire originated during the Age of Discovery after the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Following the Spanish–American War of 1898, Spain ceded its last colonies in the Caribbean and its last African colonies were granted independence or abandoned during Decolonisation of Africa finishing in 1976. The unity did not mean uniformity, nevertheless, some historians assert that Portugal was part of the Spanish monarchy at the time, while others draw a clear distinction between the Portuguese and Spanish empires. During the 15th century, Castile and Portugal became territorial and commercial rivals in the western Atlantic. The conquest was completed with the campaigns of the armies of the Crown of Castile between 1478 and 1496, when the islands of Gran Canaria, La Palma, and Tenerife were subjugated. The Portuguese tried in vain to keep secret their discovery of the Gold Coast in the Gulf of Guinea, chronicler Pulgar wrote that the fame of the treasures of Guinea spread around the ports of Andalusia in such way that everybody tried to go there. Worthless trinkets, Moorish textiles, and above all, shells from the Canary and Cape Verde islands were exchanged for gold, slaves, ivory and Guinea pepper. The Crown officially organized this trade with Guinea, every caravel had to get a government license, the treaty delimited the spheres of influence of the two countries, establishing the principle of the Mare clausum. It was confirmed in 1481 by the Pope Sixtus IV, in the papal bull Æterni regis, thus, the limitations imposed by the Alcáçovas treaty were overcome and a new and more balanced worlds division would be reached at Tordesillas between both emerging maritime powers. Seven months before the treaty of Alcaçovas, King John II of Aragon died, Ferdinand and Isabella drove the last Moorish king out of Granada in 1492 after a ten-year war. The Catholic Monarchs then negotiated with Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sailor attempting to reach Cipangu by sailing west, Castile was already engaged in a race of exploration with Portugal to reach the Far East by sea when Columbus made his bold proposal to Isabella. Columbus discoveries inaugurated the Spanish colonization of the Americas and these actions gave Spain exclusive rights to establish colonies in all of the New World from north to south, as well as the easternmost parts of Asia. The treaty of Tordesillas was confirmed by Pope Julius II in the bull Ea quae pro bono pacis on 24 January 1506, Spains expansion and colonization was driven by economic influences, a yearning to improve national prestige, and a desire to spread Catholicism into the New World. The Catholic Monarchs had developed a strategy of marriages for their children in order to isolate their long-time enemy, the Spanish princes married the heirs of Portugal, England and the House of Habsburg. Following the same strategy, the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Catalan-Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France in the Italian Wars beginning in 1494. As King of Aragon, Ferdinand had been involved in the struggle against France and Venice for control of Italy, these conflicts became the center of Ferdinands foreign policy as king. Only a year later, Ferdinand became part of the Holy League against France and this war was less of a success than the war against Venice, and in 1516, France agreed to a truce that left Milan in its control and recognized Spanish control of Upper Navarre
Spanish Empire
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Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs (The return of Columbus to Spain).
Spanish Empire
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Flag
Spanish Empire
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The death of French general
Gaston de Foix at the
Battle of Ravenna (1512).
Spanish Empire
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Upon the death of
Ferdinand the Catholic, the lordship of the Spanish Indies became Kingdoms of the Indies.
5.
Francoist Spain
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It is the opinion of several historians that during the Spanish Civil War, Francos goal was to turn Spain into a totalitarian state based on fascism like Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Franco was also able to take advantage of the resources of the Axis Powers, Francos regime evolved into a more classic autocratic regime. The Spanish Civil War started as a coup by the Spanish military on the peninsula, the coup escalated into a civil war lasting for three years once Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany agreed to support Franco, starting with airlifting of the africanistas onto the mainland. However, the Falange remained the party throughout Francos regime and its ideology, National Syndicalism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regimes own figures, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons, large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen and it has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger, and disease related to the conflict. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed the end of hostilities in 1945, independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. On July 26,1947 Spain was declared a kingdom, Franco was to be succeeded by his Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco as head of government with the intention of continuing the Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination. With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain and he initiated the countrys subsequent transition to democracy, ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. After Francos victory in 1939, the Falange was declared the legal party in Spain. The Organic Law made the government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, as all ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco as the Chief of state and government, he was effectively the only source of legislation. The law of national referendums, passed in 1945 approved for all laws to be approved by a popular referendum. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through elections, however, Carrero Blanco was assassinated on the same year and Franco named a civilian, Carlos Arias Navarro as the countrys new Prime Minister. Concerns about the situation, Spains possible entry into World War II. The army maintained a strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the war, Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Francos rule. During the Algerian War, Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria, despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. Henceforth, when French Morocco became independent in 1956, he surrendered Spanish Morocco to Mohammed V, the year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War. Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, in 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spains colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence, and the next year, ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco
Francoist Spain
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By decision of King Juan Carlos I, Franco is entombed in the monument of
Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos.
Francoist Spain
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Flag
Francoist Spain
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Equestrian statue of Generalisimo Franco in the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (City Hall Plaza) of
Santander. It was taken down in late 2008.
6.
Roman Catholicism in Western Sahara
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The Roman Catholic Church in Western Sahara is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome. Western Sahara is a former Spanish colony, and the Catholic faith was introduced via Spanish colonialism, prior to Spains abandoning the country in 1975, there were over 20,000 Spanish Catholics, who formed roughly 32% of the total population before the Moroccan invasion. Western Sahara is one of the most religiously homogeneous nations in the world, the World Factbook estimates put the indigenous population to be entirely Muslim. The Christian community is composed of around 260 expatriate Spaniards out of a resident population of over 587,000. It was later renamed as the Prefecture Apostolic of Spanish Sahara on May 2,1970, there are 2 parishes,2 religious priests and 2 lay religious brothers as of 2014. Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of West Sahara Spanish Cathedral in El-Aaiún, Western Sahara Western Sahara on Catholic-Hierarchy. org
Roman Catholicism in Western Sahara
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Saint Francis of Assisi Cathedral, El Aaiún
Roman Catholicism in Western Sahara
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A church in
Dakhla
7.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam
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Malaysian Sunni Muslims in a
Mawlid procession in capital
Putrajaya, 2013.
Sunni Islam
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The
Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) was, in particular during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries, an important center of Islamic learning with an emphasis on the
Maliki Madh'hab. It is located in the city of
Kairouan in
Tunisia
8.
Spanish peseta
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The peseta was the currency of Spain between 1869 and 2002. Along with the French franc, it was also a de facto currency used in Andorra, the name of the currency comes from pesseta, the diminutive form of the word peça, which is a Catalan word that means piece or fraction. The first non-official coins which contained the word peseta were made in 1808 in Barcelona, traditionally, there was never a single symbol or special character for the Spanish peseta. Common abbreviations were Pt, Pta, Pts and Ptas, sometimes using superior letters, common earlier Spanish models of mechanical typewriters had the expression Pts on a single type head, as a shorthand intended to fill a single type space in tables instead of three. Later, Spanish models of IBM electric typewriters also included the type in its repertoire. This original character set chart later became the MS-DOS code page 437, some spreadsheet software for PC under MS-DOS, as Lotus 1-2-3, employed this character as the peseta symbol in their Spanish editions. Subsequent international MS-DOS code pages, like code page 850 and others, in order to guarantee the interchange with previous encodings such as code page 437, the international standard Unicode includes this character as U+20A7 PESETA SIGN in its Currency Symbols block. Other than that, the use of the peseta symbol standalone is extremely rare, in the version 1.0 of Unicode the character ₧ U+20A7 PESETA SIGN had two reference glyphs, a Pts ligature glyph as in IBM code page 437 and an erroneous P with stroke. The peseta was subdivided into 100 céntimos or, informally,4 reales, the last coin of any value under one peseta was a 50-céntimo coin issued in 1980 to celebrate Spains hosting of the 1982 FIFA World Cup. The last 25-céntimo coin was dated 1959, the ten céntimos also dated 1959, the 1-céntimo coin was last minted in 1913 and featured King Alfonso XIII. The 1⁄2-céntimo coin was last minted in 1868 and featured Queen Isabel II, the peseta was introduced in 1869 after Spain joined the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The Spanish Law of June 26,1864 decreed that in preparation for joining the Latin Monetary Union, the peseta replaced the escudo at a rate of 5 pesetas =1 peso duro =2 escudos. The peseta was equal to 4.5 grams of silver, or 0.290322 grams of gold, from 1873, only the gold standard applied. The political turbulence of the twentieth century caused the monetary union to break up. In 1959, Spain became part of the Bretton Woods System, in 1967, the peseta followed the devaluation of the British pound, maintaining the exchange rate of 168 pesetas =1 pound and establishing a new rate of 70 pesetas =1 U. S. dollar. The peseta was replaced by the euro in 2002, following the establishment of the euro in 1999, the exchange rate was 1 euro =166.386 pesetas. At least 1252–1284 there was a 1 obolo brass coin – plated with silver – stamped, colnect shows even a first 1 Maravedí-coin made of copper having been edited since 1454. The bigger silver coin 1 Real came out 1786, the latter two currency units were used until the Peseta came in 1869
Spanish peseta
Spanish peseta
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100 pesetas
Spanish peseta
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Last editions of peseta coins (lacks 500 pts. coin) and
1 euro coin for size reference.
Spanish peseta
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La Fuensanta on the reverse of 100 Spanish pesetas, 1953
9.
Southern Provinces
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The Southern Provinces or Moroccan Sahara are the terms used by the Moroccan government for Western Sahara. These two official Moroccan denominations explicitly include all of Western Sahara, the Moroccan government favours Southern Provinces for its geographical obviousness, and because of the sensitivity of the word Sahara in Morocco. The Polisario Front controls the remaining fifth, which is isolated from the ocean, mostly empty of any population, dry, the two thirds of Western Sahara that are controlled by Morocco are treated by the government as normal Moroccan territory. Morocco then seized the opportunity and took control of the part of Río de Oro as well. Since a United Nations-sponsored ceasefire agreement in 1991, about two thirds of the territory is administered by Morocco, including all the seacoasts, due to the construction of the Moroccan Wall, the Polisario Front controls most of the remainder, which is almost unpopulated. Polisarios army is considered incapable of covering the vast one-third of Western Sahara, moreover, most of Polisarios army is thought to be concentrated in the Tinduf area inside Algeria, safe from the long arm of Moroccos superior artillery and air force. The cease-fire line corresponds to the route of the weaponized Moroccan Wall, both sides claim the territory of Western Sahara in its entirety. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic had been recognized by 84 nations, and is a member of the African Union. Moroccan territorial integrity is implicitly recognized by the Arab League with strong reservations from Algeria and Syria, administratively, Morocco divided the territory under its control into administrative units. Flags and coats of arms were created for the three wilayas of Boujdour, Smara and Laayoune, there were further changes in the territories in 1983, with the area becoming four wilayas through the addition of Dakhla. In 1990 Wadi al-Dhahab was added, Morocco has assigned a special satellite TV channel for the Southern Provinces, called Laayoun TV. Following the 1975 Green March, the Moroccan state has sponsored settlement schemes enticing thousands of Moroccans to move into the Moroccan-occupied part of Western Sahara, by 2015, it was estimated that Moroccan settlers made up at least two thirds of the 500,000 inhabitants
Southern Provinces
–
The Southern Provinces. The land west of the red line, which indicates the
Moroccan Wall, is under Moroccan control
10.
Tiris al-Gharbiyya
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Tiris al-Gharbiyya was the name for the area of Western Sahara under Mauritanian control between 1975 and 1979. Mauritania annexed the southern third of the former Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara in 1975 after the Madrid Accords, the latter was the preferred option of the Polisario Front, a Sahrawi organization which turned its guerrilla forces against both countries, having until then fought Spain. Its attacks against Mauritania proved highly effective, in 1978, the one-party government of Moktar Ould Daddah was severely compromised by the failing war effort, and fell to a coup by disgruntled army officers. Mauritania then disengaged from the conflict, surrendering its claims to any part of Western Sahara, the areas occupied by Mauritania were entered by Morocco, which has since claimed ownership over the entire territory, despite continued opposition by Polisario, and its main backer, Algeria. Mauritanian president Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla in 1984 proceeded to recognize the Polisario-backed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the sovereign of the area. After his toppling in yet another military coup détat later the same year, Western Tiris was the lower half of Río de Oro, the southern province of the former Spanish Sahara, comprising 88,000 km² with a population of 12,897. It consisted mostly of desert terrain, scarcely populated except by some thousands of Sahrawi nomads. A few minor settlements dotted the coast, and the largest of these and it remains mostly unexplored and unexploited to this day. The exception is the rich Atlantic fishing waters and they were never put to use by Mauritania, but have since been fished by Morocco and foreign ships under Moroccan licenses. The name Tiris refers to a plain of the Sahara. Mauritanias northernmost province is similarly called Tiris Zemmour, where Zemmour refers to a range in central Western Sahara. The Ould Daddah governments claims to the territory was based in the cultural and tribal ties between the Moorish inhabitants of Mauritania, and the tribes of Western Sahara. The government argued they were all part of the same people, but it also recognized that there had never been a Mauritanian state to claim the territory, since Mauritania itself was a modern-day creation of French colonialism. Instead, it recommended a standard self-determination process where Sahrawis were given the choice of merger with Mauritania and/or Morocco, in later years, the Mauritanian government has maintained a policy of strict neutrality between Polisario and Morocco, while retaining its recognition of the SADR. Minor parts of the Mauritanian political opposition will occasionally express interest in the area, other groups support either Polisario or Morocco. Free Zone History of Western Sahara History of Mauritania Regions of Mauritania Southern Provinces
Tiris al-Gharbiyya
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Flag
11.
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
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SADR was proclaimed by the Polisario Front on February 27,1976, in Bir Lehlou, Western Sahara, a former communist liberation force which has since reformed its ideological and political views. The SADR government controls about 20–25% of the territory it claims and it calls the territories under its control the Liberated Territories or the Free Zone. Morocco controls and administers the rest of the territory and calls these lands its Southern Provinces. The SADR government considers the Moroccan-held territory to be occupied territory, the claimed capital of the SADR is El-Aaiún, while the temporary capital has been moved from Bir Lehlou to Tifariti. The Sahrawi Republic maintains diplomatic relations with 40 UN states, and is a member of the African Union. On 26 February 1976, Spain informed the United Nations that as of date it had terminated its presence in Western Sahara and relinquished its responsibilities. Neither Morocco nor Mauritania gained international recognition, and war ensued with the independence-seeking Polisario Front, on February 27,2008, the provisional capital was formally moved to Tifariti. Day-to-day business, however, is conducted in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, the broad guidelines laid down for an eventual Western Saharan state in the constitution include eventual multi-party democracy with a market economy. The constitution also defines Sahrawis as a Muslim, African and Arab people, the Constitution also declares a commitment to the principles of human rights and to the concept of a Greater Maghreb, as a regional variant of Pan-Arabism. The SADRs government structure consists of a Council of Ministers, a judicial branch, since its inception in 1976, the various constitutional revisions have transformed the republic from an ad hoc managerial structure into something approaching an actual governing apparatus. Its various ministries are responsible for a variety of services and functions, the judiciary, complete with trial courts, appeals courts and a supreme court, operates in the same areas. As a government-in-exile, many branches of government do not fully function, among other things, it has added a ban on the death penalty to the constitution, and brought down the government in 1999 through a vote of no-confidence. The composition of the Sahrawi National Council is as follows, The SADR acted as a government administration in the Sahrawi refugee camps located in the Tindouf Province of western Algeria. The government of the SADR claims sovereignty over all of the Western Sahara territory, several foreign aid agencies, including the UN High Commission for Refugees, and nongovernmental organizations are continually active in the camps. As of 2016, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic has been recognized by 85 states, of these,37 have since frozen or withdrawn recognition for a number of reasons. A total of 40 UN states maintain diplomatic relations with the SADR, Sahrawi embassies exist in 18 states. Although it is not recognised by the United Nations, the SADR has held membership of the African Union since 1982. The SADR participates as guest on meetings of the Non-Aligned Movement or the New Asian–African Strategic Partnership, on the other hand, Moroccos claim to Western Sahara is supported by the Arab League
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
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Commemoration of the 30th independence day in
Tifariti,
Liberated Territories,
Western Sahara
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
–
Flag
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
–
A
mosque in
Dakhla.
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
–
The Spanish actress
Verónica Forqué at the
Sahara Film Festival.
12.
Morocco
–
Morocco, officially known as the Kingdom of Morocco, is a sovereign country located in the Maghreb region of North Africa. Geographically, Morocco is characterized by a mountainous interior, large tracts of desert. Morocco has a population of over 33.8 million and an area of 446,550 km2 and its capital is Rabat, and the largest city is Casablanca. Other major cities include Marrakesh, Tangier, Tetouan, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, a historically prominent regional power, Morocco has a history of independence not shared by its neighbours. Marinid and Saadi dynasties continued the struggle against foreign domination, the Alaouite dynasty, the current ruling dynasty, seized power in 1666. In 1912 Morocco was divided into French and Spanish protectorates, with a zone in Tangier. Moroccan culture is a blend of Arab, indigenous Berber, Sub-Saharan African, Morocco claims the non-self-governing territory of Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. Morocco annexed the territory in 1975, leading to a war with indigenous forces until a cease-fire in 1991. Peace processes have thus far failed to break the political deadlock, Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive and legislative powers, especially over the military, foreign policy, the king can issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. He can also dissolve the parliament after consulting the Prime Minister, Moroccos predominant religion is Islam, and the official languages are Arabic and Tamazight. The Moroccan dialect, referred to as Darija, and French are also widely spoken, Morocco is a member of the Arab League, the Union for the Mediterranean, and the African Union. It has the fifth largest economy of Africa, the full Arabic name al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyyah translates to Kingdom of the West, although the West in Arabic is الغرب Al-Gharb. The basis of Moroccos English name is Marrakesh, its capital under the Almoravid dynasty, the origin of the name Marrakesh is disputed, but is most likely from the Berber words amur akush or Land of God. The modern Berber name for Marrakesh is Mṛṛakc, in Turkish, Morocco is known as Fas, a name derived from its ancient capital of Fes. The English name Morocco is an anglicisation of the Spanish Marruecos, the area of present-day Morocco has been inhabited since Paleolithic times, sometime between 190,000 and 90,000 BC. During the Upper Paleolithic, the Maghreb was more fertile than it is today, twenty-two thousand years ago, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian culture, which shared similarities with Iberian cultures. Skeletal similarities have been suggested between the Iberomaurusian Mechta-Afalou burials and European Cro-Magnon remains, the Iberomaurusian was succeeded by the Beaker culture in Morocco
Morocco
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Berber Roman King
Ptolemy of Mauretania.
Morocco
–
Flag
Morocco
–
Roman mosaic of Diana in
Volubilis.
Morocco
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Morocco, Safi ceramic vessel Jobbana
13.
Western Sahara conflict
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The Western Sahara conflict is an ongoing conflict between the Polisario Front and the Kingdom of Morocco. The conflict is the continuation of the past insurgency by Polisario against the Spanish colonial forces in 1973–75, today the conflict is dominated by unarmed civil campaigns of the Polisario Front and their self-proclaimed SADR state to gain fully recognized independence for Western Sahara. The conflict escalated after the withdrawal of Spain from the Spanish Sahara in accordance with the Madrid Accords, beginning in 1975, the Polisario Front, backed and supported by Algeria, waged a 16-year-long war for independence against Mauritania and Morocco. In 1977, France intervened, as the conflict reached its peak intensity, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict and territories, leading to a stalemate through most of the 1980s. After several more engagements between 1989 and 1991, a agreement was reached between the Polisario Front and the Moroccan government. At present, these borders are largely unchanged, in late 2010, the protests re-erupted in the Gdeim Izik refugee camp in Western Sahara. While the protests were peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces, resulting in dozens of casualties on both sides. Though sporadic demonstrations continue, the movement had subsided by May 2011. In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc, later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain merged the separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Sahrawi population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the Spanish-claimed territory for a long time, ma al-Aynayn died in October 1910, and his son El Hiba succeeded him. El Hibas forces were defeated during a campaign to conquer Marrakesh. The city was rebuilt, and Sahrawi resistance continued for the following twenty years. The rebellious territory was subdued in 1934, after joint Spanish. In 1956 the Ifni War, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, marked renewed conflict in the region, however, unrest lingered among the regions population, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students in the universities of Morocco began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra, as a result of this ambivalence, the movement eventually relocated to Spanish-controlled Western Sahara to start an armed rebellion. Women in Western Sahara are prominent members of the Polisario Front as soldiers, the Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate, with the express intention of militarily forcing an end to Spanish colonization. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed, on 20 May he led the Khanga raid, the Polisarios first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun and a cache of rifles seized
Western Sahara conflict
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Gathering of Saharawi troops, near Tifariti (Western Sahara), celebrating the 32nd anniversary to the Polisario Front (2005).
14.
Greater Morocco
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Current usage most frequently occurs in a critical context accusing Morocco, largely in discussing the disputed Western Sahara, of irredentist claims on neighbouring territories. Irredentists, official and unofficial Moroccan claims on territories viewed by Moroccans as having been some form of Moroccan sovereignty are rhetorically tied back to an accused expansionism. However, Moroccan government claims make no current reference to the greater Morocco concept, in 1963, following the Independence of Algeria, Morocco attacked a strip of its south-western regions, claiming that parts of them were previously under Moroccan sovereignty. After a month of fighting and some hundreds of casualties, the conflict stalemated and this was initially not supported by the Sultan of Morocco. Al-Fassis ambitions gained more support in parliament in the beginning of the sixties, al-Fassis wider claims were effectively abandoned in the later sixties, although Morocco claims Western Sahara and the Spanish plazas de soberanía on its northern coast. Moroccos refusal to accept its post-colonial borders in the case of Western Sahara has put it on a course with the African Union. As a consequence, Morocco is the only African country to step out of the union, because the Polisario Front, on July 11,2002 a group of Moroccan soldiers set up base on the islet. After protests from the Spanish government, led by José María Aznar, on the morning of July 18,2002 Spain launched a full-scale military operation to take over the island
Greater Morocco
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Greater Morocco
15.
Greater Mauritania
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Greater Mauritania is a term for the Mauritanian irredentist claim to Western Sahara, and possibly other Moorish or Sahrawi-populated areas of the western Sahara desert. The term was first used by Mauritanias first president, Mokhtar Ould Daddah, in 1957, Ould Daddah stated I therefore call on our brothers in the Spanish Sahara to dream of this economic and spiritual Greater Mauritania of which we cannot speak at present. I address to them and I ask you to repeat to them a message of friendship, both areas had been part of the premodern Bilad Chinguetti, the Land of Chinguetti, a religious center in contemporary Mauritania. The claim to the Spanish Sahara was again popularized by the regime in the early 1970s, the idea helped build unity at home, and to hold back Moroccan expansionism. The Mauritanian portion of the territory, corresponding to the half of Río de Oro. The takeover was violently opposed by an indigenous independence movement, the Polisario Front. The ensuing war went badly for Mauritania, and Ould Daddahs government fell in 1978, the country left Tiris al-Gharbiyya the following year, renouncing all claims to any part of Western Sahara, and recognizing the Polisario Front as its peoples legitimate representative. Relations with Rabat deteriorated rapidly, and amid allegations of Moroccan backing for attempted coups and minor armed clashes, Mauritania drew closer to Algeria, the government later established formal relations with the Fronts government-in-exile, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, as a recognized sovereign over the territory. The vision of Greater Mauritania holds little appeal in todays Mauritania, while still recognizing the Sahrawi republic, Mauritania has largely mended relations with Morocco and now generally seeks to stay out of the Western Sahara dispute, which remains unresolved. History of Western Sahara Greater Morocco Irredentism Douglas E. Ashford, Johns Hopkins University, The Irredentist Appeal in Morocco and Mauritania, The Western Political Quarterly, Vol.15, tony Hodges, Western Sahara, The Roots of a Desert War, Lawrence Hill Books. John Mercer, Spanish Sahara, George Allen & Unwid Ltd. Jacob Mundy, how the US and Morocco seized Western Sahara. Zekeria Ould Ahmed Salem, Mauritania, A Saharan Frontier State, Journal of North Africa Studies, Vol.10, anthony G. Pazzanita, Historical Dictionary of Mauritania, 2nd ed, Scarecrow Press. Anthony G. Pazzanita, Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, 3rd ed, C. R. Pennell, Morocco since 1830. A History, New York University Press, virginia Thompson and Richard Adloff, The Western Saharans. Background to Conflict, Barnes & Noble Books
Greater Mauritania
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The proposed Greater Mauritania shown within Africa
16.
Polisario Front
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It is an observer member of the Socialist International. The United Nations considers the Polisario Front to be the representative of the Sahrawi people. The Polisario Front is outlawed in the parts of Western Sahara under Moroccan control and they called themselves the Constituent Congress of the Polisario Front. Its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed, on 20 May, the new organization attacked El-Khanga, where there was a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun and rifles seized. At this point, Polisarios manpower included perhaps 800 men and women, with Algerias help, Polisario set up headquarters in Tindouf. Upon Spains withdrawal, and in application of the Madrid Accords in 1976, the Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1976, and waged a guerrilla war against both Morocco and Mauritania. The World Court at The Hague had issued its verdict on the former Spanish colony just weeks before, for the next two years the movement grew tremendously as Sahrawi refugees continued flocking to the camps and Algeria and Libya supplied arms and funding. Within months, its army had expanded to several thousand armed fighters, camels were replaced by modern jeeps, the reorganized army was able to inflict severe damage through guerrilla-style hit-and-run attacks against opposing forces in Western Sahara and in Morocco and Mauritania proper. A comprehensive peace treaty was signed on 5 August 1979, in which the new government recognized Sahrawi rights to Western Sahara, Mauritania withdrew all its forces and would later proceed to formally recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, causing a massive rupture in relations with Morocco. King Hassan II of Morocco immediately claimed the area of Western Sahara evacuated by Mauritania, a cease-fire between the Polisario Front and Morocco, monitored by MINURSO, has been in effect since 6 September 1991, on the promise of a referendum on independence the following year. However, the referendum stalled over disagreements on voter rights, numerous attempts to restart the process seem to have failed. The Polisario has repeatedly threatened to resume if a referendum cannot be held. Pressures on the leadership from the population to resume fighting are apparent. The project was presented to the United Nations Security Council in mid-April 2007 and this led to the negotiations process known as the Manhasset negotiations. Four rounds were held in 2007 and 2008, no progress was made, however, Polisario agreed to add autonomy as per the Moroccan proposal to a referendum ballot, but refused to relinquish the concept of an independence referendum itself, as agreed in 1991 and 1997. Morocco, in its turn, insisted on negotiating the terms of autonomy offered. The Polisario is first and foremost a nationalist organization, whose goal is the independence of Western Sahara. It has stated that ideological disputes should be left for a future democratic Western Sahara to deal with and it views itself as a front encompassing all political trends in Sahrawi society, and not as a political party
Polisario Front
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Gathering of Polisario troops, near Tifariti (Western Sahara), celebrating the 32nd anniversary of the Polisario Front.
Polisario Front
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Polisario Front جبهة البوليساريو Jabhat al-Bōlīsāryū Frente Polisario
Polisario Front
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A pro-Polisario demonstration in Madrid (2006)
Polisario Front
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Mohamed Abdelaziz, the Polisario Front secretary-general (in white).
17.
Sahrawi National Union Party
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Partido de Unión Nacional Saharaui was a short-lived political party set up by Francoist Spain to rally indigenous support in its rebellious Spanish Sahara colony. The PUNS was created in late 1974 as the Partido Revolucionario Progresivo and it was composed mainly of members of the Djemaa, a tribalist political body set up for similar purposes in the 1950s. Its flag is based on the Spanish flag for the Ifni-Sahara maritime province, PUNS was during its time the only legal party within the territory of Francoist Spain, except the ruling Falange Española. PUNS was allowed to send delegates to the Cortes in Madrid and it had no decision making powers, and was more an instrument of the military governors in Western Sahara. Its leaders and creators, Khellihenna Ould Errachid and Dueh Sidna Naucha, the partys political program was supportive of Spain, and changed according to the rapid evolution of Spanish policy. In first months of its existence, its activity mainly consisted of statements denouncing the Polisario Front. PUNS also advocated independence as a distant goal to be preceded by autonomy within Spain, many members were also present at the Ain Ben Tili and Guelta Zemmur conferences, although not as representatives of the party, but rather of the Djemaa or their tribal groupings. In addition to this, Polisario remained distrustful, and did not accept the demand of PUNS leaders to form a political front while preserving the partys internal structure. El-Ouali instead insisted that the PUNS dissolve itself and that its supporters could join the Polisario Front as regular members, on July 6,1975, the first clashes between PUNS and Polisario membership took place in El Aaiun, with several wounded. The night before, the PUNS offices in Smara were burned by POLISARIO members, as Morocco and Mauritania invaded in November 1975, after the Madrid Accords, Spain abandoned PUNS, and what little remained of the party instantly collapsed. Its membership dispersed, many were away in the refugee exodus to Tindouf, Algeria. Dueh Sidina Naucha went to Spain in 1975, in 1987 he surprisingly reappeared in the Liberated Territories during a UN technical visiting mission. He declared that though not a Polisario member, he is a Sahrawi. Naucha added that after the Green March our 20,000 militants integrated the POLISARIO and he now lives in the Canary Islands. A very small number of activists went to Mauritania, supporting the Ould Daddah governments claims on the territory until its collapse in 1978. Tony Hodges, Western Sahara, The Roots of a Desert War, Lawrence Hill Books Anthony G. Pazzanita and Tony Hodges, Historical Dictionary of Western Sahara, Scarecrow Press
Sahrawi National Union Party
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Sahrawi National Union Party حزب الاتحاد الوطني الصحراوي Hizb Al-Ittihad Al-Qawmi Aṣ-Ṣaḥrāwīyyah
18.
Free Zone (region)
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For Morocco, it is a buffer territory. The area is separated from the rest of the Western Sahara territory by a 2,200 kilometer -long wall. flanked by one of the worlds largest minefields, the border is often referred to as the Berm. The zone was established as a Polisario-held zone in a 1991 cease-fire between the Polisario Front and Morocco, which had agreed upon together as part of the Settlement Plan. Morocco controls the areas west of the Berm, including most of the territorys population, the cease-fire is overseen by the United Nations MINURSO forces, charged with peacekeeping in the area and the organization of a referendum on independence. The status of Western Sahara is hotly disputed between Polisario and Morocco, and this includes the names used to refer to areas under the control of the different sides and this zone serves as a division-of-forces no-mans land. Areas outside this zone are open to activity by the side that controls them, similarly, Polisario call the areas a liberated territory or the free zone, but this is not an official designation. The UN calls it simply east of the Berm, and refers to territories under Moroccan control as west of the Berm, according to the Settlement Plan, the movement of Polisario fighters is restricted similarly to how Moroccan forces face restrictions on their side of the Berm. Each of the five parts has specific restrictions as for the two parties military activities, Buffer Strip, No entry of RMA and FPOL personnel and equipment, No firing of weapons in or over the area. Restricted Areas, No firing of weapons and/or military training exercises, some exceptions apply and some activities are allowed after prior information to or approval by MINURSO. MINURSO need to be informed if the parties intend to conduct military exercises, the population of the territory east of the Wall is estimated to be between 30,000 -40,000 inhabitants. By comparison, it is estimated that 500,000 inhabitants live west of the Wall, following the 1975 Green March, the Moroccan state has sponsored settlement schemes enticing thousands of Moroccans to move into the Moroccan-occupied part. The major settlements on the zone are Tifariti, Bir Lehlou, Agounit, Meharrize, Mijek, Dougaj, access is difficult even for Sahrawis due to the harsh climate of the Sahara, the military conflict and the abundance of land mines. The area is inhabited primarily by Sahrawi nomads, that maintain the traditional camel herding of their ancestors, there is also a small merchant population, who sell goods to travellers. The total size of the Polisarios guerrilla army present in area is unknown. Some sources claim between 3, 000–6,000 men, while others rise the number up to 12,000 and these forces are dug into permanent positions, such as gun emplacements, defensive trenches and underground military bases, as well as conducting mobile patrols of the territory. Minurso reports that there are on average 2–4 such violations in the whole Western Sahara territory each month, in addition to this, there are several more violations related to local commanders on both sides refusing the inspection of their forces by Minurso personnel. As an example, the mission homepage quotes the month of June 2006, despite these minor breaches, there has to date been no serious hostile action from either side since 1991, and both sides of the Berm are considered calm by peacekeeping standards. Annual demonstrations against the Moroccan Wall are staged in the region by Sahrawis and international activists from Spain, Italy and these actions are closely monitored by the UN
Free Zone (region)
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The Spanish actress
Verónica Forqué at the
Sahara Film Festival.
Free Zone (region)
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Tifariti, in the northeast of the zone, 2005
19.
Political status of Western Sahara
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Western Sahara, formerly the Spanish colony of Spanish Sahara, is a disputed territory claimed by both the Kingdom of Morocco and the Polisario Front. It is listed by the United Nations, as a territory and is thus included in the United Nations List of Non-Self-Governing Territories. Since the Madrid Accords of 1975, a part of Western Sahara has been administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces, another section, the Liberated Territories, is administered by the Polisario Front as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Mauritania administers temporally the western half of the Ras Nouadhibou Peninsula, a UN-monitored cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991. Overall, the annexation has not garnered as much attention in the community as many other disputed annexations. The UN recognizes neither Moroccan nor SADR sovereignty over Western Sahara, the official position of the Kingdom of Morocco since 1963 is that all of Western Sahara is an integral part of the kingdom. The Moroccan government refers to Western Sahara only as Moroccan Sahara, according to the Moroccan government, in 1958 the Moroccan Army of Liberation fought Spanish colonizers and almost liberated what was then Spanish Sahara. The fathers of many of the Polisario leaders were among the veterans of the Moroccan Southern Army, Morocco is supported in this view by a number of former Polisario founders and leaders. It began as a movement of students who felt torn between the divergent Spanish and Moroccan influences on the country, the Polisario engaged in guerrilla warfare with the Moroccan and Mauritanian forces. It evacuated the Sahrawi population to the Tindouf refugee camps due to Royal Moroccan Air Force bombing of the camps on Sahrawi land with napalm. The Polisario Front has called for the self-determination of the people of Western Sahara to be decided through a referendum, the Polisario Front argues that Moroccos position is due to economical interests and political reasons. The Polisario Front proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic in Bir Lehlou, claims on Western Sahara had proliferated since the 1960s, fuelled by Mauritanian President Moktar Ould Daddah. In April 1976, Mauritania and Morocco partitioned the country into three parts, Mauritania getting the one, which was named Tiris al-Gharbiyya. Mauritania waged four years of war against Polisario guerrillas, conducting raids on Nouakchott, attacks on the Zouerate mine train, the Moroccan Army immediately took control of the former Mauritanian territory. Mauritania recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 27 February 1984, algeria has supported the independence of the whole of Western Sahara since 1975, when Spanish forces and settlers withdrew from the area. It is one of the few countries to do so in the Arab League and it has provided aid to the Polisario Front. Algerias role became indirect, through political and military support for the Polisario Front, algeria recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic on 6 March 1976. On the UN list of territories to be decolonized, when it was still a Spanish colony and it has retained that status due to the persistence of the conflict
Political status of Western Sahara
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President of the SADR,
Mohamed Abdelaziz
Political status of Western Sahara
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A demonstration in Bilbao for the independence of the Western Sahara.
Political status of Western Sahara
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Photo of Former Assistant Secretary of State, David Welch (2005–2008) who in 2007 expressed strong support for Morocco and its autonomy plan in the conflict over Western Sahara, calling the plan a "serious and credible" solution.
20.
Foreign relations of Morocco
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Moroccos relationships vary greatly between African, Arab, and Western states. Morocco has had ties to the West in order to gain economic. France and Spain remain the trade partners, as well as the primary creditors. From the total investments in Morocco, the European Union invests approximately 73. 5%, whereas. Many countries from the Persian Gulf and Maghreb regions are getting involved in large-scale development projects in Morocco. Foreign relations have had a significant impact on economic and social development in Morocco, certain evidence of foreign influence is through the many development projects, loans, investments, and free trade agreements that Morocco has with other countries. An example of recent foreign influence is through loan agreements, Morocco signed three loan agreements with the French Development Agency in 2009, totalling up to 155 million euros. These were for the purpose of reforming the system, rural roads and rehabilitation. Policies associated with foreign relations are determined by the king, King Mohamed VI, Morocco has had a history of monarch rule. For example, the king of Morocco in 1965 suspended parliament and this was in response to the discovery of a plot on the kings life, of which the political party, UNFP, was accused. Foreign relations with western powers became strained as a result of this, portraying Morocco as a democratic state became important if Morocco wished to receive loans and investments by foreign powers. Moroccos current relations with some countries are related to its colonial history, Morocco was secretly partitioned by Spain and France and in 1912 Morocco became a protectorate. After achieving independence in 1956, Morocco still has a relationship with its former colonizers. Spain and France are currently the largest exporting and importing partners to Morocco, French is still popularly spoken and remains the second language in Morocco whilst Spanish is also widespread, particularly in the northern regions. France now is home to more than a million Moroccans legally residing in the country and this is the largest population of Moroccans in a country, followed next by Spain. These former colonizers remain influential in matters, such as development projects, investments, trade. Relations with foreign powers, especially with the West, have also strengthened as Morocco has liberalized its economy. In 1993 there was major privatization and markets were opened up to foreign powers, Morocco now is focusing more on promoting foreign direct investments
Foreign relations of Morocco
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The last page of 1786
treaty of friendship.
Foreign relations of Morocco
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Embassy of Morocco in Ottawa
Foreign relations of Morocco
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Morocco embassy in Tokyo, Japan
21.
Politics of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
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The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic claims the whole Western Sahara, a territory most of which is currently administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. SADR control some part of the territory, called the Free Zone and its government seats in Tindouf, Algeria. According to its constitution, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is a form of one-party state, the Polisario fronts SADR claims to administer a portion to the east of the Moroccan Wall. The Polisarios government-in-exile was seated as member of the Organisation of African Unity in 1984, guerrilla activities continued until a United Nations-monitored cease-fire was implemented September 6,1991 via the mission MINURSO. The mission patrols the separation line between the two territories, Morocco accepted the plan, while Algeria and the Polisario Front rejected it. Algeria proposed a partition of the territory instead, Polisario has accepted the plan, but Morocco has rejected it. The Government of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic is headed by President, the Sahrawi National Council is the legislature of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic government in exile. It has 53 members, elected for a term in 11 constituencies. The Sahrawi population in the camps in Algeria as well as in the Free Zone participates in elections to the institutions of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The most recent election for the Sahrawi National Council took place between 17 February and 19 February 2008, the foreign relations of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic are conducted by the Polisario Front, which maintains a network of representation offices and embassies in foreign countries. It has conducted diplomatic relations with states and international organisations since its inception in 1973, in 1966, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 22/29 affirmed for the first time the Sahrawi right on self-determination. Foreign relations of Morocco#Western Sahara Legal status of Western Sahara Janos, Besenyo
Politics of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
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Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR)
22.
Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs
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The Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs is an advisory committee to the Moroccan government on the Western Sahara. It was devised by King of Morocco, Hassan II in the 1970s and it was re-established by his son, Mohammed VI in early 2006, after a new autonomy plan was devised to replace the United Nations Baker Plan. The autonomy plan is opposed by the Polisario Front, which demands that the United Nations resolutions calling for a referendum be implemented. The CORCAS is intended as a body for proposals related to what Morocco calls its Southern Provinces. The Council is also intended to facilitate dialogue with the Sahrawi in the camps of Tindouf. The 141 members of CORCAS are Moroccan and Sahrawi political and traditional notables, representatives for women and youth groups, the members are appointed by the Moroccan government and support the Moroccan claims on Western Sahara. Of these members 14 are women, notably, the father of the late Polisario Front leader Mohamed Abdelaziz is a member of the CORCAS. There are nine vice-presidents, Khaddad El Moussaoui, Hassan Derham, Abdelaziz Abba, Omar Bouida, Ali Salem Chegaf, Othmane Ila, Hassana Cherif, Breika Zerouali, the mandate of the Council expired on March 25,2010, never renewed. The CORCAS leadership travels extensively and is featured in the Moroccan press. Its chairman, Khalihenna Ould Errachid, regularly attends meetings in foreign forums, such as the UN, among others, the CORCAS President has met with the President of the Peoples Republic of China, the former French foreign minister, and various other international officials. Many civilians were launched into space from helicopters or buried alive simply for being Sahrawis, in his opinion, the countrys actions in the Western Sahara were alienating Sahrawis, and thus could push more youth towards what he defined as separatism
Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs
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Family and education
23.
Ifni War
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The city of Sidi Ifni was incorporated into the Spanish colonial empire in 1860. In 1946, the various coastal and inland colonies were consolidated as Spanish West Africa. Sultan Mohammed V encouraged efforts to re-capture the land and personally funded anti-Spanish conspirators, Moroccan insurgents, violent demonstrations against Spanish rule erupted in Ifni on April 10,1957, followed by civil strife and widespread killings of those loyal to Spain. In response, Generalissimo Franco dispatched two battalions of the Spanish Legion, Spains elite fighting force, to El Aaiún in June, Spanish military mobilization resulted in the Moroccan army converging near Ifni. On October 23,1957, two villages on the outskirts of Sidi Ifni, Goulimine and Bou Izarguen, were occupied by 1,500 Moroccan soldiers, the encirclement of Ifni was the beginning of the Ifni War. Two more Legionary battalions reached the Spanish Sahara before the opening of hostilities, on 21 November, Spanish intelligence in Ifni reported that attacks were imminent by Moroccans operating out of Tafraout. Two days later, Spanish lines of communication were cut, although the Moroccan drive into Sidi Ifni was easily repulsed, two nearby Spanish outposts were abandoned in the face of enemy attacks and many others remained under heavy siege. At Tiluin,60 Tiradores de Ifni, struggled to hold off a force of several hundred Moroccans, on November 25, a relief attempt was authorized. Five CASA2.111 bombers, bombed enemy positions, while a number of CASA352 transports dropped a force of 75 paratroopers into the outpost. On 3 December, soldiers of the Spanish Legions 6th battalion arrived, breaking the siege, all military and civilian personnel were then evacuated overland to Sidi Ifni. The relief of Telata was less successful, leaving Sidi Ifni on 24 November aboard several old trucks, a platoon of the Spanish Legion paratroop battalion under Captain Ortiz de Zárate made slow progress through difficult terrain. This problem was compounded by frequent Moroccan ambushes, which by the day had left several men wounded and forced the Spaniards off the road. On 26 November, food ran out, the Spanish, low on ammunition, resumed their advance, only to dig in again in the face of repeated enemy attacks. Rations were dropped by air, but Spanish casualties continued to mount, one of the dead was Captain Ortiz de Zárate. On 2 December, a column of infantry, among them the erstwhile defenders of Telata, broke through the Moroccan lines, the survivors of the paratroop detachment reached Sidi Ifni once more on 5 December. The company had suffered two dead and fourteen wounded, initial Moroccan attacks had been generally successful. In the space of two weeks, the Moroccans and their allies had asserted control over most of Ifni. Simultaneous attacks had been launched throughout Spanish Sahara, overrunning garrisons and ambushing convoys, consequently, Moroccan units, resupplied and greatly reinforced, tried to surround and besiege Sidi Ifni, hoping to incite a popular uprising
Ifni War
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Ifni before the conflict and after
24.
Western Sahara War
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The Western Sahara War was an armed struggle between the Sahrawi indigenous Polisario Front and Morocco between 1975 and 1991, being the most significant phase of the Western Sahara conflict. In late 1975, Moroccan government organized the Green March of some 350,000 Moroccan citizens, escorted by around 20,000 troops, while at first met with just minor resistance by the POLISARIO, Morocco later engaged a long period of guerrilla warfare with the Sahrawi nationalists. During the late 1970s, the Polisario Front, desiring to establish an independent state in the territory, in 1979, Mauritania withdrew from the conflict after signing a peace treaty with the POLISARIO. The war continued in low intensity throughout the 1980s, though Morocco made several attempts to take the hand in 1989–1991. A cease-fire agreement was reached between the Polisario Front and Morocco in September 1991. Some sources put the death toll between 10,000 and 20,000 people. The conflict has shifted from military to civilian resistance. A peace process, attempting to resolve the conflict has yet produced any permanent solution to Sahrawi refugees, today most of the territory of Western Sahara is under Moroccan control, while the inland parts are governed by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, managed by the Polisario Front. In 1884 Spain claimed a protectorate over the coast from Cape Bojador to Cap Blanc, later, the Spanish extended their area of control. In 1958 Spain joined the separate districts of Saguia el-Hamra. Raids and rebellions by the indigenous Saharan population kept the Spanish forces out of much of the territory for a long time, French forces defeated him when he tried to conquer Marrakesh, and in retaliation destroyed the holy city of Smara in 1913. Not until the destruction of Smara in 1934, by joint Spanish and French forces. Another uprising in 1956 –1958, initiated by the Moroccan Army of Liberation, led to heavy fighting, however, unrest simmered, and in 1967 the Harakat Tahrir arose to challenge Spanish rule peacefully. After the events of the Zemla Intifada in 1970, when Spanish police destroyed the organization and disappeared its founder, Muhammad Bassiri, Sahrawi nationalism again took a militant turn. In 1971 a group of young Sahrawi students began organizing what came to be known as The Embryonic Movement for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro. The Polisario Front was formally constituted on 10 May 1973 in the Mauritanian city of Zouirate and its first Secretary General was El-Ouali Mustapha Sayed. On 20 May he led the Khanga raid, Polisarios first armed action, in which a Spanish post manned by a team of Tropas Nomadas was overrun, at this point, Polisarios manpower included perhaps 800 men, but they were backed by a larger network of supporters. While Spain started negotiating a handover of power in the summer of 1975, it ceded the administrative control of the territory to Mauritania, however, on 31 October 1975, Moroccan troops crossed into the territory from the north-east, advancing towards Mahbes and Farciya
Western Sahara War
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Saharawi soldiers 1983
Western Sahara War
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Map of the Western Sahara; the red line is the military
berm built by Morocco
25.
Gdeim Izik protest camp
–
While protests were initially peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between Sahrawi civilians and Moroccan security forces. Some referred to the protests as the Third Sahrawi Intifada, following the First, the number of protesters increased rapidly in the first weeks from a few hundred khaimas to several thousand coming from other towns of Western Sahara and southern Morocco. By the first week of November, the Gdeim Izik protest camps population was estimated at around 5,000, on October 24, a vehicle trying to enter the camp was fired upon by Moroccan Army forces. As a result, 14-year-old Nayem Elgarhi died and other passengers were injured, according to the Moroccan Interior ministry, a bullet was fired from the vehicle forcing the security forces to return fire, with a final toll of one dead and three injured. However, according to the Polisario front, there were no weapons in the vehicle, elgarhis family denounced the boys secret burial, demanding a trial for the officers who shot him. On the early morning of November 8, the protest camp was dismantled by Moroccan police forces, according to the Moroccan Interior Ministry, no firearms were used and the civilians on the camp were deployed as human shields. Confronting them was a group of protesters that used stones, knives. The riots later expanded to El Aaiun and other towns like Smara, in El Aaiun, protesters took to the streets in the morning, as there were no communications with the protest camp and they had no information about their relatives and friends in the camp. In the afternoon, with the return of the forces deployed in Gdeim Izik, finally, the African Union called upon Moroccos government to refrain from the use of force, and follow the path of discussion as the only productive means to resolve the crisis. European Union, On November 25, the European Parliament approved a resolution about the events in Western Sahara, United Nations, On 17 November, the United Nations Security Council condemned the violence during the dismantlement of the camp. Finally, the commission reminded the violation of the Right of Information, the Cuban parliament rejected the Moroccan aggression and demanded the United Nations Security Council exercise its influence to stop the actions. France, French Foreign Affairs minister, Bernard Kouchner, qualified on 9 November the events on Western Sahara as very serious and he also regretted the expulsion from Morocco of French communist deputy Jean-Paul Lecoq, who was trying to reach El Aaiún. It is not permissible that a representative of the nation had been expelled from the territory of a friendly country he added. Ireland, Irish Foreign Affairs minister, Micheál Martin, expressed on 9 November deep concern about reports concerning the Sahrawi protest camp. He regretted the deaths, violence and the reaction of the Moroccan security forces to what had been a peaceful protest on the part of Saharawi activists. Finally, he called both sides to act responsibly and avoid deterioration of the situation, italy, On 9 November, Italian Foreign Affairs minister, Franco Frattini, said that we are extremely concerned about the death and injuries of several individuals during the clashes. Panama, The Foreign Relations ministry of Panama expressed their concerns about the regrettable acts of violence. It also called the parts to respect human rights, avoid escalation of violence, according to the Polisario Front,36 Sahrawis were killed,723 wounded, and 163 were arrested
Gdeim Izik protest camp
–
The Gdeim Izik protest camp in late October 2010.
Gdeim Izik protest camp
–
Family and education
26.
2011 Western Saharan protests
–
They were related to the Gdeim Izik protest camp in Western Sahara established the previous fall, which had resulted in violence between Sahrawi activists and Moroccan security forces and supporters. No significant protests were reported beyond May 2011, though international media coverage of Western Sahara is incomplete at best, there is renewed calls for peaceful protests from the Polisario Front. While protests were peaceful, they were later marked by clashes between civilians and security forces. On 25 February 2011, clashes were reported in Dakhla, the second largest city of Western Sahara, the next day, hundreds of protesters gathered on the city center, protesting against police inaction on the previous night. They attacked government buildings, banks and shops using stones and gas cylinders, the music festival was then suspended. On the night, riots started again without police presence, on Friday, police were deployed in the streets to prevent new protests. Official Moroccan press agency reported that two civilians were intentionally run over by a four-wheel drive vehicle driven by protesters, and that 14 people were injured. According to a Radio France International reporter, at least 100 people were injured, the Moroccan security forces intervened then and dispersed the demonstration. According to the Polisario, between 13 and 68 people were injured during the intervention of the Police, including three people carrying Spanish citizenship, the group also claimed that though police and intelligence officers kept a close watch on the vigil, protesters were nonviolent and no clashes erupted. These groups also claimed other protests were being held in solidarity with Laayounes activists in more cities. However, these reports have not been independently verified, a sit-in at the family home of a Sahrawi boy allegedly killed by Moroccan police was dispersed on 19 May, with 30 protesters left injured by security officers, pro-Sahrawi media reported. A handful of activists in Essmara also started a sit-in and hunger strike to protest the suspension of their wages for visiting Polisario-administered refugee camps in the Algerian Sahara and it will work in Western Sahara too
2011 Western Saharan protests
–
Locator map of the
Western Sahara with zones of de facto control
27.
Sahrawi refugee camps
–
With most of the original refugees still living in the camps, the situation is among the most protracted in the world. The limited opportunities for self-reliance in the desert environment have forced the refugees to rely on international humanitarian assistance for their survival. However, the Tindouf camps differ from the majority of camps in the level of self-organization. Most affairs and camp life organization is run by the refugees themselves, the camps are divided into five wilayas named after towns in Western Sahara, Laayoune, Awserd, Smara, Dakhla and more recently Cape Bojador. In addition comes the smaller satellite camp February 27, surrounding the school for women. The encampments are spread out over a large area. While Laayoune, Smara, Awserd, February 27 and Rabouni all lie within an hours drive of the Algerian city of Tindouf, the camps are also the headquarters of the 6th military region of the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic. The refugee camps are governed by Polisario, being part of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. SADRs government in exile and administration are located in the Rabouni camp, the Tindouf camps are divided into administrative sub-units electing their own officials to represent the neighbourhoods in political decision-making. Each of the four wilayas are divided into six or seven daïras, local committees distribute basic goods, water and food, while daïra authorities made up by the representatives of the hays organize schools, cultural activities and medical services. Some argue that this results in a form of democracy on the level of camp administration. Women are active on several levels of administration, and UNHCR has appraised their importance in camp administration, according to Polisario, Algeria does not intervene in their organization, treating the area as effectively under Sahrawi self-rule, though statements by former Polisario responsibles contradict that. While the Algerian military has a significant presence in the city of Tindouf. Camp residents are subject to the constitution and laws of SADR, a local justice system, with courts and prisons, is administered by Polisario. Local qadis have jurisdiction over personal status and family law issues, while teaching materials are still scarce, the literacy rate has increased from about 5% at the formation of the camps to 90% in 1995. Childrens education is obligatory, and several thousands have received university educations in Algeria, Cuba, one former camp resident claimed to have been forcefully sent as a child to an indoctrination camp in Cuba, where he was taught ot use firearms. The camps have 27 clinics, a hospital and four regional hospitals. Men perform military service in the forces of the SADR
Sahrawi refugee camps
–
Laayoune refugee camp.
Sahrawi refugee camps
–
View of the 27 February camp after the floods that devastated the camps in February 2006
Sahrawi refugee camps
–
"
USAID -supplied bread flour being distributed to mothers and children in
Dakhla refugee camp. (January 18–25, 2004)
28.
Green March
–
Nevertheless, the events quickly escalated into a fully waged war between Morocco and the militias of the Polisario, the Western Sahara War, which would last for 16 years. Morocco later gained control over the former Spanish Sahara, which it continues to hold, Morocco, to the north of the Spanish Sahara, had long claimed that the territory was historically an integral part of Morocco. Mauritania to the south argued similarly that the territory was in fact Mauritanian, Morocco intended to vindicate its claims by demanding a verdict from the International Court of Justice, which was issued on 16 October 1975. Instead, the court argued, the population were the owners of the land. This meant that regardless of political solution was found to the question of sovereignty. Complicating matters, a UN visiting mission had concluded on 15 October, the day before the ICJ verdict was released, within hours of the ICJ verdicts release, he announced the organizing of a green march to Spanish Sahara, to reunite it with the Motherland. The Green March was a popular march of enormous proportions. On 6 November 1975 approximately 350,000 unarmed Moroccans converged on the city of Tarfaya in southern Morocco, as the marchers reached the border, the Spanish Armed Forces were ordered not to fire to avoid bloodshed. The Spanish troops also cleared some previously mined zones, according to Morocco, the exercise of sovereignty by the Moroccan state was characterized by official pledges of allegiance to the sultan. The Moroccan government was of the opinion that this allegiance existed during several centuries before the Spanish occupation and that it was a legal and political tie. The sultan Hassan I, for example, had carried out two expeditions in 1886 in order to put an end to foreign incursions in this territory and to officially invest several caids and cadis. In its presentation to the ICJ, the Moroccan side also mentioned the levy of taxes as an instance of the exercise of sovereignty. Even taking account of the structure of that State, they do not show that Morocco displayed any effective and exclusive State activity in Western Sahara. The Green March caught Spain in a moment of political crisis, the dictator General Franco, who had been leading the country for almost 40 years, was dying. Only the year before, the Portuguese government had been toppled by the Portuguese armed forces after becoming bogged down in wars in Angola. Under pressure from Morocco, Spain also agreed that no representatives of the population would be present in the negotiations that resulted in the 14 November Madrid Accords. This was a treaty which divided Spanish Sahara between Mauritania and Morocco, Spain received a 35% concession in the phosphate mines of Bou Craa and offshore fishing rights that were not respected by Morocco. Morocco and Mauritania then formally annexed the parts they had been allotted in the Accords
Green March
–
A 100
dirham note from 1991 commemorating the Green March
29.
Demographics of Western Sahara
–
All data about demographic information regarding Western Sahara is extremely error prone, regardless of source. Following the 1975 Green March, the Moroccan state has sponsored settlement schemes enticing thousands of Moroccans to move into the Moroccan-occupied part of Western Sahara, by 2015, it was estimated that Moroccan settlers made up at least two thirds of the 500,000 inhabitants. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated, modern Standard Arabic and Spanish, the former colonial language, are the official languages of the Polisario Front, based in Tindouf, Algeria. Hassaniya, an Arabic dialect, is the language spoken in Western Sahara. There is also a significant presence of Berber language speakers in the parts of the territory of Western Sahara. Hassaniya, primarily spoken at home, is dominated by the Moroccan dialect spoken in the streets, workplace and this is because the great majority of the population consists of Moroccans who settled in Western Sahara. French is also used by the Moroccan administration. The Moroccan constitution stipulates two official languages for the Kingdom of Morocco, including Western Sahara, Berber and Arabic, Spanish is used to document Sahrawi poetry and oral traditions and has also be used in Sahrawi literature. A group of Sahrawi poets known as Generación de la Amistad saharaui produce Sahrawi literature in Spanish, sunni Islam is the major religion in Western Sahara. Sunni Muslims constitute about 99. 9% of the population, prior to 1975 there were over 20,000 Roman Catholics in Western Sahara but as of 2007 there were only around 100. 69.66 deaths/1,000 live births total population,54.32 yearsmale,52 yearsfemale,56.73 years 4, the major bulk of Saharawis became refugees during the war between the Polisario Front and Morocco. The south-western desert region near Tindouf offered a potential safe region, Algeria, in its rivalry with Morocco, offered the Sahrawis a safe place to settle and actively supported the Algerian made guerrilla-movement of the POLISARIO. The next Saharawi exodus, although on a scale, took place in 1979 when Mauritania withdrew from the conflict. Exact figures cannot be provided for the numbers that fled the territory in two waves, but the estimations are between 1/3 and 2/3 of the total population at that time. The current size of the population in the camps is believed to be around 165,000. Used by the Algerian government, this figure is the most widely quoted by NGOs and is used by the UNHCR. In the 2004 WFP meeting in Rome, the number of refugees was officially recognized at 158,000, legal status of Western Sahara Demographics of Morocco
Demographics of Western Sahara
–
Bilingual road sign in
French and
Arabic, Western Sahara
30.
Moroccan Wall
–
The Moroccan Wall of Western Sahara is an approximately 2,700 km long structure, mostly a sand wall, running through Western Sahara and the southeastern portion of Morocco. It separates the Moroccan occupied, and controlled, areas and the Polisario-controlled areas that lies along its eastern and southern border. According to maps from the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara or the UNHCR, the fortifications lie in uninhabited or very sparsely inhabited territory. They consist of sand and stone walls or berms about 3 m in height, with bunkers, the barrier minebelt that runs along the structure is thought to be the longest continuous minefield in the world. The following is one observers description of the Berm, In all, the main line of fortifications extends for about 2,500 km. A section extends about 200 km into southeastern Morocco Significant lines of fortifications also lie deep within the Moroccan-controlled area and their exact number and location are a source of some confusion for overseas commentators. All major settlements, the capital El Aaiún, and the mine at Bou Craa lie far into the Moroccan-held side. The fortifications were built by Moroccan forces starting in 1981. Effectively, after the completion of the wall, Morocco has controlled the bulk of Western Sahara territory that lies to the north and west of it, the Polisario-founded Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic controls the mostly uninhabited Free Zone, which comprises all areas to the east of the barrier. Units from the United Nations mission MINURSO separate the two sides, and enforce regulations on their troops. In the summer of 2005, the Moroccan Army accelerated the expulsion of illegal immigrants detained in northern Morocco to the side of the wall. The Polisario Front and the MINURSO rescued several dozen lost in the desert, by October, the Polisario had received 22 immigrants in Mehaires,46 in Tifariti and 97 in Bir Lehlu. They were from African countries, except a group of 48 who were from Bangladesh, Western attention to the wall, and to the Moroccan annexation of the Western Sahara in general, has been minimal, apart from Spain. In Africa, the annexation of Western Sahara by Morocco has attracted more attention. Algeria supports the Polisario Front in its long-running desert war to oppose Moroccan control of the disputed area, the Organization of African Unity/African Union and United Nations have proposed negotiated solutions, though the African Unions stance on Western Sahara led to Moroccos exit from the organisation. Since 2008, a demonstration called The Thousand Column is held annually in the desert against the barrier by international human rights activists, in the 2009 edition, a teenage Sahrawi refugee named Ibrahim Hussein Leibeit lost half of his right leg in a landmine explosion. The incident happened when Ibrahim and dozens of young Sahrawis crossed the line into a minefield while aiming to throw stones to the side of the wall. The wall was built in six stages, and the area behind the wall was expanded from an area near Morocco in the north to most of the western
Moroccan Wall
–
Sahrawi women hold a protest in Western Sahara on the eastern side of the wall.
Moroccan Wall
–
Wall east of
Mahbes.
Moroccan Wall
–
Wall south of Mahbes.
31.
Human rights in Western Sahara
–
The Government of Morocco sees Western Sahara as its Southern Provinces. The Moroccan government considers the Polisario Front as a separatist movement given the alleged Moroccan origins of some of its leaders, the United States, the European Union, the African Union and the United Nations do not recognize the sovereignty of Morocco over Western Sahara. Neither claim has met with support abroad, the USA, EU, AU and UN refused to include the Polisario Front on their lists of terrorist organizations. Human rights are repressed in the Moroccan-controlled territories of Western Sahara, according to Amnesty International in 2003, while the situation has improved since the early 1990s, the political liberalization in Morocco has not had the same effect on Western Sahara according to Amnesty International in 2004. When it comes to having a pro-independence position, there are allegations of police abuse and torture by Polisario-organisations. and suspected dissidents are harassed. The United States State Department reported in 2000 that there were arbitrary arrests of Sahrawis, prisoners of conscience were kept in squalid conditions according to Polisario-groups. Some Sahrawis also complain of discrimination in favor of Moroccan settlers. The Moroccan response to the demonstrations of 2005 was very aggressive, in a criticised mass trial in December 2005,14 leading Sahrawi activists were sentenced to prison sentences, many more had previously been detained. Most of these prisoners were released by royal decree in the spring of 2006. According to the US State Departments 2006 report on Morocco The law generally provides for freedom of speech, the government generally respected these rights in practice, as long as Islam, the monarchy, and territorial integrity were not criticized. Throughout the year several publications tested the boundaries of press freedom, foreign journalists and visiting missions have been prevented from visiting the territory and in some instances deported from it. Sahrawi human rights organizations have been refused permission to operate in Morocco, the Sahrawi branch of the Moroccan Forum for Truth and Justice was dissolved in 2003, and its members arrested. They were later released in the royal amnesties of 2006, or before that, Morocco has responded by blockading Internet access to these sites in Morocco and in Western Sahara, prompting accusations of Internet censorship. These websites, promoting independence for Western Sahara, have been censored since the beginning of December it reports. In 2010 around 520 Sahrawi civilians remained disappeared by Moroccan forces, according to human rights groups, since then, there have been no further releases of disappeared prisoners. Amnesty International stated in a 1999 report that, in May 2005, the remains of 43 Sahrawi disappeared were exhumed from secret prisons on the south of Morocco. They were detained in Western Sahara & southern Morocco in the 1970s & 1980s, many civilians were launched into space from helicopters or buried alive simply for being Sahrawis. Also, the testimonies of witnesses have not been published yet, in March 2010, a new grave was found by Bou Craa workers on a phosphate mine with 7 corpses, supposedly Sahrawi nomads killed by Moroccan forces during the mid-1970s
Human rights in Western Sahara
–
Sahrawi civilian showing his head wounds caused by Moroccan police during a demonstration in Dakhla, 2 March 2011.
Human rights in Western Sahara
–
Sahrawi human rights defender
Ali Salem Tamek during his imprisonment in Ait Melloun prison, in
Agadir, Morocco. 29 August 2005.
Human rights in Western Sahara
–
The
Sahrawi refugee camp of
Awserd, in
Tindouf Province, Algeria.
32.
Western Sahara Autonomy Proposal
–
The Western Sahara Autonomy Proposal is an initiative, proposed by Morocco in 2006 as a possible solution to the Western Sahara conflict. In 2006 the Moroccan Royal Advisory Council for Saharan Affairs proposed a plan for the autonomy of Western Sahara, the plan was presented to the UN Security Council in April 2007, and has received the backing of the USA and France. This initiative constitutes the main ground for the Moroccan proposal at Manhasset negotiations, the proposal was following the two failed proposals of Baker Plan, which insisted on independence referendum to Western Sahara after five years of autonomy - the plan was rejected by Morocco. A proposal was published by Polisario to the UN on 10 April 2007. The UN Security unanimously voted the Resolution 1754 on 30 April 2007 calling for talks of both parties, appreciating the proposal of Morocco and taking note of Polaisarios proposal, the portions of Western Sahara was a Spanish Colony till 1975 as the last colonial province in Africa. Mauritania withdrew in 1979, and Morocco eventually secured control of most of the territory, including all the major cities, Polisario was formed in 1973 to fight for the rights of Sahawari Arab African People. Polisario attacked Moroccan positions many times and have retaliated, continued war was waged between Polisario and Morocco over prominence in the region backed by Algeria for Polisario and US, France and Saudi Arabia for Morocco. Morocco started building a wall to reduce the attacks and military activity. During November to December 1987 a United Nations peace mission arrived at the location to assess the military and they sought a face-to-face meeting with Polisario and Morocco to arrive at a ceasefire and initiate proceedings for a referendum. They had different meetings with Morocco, Algeria and Polisario and place a resolution which was passed unopposed, during the time, Algeria, which had been a long time ally of Polisario, held secret meetings with Morocco at foreign ministry level. By May 1988, both the countries announced that diplomatic relations between the countries would be restored, during July 1988, Moroccan King Hassan expressed his support for a referendum, but declined to name it an independent state, but a special administrative region. He also denied meeting with Polasario, in spite of UNs continued effort, the denial introduced fresh attack in Moroccan positions by Polasario. King Hassan agreed to meet representatives from SAWR, during 1989, Algeria claimed that it would continue to support SAWR amidst growing concern of Algeria breaking links with SAWR. King Hassans elongated delay frustrated SAWR and they started an attack, during the first week of October 1989, Polasario started attacks on Moroccan positions in Guelta-Zemmour, which left the Moroccan troops 25 kilometers inside the defense. The group also claimed that they have secured the 1st Light Security Group of the 4th and 5th Rapid Intervention Force of Morocco and they also attacked Moroccan positions in the North towards Hauza on October 11. Following the attacks King Hassan called off the meeting with SAWR representatives. The fighting continued till 1 September 1991 when a UN mission brokered peace a ceasefire in the region, there have been various proposals by both the parties in the United Nations. James A. Baker, an American diplomat in the worked out a couple of settlement plans
Western Sahara Autonomy Proposal
–
Family and education
33.
Western Sahara
–
Its surface area amounts to 266,000 square kilometres. It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, the population is estimated at just over 500,000, of which nearly 40% live in Laayoune, the largest city in Western Sahara. Occupied by Spain until the late 20th century, Western Sahara has been on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories since 1963 after a Moroccan demand and it is the most populous territory on that list, and by far the largest in area. In 1965, the UN General Assembly adopted its first resolution on Western Sahara, one year later, a new resolution was passed by the General Assembly requesting that a referendum be held by Spain on self-determination. In 1975, Spain relinquished the control of the territory to a joint administration by Morocco. A war erupted between those countries and a Sahrawi nationalist movement, the Polisario Front, which proclaimed the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic with a government in exile in Tindouf, Algeria. Mauritania withdrew its claims in 1979, and Morocco eventually secured de facto control of most of the territory, including all the major cities and natural resources. The United Nations considers the Polisario Front to be the representative of the Sahrawi people. As of 2017, no member state of the United Nations has ever recognized Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. However, a number of countries have expressed their support for a recognition of the Moroccan annexation of the territory as an autonomous part of the Kingdom. Overall, the annexation has not garnered as much attention in the community as many other disputed annexations. Internationally, countries such as Russia have taken a generally ambiguous and neutral position on each sides claims, both Morocco and Polisario have sought to boost their claims by accumulating formal recognition, essentially from African, Asian, and Latin American states in the developing world. The Polisario Front has won recognition for SADR from 37 states. Morocco has won recognition or support for its position from several African governments and from most of the Muslim world, in both instances, recognitions have, over the past two decades, been extended and withdrawn according to changing international trends. Western Sahara is located in Northern Africa, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean and it also borders Algeria to the northeast. The land is some of the most arid and inhospitable on the planet, the land along the coast is low, flat desert and rises, especially in the north, to small mountains reaching up to 600 metres on the eastern side. While the area can experience flash flooding in the spring, there are no permanent streams, at times a cool off-shore current can produce fog and heavy dew. The earliest known inhabitants of Western Sahara were the Gaetuli, depending on the century, Roman-era sources describe the area as inhabited by Gaetulian Autololes or the Gaetulian Daradae tribes
Western Sahara
–
Commemoration of the 30th independence day from
Spain in the
Liberated Territories (2005)
Western Sahara
–
Western Sahara الصحراء الغربية aṣ-Ṣaḥrā’ al-Gharbīyah Sahara Occidental Taneẓroft Tutrimt
Western Sahara
–
North Western Sahara landscape.
Western Sahara
–
Dakhla Bay, near
Dakhla.
34.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
35.
The Philippines
–
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
The Philippines
–
King Philip II of Spain.
The Philippines
–
Flag
The Philippines
–
Tabon Cave and its carvings.
The Philippines
–
The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
36.
East Asia
–
East Asia is the eastern subregion of the Asian continent, which can be defined in either geographical or ethno-cultural terms. Geographically and geopolitically, it includes China, Taiwan, Mongolia, Korea and Japan, it covers about 12,000,000 km2, or about 28% of the Asian continent, the East Asian people comprise more than 1.5 billion people. About 38% of the population of Asia and 22%, or over one fifth, the overall population density of the region is 133 inhabitants per square kilometre, about three times the world average of 45/km2. Historically, societies in East Asia have been part of the Chinese cultural sphere, major religions include Buddhism, Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism, Taoism, Chinese folk religion in China and Taiwan, Shinto in Japan, Korean shamanism in Korea. Shamanism is also prevalent among Mongolians and other populations of northern East Asia. The Chinese calendar is the root from which many other East Asian calendars are derived, Chinese Dynasties dominated the region in matters of culture, trade, and exploration as well as militarily for a very long time. There are records of tributes sent overseas from the kingdoms of Korea. There were also considerable levels of cultural and religious exchange between the Chinese and other regional Dynasties and Kingdoms, as connections began to strengthen with the Western world, Chinas power began to diminish. Around the same time, Japan solidified itself as a nation state, throughout World War II, Korea, Taiwan, much of eastern China, Hong Kong, and Vietnam all fell under Japanese control. Culturally, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam are commonly seen as being encompassed by cultural East Asia, there are mixed debates around the world whether these countries or regions should be considered in East Asia or not. Vietnam Siberia in Russia Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea, however, in this context, the term Far East is often more appropriate which covers ASEAN countries and the countries in East Asia. However, being a Eurocentric term, Far East describes the geographical position in relation to Europe rather than its location within Asia. Alternatively, the term Asia Pacific Region is often used in describing East Asia and this usage, which is seen in economic and diplomatic discussions, is at odds with the historical meanings of both East Asia and Northeast Asia. The Council on Foreign Relations defines Northeast Asia as Japan and Korea, the military and economic superpower of China became the largest economy in the world in 2014, surpassing the United States of America. Currently in East Asia, trading systems are open, and zero or low duties on imports of consumer and capital goods etc. have considerably helped stimulate cost-efficiency. Free and flexible labor and other markets are important factors making for high levels of business-economic performance. East Asian populations have demonstrated highly positive work ethics, there are relatively large and fast-growing markets for consumer goods and services of all kinds. The culture of East Asia has been influenced by the civilisation of China, East Asia, as well as Vietnam, share a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, political and legal structures, and historically a common writing system
East Asia
–
Tokyo is the largest city in the world, both in
metropolitan population and
economy.
East Asia
–
East Asia
East Asia
–
Seoul is the capital and largest city of South Korea (ROK), and is a leading global technology hub.
East Asia
–
Kaohsiung is the second largest city in Taiwan.
Kaohsiung Harbor is one of the largest harbors in the world.
37.
United Nations
–
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization to promote international co-operation. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II in order to prevent another such conflict, at its founding, the UN had 51 member states, there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. The organization is financed by assessed and voluntary contributions from its member states, the UNs mission to preserve world peace was complicated in its early decades by the Cold War between the US and Soviet Union and their respective allies. The organization participated in actions in Korea and the Congo. After the end of the Cold War, the UN took on major military, the UN has six principal organs, the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Secretariat, the International Court of Justice, and the UN Trusteeship Council. UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, the UNs most prominent officer is the Secretary-General, an office held by Portuguese António Guterres since 2017. Non-governmental organizations may be granted consultative status with ECOSOC and other agencies to participate in the UNs work, the organization won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001, and a number of its officers and agencies have also been awarded the prize. Other evaluations of the UNs effectiveness have been mixed, some commentators believe the organization to be an important force for peace and human development, while others have called the organization ineffective, corrupt, or biased. Following the catastrophic loss of life in the First World War, the earliest concrete plan for a new world organization began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France, four Policemen was coined to refer to four major Allied countries, United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and China, which emerged in the Declaration by United Nations. Roosevelt first coined the term United Nations to describe the Allied countries, the term United Nations was first officially used when 26 governments signed this Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, by 1 March 1945,21 additional states had signed. Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto, the foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism. During the war, the United Nations became the term for the Allies. To join, countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis, at the later meetings, Lord Halifax deputized for Mr. Eden, Wellington Koo for T. V. Soong, and Mr Gromyko for Mr. Molotov. The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations represented, the General Assembly selected New York City as the site for the headquarters of the UN, and the facility was completed in 1952. Its site—like UN headquarters buildings in Geneva, Vienna, and Nairobi—is designated as international territory, the Norwegian Foreign Minister, Trygve Lie, was elected as the first UN Secretary-General
United Nations
–
1943 sketch by Franklin Roosevelt of the United Nations' original three branches: The
Four Policemen, an executive branch, and an international assembly of forty UN member states.
United Nations
–
Flag
United Nations
–
The
Chilean delegation signing the
UN Charter in San Francisco, 1945
United Nations
–
Dag Hammarskjöld was a particularly active Secretary-General from 1953 until his death in 1961.
38.
Decolonisation of Africa
–
The Decolonisation of Africa followed World War II, when colonised people agitated for independence and colonial powers withdrew their administrators from Africa. During the Scramble for Africa in the nineteenth century, Western European powers divided Africa. By 1905, control of almost all African soil was claimed by Western European governments, Britain and France had the largest holdings, but Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of resources such as gold. The introduction of imperial polices surfacing around local economies into cheap labor, exploitation of resources, following the concept of Rudyard Kiplings poem The White Mans Burden, some Europeans who benefited from colonisation felt that colonialism was needed to civilise Africans. On February 12,1941, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the result was the Atlantic Charter. It was not a treaty and was not submitted to the British Parliament or the Senate of the United States for ratification, one of the provisions, introduced by Roosevelt, was the autonomy of imperial colonies. After World War II, the US and the African colonies put pressure on Britain to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter, after the war, some British considered African colonies to be childish and immature, British colonisers introduced democratic government at local levels in the colonies. By the 1930s, the powers had cultivated, sometimes inadvertently. In some cases where the road to independence was fought, settled arrangements with the powers were also being placed. One of the leaders Nkrumah strived towards independence and pan Africanism, under British colonization and influence from indigenous elites Nkrumah endured innumerable amount of challenges towards full liberation. In 1947 the elites established United Gold Coast Convention with the influence of British government, through the UGCC, Nkrumah revealed his opposition towards the British by setting up newspapers, schools, and youth organizations in order to gain support from the community. After verbal and political attack from the UGCC, Nkrumah created his own movement known as the Convention Peoples Party, through his nonviolent movement and his legislative victory in 1951, the British soon realized that Nkrumah will continue to fight towards full decolonization. Through the issues of neocolonialism, the United States suggest for Ghana, in 1972, Nkrumah died of cancer and his plot towards Ghanas full independence withered away as well during his passing. This table is the arranged by the earliest date of independence in this graph,58 countries have seceded, the end of empire in French West Africa, Frances successful decolonization. Decolonization and African society, The labor question in French and British Africa, the Story of Nigeria Faber and Faber, London,1978 Dávila, Jerry. Hotel Tropico, Brazil and the challenge of African Decolonization, 1950–1980, ISBN 978-0822348559 Gordon, April A. and Donald L. Gordon, Lynne Riener. The Routledge companion to decolonization, comprehensive coverage, 365pp*Kevin Shillington History of Africa St. Martins Press, New York,1995 Khapoya
Decolonisation of Africa
–
Dates of independence of African countries
Decolonisation of Africa
–
African countries in order of independence
39.
Sahrawi people
–
As with most Saharan peoples living in the Sahara, the Sahrawi culture is mixed. Sahrawis are composed of tribes and are largely speakers of the Hassaniya dialect of Arabic. The Arabic word Ṣaḥrāwī صحراوي literally means Inhabitant of the Desert, the word Sahrawi is derived from the Arabic word Ṣaḥrā, meaning desert. The men are called a Sahrawi, and the women are called a Sahrawiya, the new faith was spread by Berbers themselves, and Arab immigration in the first centuries of Islamic expansion was minimal. It is not known when the camel was introduced to the region and this was the case with the Berber Almoravid dynasty of Morocco and Andalusia, and several emirates in Mauritania. In the 11th century, the Arab bedouin tribes of the Beni Hilal, in the early 13th century, the Yemeni Maqil tribes migrated westwards across the entirety of Arabia and northern Africa, to finally settle around present-day Morocco. They were badly received by the Zenata Berber descendants of the Merinid dynasty and this tribe entered the domains of the Sanhaja, and over the following centuries imposed itself upon them, intermixing with the population in the process. The modern ethnic group is thus mainly Berber with Arabs as an ethnicity whose cultural volume is bigger than its genetic one. The people inhabits the westernmost Sahara desert, in the area of modern Mauritania, Morocco, Western Sahara, as with most Saharan peoples, the tribes reflect a highly mixed heritage, combining Berber, Arab, and other influences, including black African ethnic and cultural characteristics. The latter were primarily acquired through mixing with Wolouf, Soninke and other populations of the southern Sahel, an important divider is whether the tribal confederations fell under French or Spanish colonial rule. France conquered most of North and West Africa largely during the late 19th century and this included Algeria and Mauritania, and, from 1912, Morocco. But Western Sahara and scattered parts of Morocco fell to Spain. The Sahrawi-Moorish areas, then still undefined as to exact territorial boundaries, proved troublesome for the colonizers, the political loyalty of these populations were first and foremost to their respective tribes, and supratribal allegiances and alliances would shift rapidly and unexpectedly. Centuries of intratribal warfare and raids for loot guaranteed that the populations were well armed and versed in guerrilla-style warfare and it was not until the 1930s that Spain was able to finally subdue the interior of present-day Western Sahara, and then only with strong French military assistance. Mauritanias raiding Moors had been brought under control in the decades, partly through skilful exploitation by the French of traditional rivalries. The last major Reguibat raid took place in 1934, after which the Spanish authorities occupied Smara, the Sahrawi-Moorish tribes remained largely nomadic until the early to mid-20th century, when Franco-Spanish rivalries managed to impose rigid, if arbitrary, borders on the previously fluid Sahara. Little attention was paid to existing tribal confederations and zones of influence, the populations in Algeria were subjected to direct French rule, which was organized to enable the massive settlement of French and European immigrants. In southern Morocco, France upheld indirect rule through the sultanate in some areas, Spanish Sahara was treated first as a colony, and later as an overseas province, with gradually tightening political conditions, and, in later years, a rapid influx of Spanish settlers
Sahrawi people
–
Sahrawi man
Sahrawi people
–
Group of Saharawi women.
Sahrawi people
–
Saharawi woman.
40.
Mauritania
–
Mauritania /mɔːrɪˈteɪniə/, officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country in the Maghreb region of western Africa. The country derives its name from the ancient Berber Kingdom of Mauretania, approximately 90% of Mauritanias land is within the Sahara and consequently the population is concentrated in the south, where precipitation is slightly higher. The capital and largest city is Nouakchott, located on the Atlantic coast, the government was overthrown on 6 August 2008, in a military coup détat led by General Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz. On 16 April 2009, Aziz resigned from the military to run for president in the 19 July elections, about 20% of Mauritanians live on less than US$1.25 per day. Mauritania suffers from several human rights issues, including slavery, as at least 4% of the population are enslaved against their will, the Bafours were primarily agriculturalist, and among the first Saharan people to abandon their historically nomadic lifestyle. With the gradual desiccation of the Sahara, they headed south, many of the Berber tribes claimed Yemeni origins. There is little evidence to such claims, but a 2000 DNA study of Yemeni people suggested there might be some ancient connection between the peoples. Other peoples also migrated south past the Sahara to West Africa, in 1076, Moorish Islamic warrior monks attacked and conquered the large area of the ancient Ghana Empire. Over the next 500 years, Arabs overcame fierce resistance from the population to dominate Mauritania. The Char Bouba war was the final effort of the peoples to repel the Yemeni Maqil Arab invaders. The invaders were led by the Beni Hassan tribe, the descendants of the Beni Hassan warriors became the upper stratum of Moorish society. Hassaniya, a Berber-influenced Arabic dialect that derives its name from the Beni Hassan, berbers retained a niche influence by producing the majority of the regions marabouts, those who preserve and teach Islamic tradition. Imperial France gradually absorbed the territories of present-day Mauritania from the Senegal River area and upwards, in 1901, Xavier Coppolani took charge of the imperial mission. Through a combination of strategic alliances with Zawiya tribes, and military pressure on the Hassane warrior nomads, he managed to extend French rule over the Mauritanian emirates. Trarza, Brakna and Tagant quickly submitted to treaties with the colonial power, Adrar was finally defeated militarily in 1912, and incorporated into the territory of Mauritania, which had been drawn up and planned in 1904. Mauritania was part of French West Africa from 1920, French rule brought legal prohibitions against slavery and an end to inter-clan warfare. During the colonial period, 90% of the population remained nomadic, many sedentary peoples, whose ancestors had been expelled centuries earlier, began to trickle back into Mauritania. After gaining independence, larger numbers of indigenous Sub-Saharan African peoples entered Mauritania, educated in French language and customs, many of these recent arrivals became clerks, soldiers, and administrators in the new state
Mauritania
–
The
Dutch trading post of
Arguin in 1665
Mauritania
Mauritania
–
Chinguetti was a center of Islamic scholarship in West Africa.
Mauritania
–
Road from Nouakchott to the Mauritanian–Senegalese border
41.
Arabs
–
Arabs are an ethnic group inhabiting the Arab world. They primarily live in the Arab states in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, the Arabs are first mentioned in the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people dwelling in the central Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, tradition holds that Arabs descend from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. The Arabian Desert is the birthplace of Arab, there are other Arab groups as well that spread in the land and existed for millennia. Before the expansion of the Caliphate, Arab referred to any of the largely nomadic Semitic people from the northern to the central Arabian Peninsula and Syrian Desert. Presently, Arab refers to a number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to spread of Arabs throughout the region during the early Arab conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun, Umayyad and the Abbasid caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and this was one of the largest land empires in history. The Great Arab Revolt has had as big an impact on the modern Middle East as the World War I, the war signaled the end of the Ottoman Empire. They are modern states and became significant as distinct political entities after the fall and defeat, following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the sovereignty of its member states. Beyond the boundaries of the League of Arab States, Arabs can also be found in the global diaspora, the ties that bind Arabs are ethnic, linguistic, cultural, historical, identical, nationalist, geographical and political. The Arabs have their own customs, language, architecture, art, literature, music, dance, media, cuisine, dress, society, sports, the total number of Arabs are an estimated 450 million. This makes them the second largest ethnic group after the Han Chinese. Arabs are a group in terms of religious affiliations and practices. In the pre-Islamic era, most Arabs followed polytheistic religions, some tribes had adopted Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the hanifs, apparently observed monotheism. Today, Arabs are mainly adherents of Islam, with sizable Christian minorities, Arab Muslims primarily belong to the Sunni, Shiite, Ibadi, Alawite, Druze and Ismaili denominations. Arab Christians generally follow one of the Eastern Christian Churches, such as the Maronite, Coptic Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholic, or Chaldean churches. Listed among the booty captured by the army of king Shalmaneser III of Assyria in the Battle of Qarqar are 1000 camels of Gi-in-di-buu the ar-ba-a-a or Gindibu belonging to the Arab
Arabs
Arabs
–
Schoolgirls in
Gaza lining up for class, 2009
Arabs
–
Syrian immigrants in New York City, as depicted in 1895
Arabs
–
Lebanese–Mexican billionaire
Carlos Slim has been ranked by Forbes as the
second richest person in the world.
42.
Hassaniya
–
It has almost completely replaced the Berber language originally spoken in this region. Although clearly a dialect, Hassānīya is relatively distant from other North African variants of Arabic. Its geographical location exposed it to influence from Zenaga-Berber and Wolof, there are several dialects of Hassaniya which differ primarily phonetically. Today, Hassaniya is spoken in Algeria, Libya, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal, the phonological system of Hassānīya is both very innovative and very conservative. All phonemes of Classical Arabic are represented in the dialect, as in other Bedouin dialects, Classical /q/ corresponds mostly to dialectal /ɡ/, /dˤ/ and /ðˤ/ have merged into /ðˤ/ and the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ have been preserved. In common with most Maghrebi Arabic varieties, the equivalent of Modern Standard Arabic /d͡ʒ/ is realised as /ʒ/, however, there is sometimes a double correspondence of a classical sound and its dialectal counterpart. Thus classical /q/ is represented by /ɡ/ in /ɡbaðˤ/ to take, similarly, /dˤ/ becomes /ðˤ/ in /ðˤəħk/ laugh, but /dˤ/ in /mrˤədˤ/ to be sick. Some consonant roots even have an appearance, /θaqiːl/ heavy vs. /θɡiːl/ heavy. Some of the forms are easily explained as recent loans from the literary language or from sedentary dialects in case of concepts pertaining to the sedentary way of life. For others, there is no obvious explanation, etymological /ðˤ/ appears constantly as /ðˤ/, never as /dˤ/. Nevertheless, the status of /q/ and /dˤ/ as well as /ɡ/ and /ðˤ/ appears very stable. Somewhat similarly, classical /ʔ/ has in most contexts disappeared or turned into /w/ or /j/, in some literary terms, however, it is clearly preserved, /mət. ʔal. lam/ suffering. Hassānīya has innovated many consonants by the spread of the distinction emphatic/non-emphatic, in addition to the above-mentioned, /rˤ/ and /lˤ/ have a clear phonemic status and /bˤ fˤ ɡˤ mˤ nˤ/ more marginally so. One additional emphatic phoneme /zˤ/ is acquired from the neighbouring Zenaga Berber language along with a palatal series /c ɟ ɲ/ from Niger–Congo languages of the south. At least some speakers make the distinction /p/–/b/ through borrowings from French, all in all, the number of consonant phonemes in Hassānīya is 33, or 39 if you count the marginal cases, too. On the phonetic level, the classical consonants /f/ and /θ/ are usually realised as voiced, the latter is still, however, pronounced differently from /ð/, the distinction probably being in the amount of air blown out. In geminated and word-final positions both phonemes are voiceless, for some speakers /θ/ apparently in all positions, the uvular fricative /ʁ/ is likewise realised voiceless in a geminated position, although not fricative but plosive. In other positions, etymological /ʁ/ seems to be in free variation with /q/, vowel phonemes come in two series, long and short
Hassaniya
–
Current distribution of the Hassaniya language, alone (dark green) or alongside Tuareg (light green). It is also spoken in regions around the shaded zone.
43.
Arabic
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
Arabic
–
The Galland Manuscript of
One Thousand and One Nights, 14th century
Arabic
–
Arabic is the sole official language
Arabic
–
Bilingual traffic sign in
Qatar.
Arabic
–
Examples of how the Arabic root and form system works.
44.
Berlin Conference
–
The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial activity by European powers, which eliminated or overrode most existing forms of African autonomy and self-governance. Before the conference, European diplomacy treated African indigenous people in the manner as the New World natives. By the mid-19th century, Europeans considered Africa to be disputed territory ripe for exploration, trade, with the exception of trading posts along the coasts, the continent was essentially ignored. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium, who had founded the International African Society in 1876. In 1878, the International Congo Society was also formed, with more economic goals, Léopold secretly bought off the foreign investors in the Congo Society, which was turned to imperialistic goals, with the African Society serving primarily as a philanthropic front. From 1878 to 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, not as a reporter, French intelligence had discovered Leopolds plans, and France quickly engaged in its own colonial exploration. Finally, Portugal, which already had a long, but essentially abandoned colonial Empire in the area through the mostly defunct proxy state Kongo Empire and its claims were based on old treaties with Spain and the Roman Catholic Church. It quickly made a treaty on 26 February 1884 with its former ally, stanleys charting of the Congo River Basin removed the last terra incognita from European maps of the continent, and delineating the areas of British, Portuguese, French, and Belgian control. The powers raced to push these rough boundaries to their furthest limits, France moved to take over Tunisia, one of the last of the Barbary Pirate states, under the pretext of another piracy incident. French claims by Pierre de Brazza were quickly solidified with French taking control of todays Republic of the Congo in 1881, Italy became part of the Triple Alliance, upsetting Bismarcks carefully laid plans with the state and forcing Germany to become involved in Africa. Through it, the UK also ruled over the Sudan and what would later become British Somaliland, owing to the European race for colonies, Germany started launching expeditions of its own, which frightened both British and French statesmen. Hoping to quickly soothe this brewing conflict, King Leopold II convinced France, the conference was convened on Saturday, November 15,1884 at Bismarcks official residence on Wilhelmstrasse. The British representative was Sir Edward Malet, Henry Morton Stanley attended as a U. S. delegate. The General Act fixed the following points, To gain public acceptance, thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. Because of this point the writer Joseph Conrad sarcastically referred to the conference as the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs in his novella Heart of Darkness. The Congo Free State was confirmed as the property of the Congo Society. The territory of todays Democratic Republic of the Congo, some two square kilometers, was confirmed by the European powers as essentially the property of Léopold II. The 14 signatory powers would have free trade throughout the Congo Basin as well as Lake Malawi, the Niger and Congo rivers were made free for ship traffic
Berlin Conference
–
The conference of Berlin
45.
Cape Blanc
–
Ras Nouadhibou is a 40-mile peninsula or headland divided between Mauritania and Western Sahara on the African coast of the Atlantic Ocean. It is internationally known as Cabo Blanco in Spanish or Cap Blanc in French, Cabo Blanco, in the Atlantic Ocean, is the only place in the world where Mediterranean monk seals form a true colony. In 1997, two-thirds of the colony died off, but there has been gradual recovery since, the headland forms the western limit of Dakhlet Nouadhibou Bay. This thin stretch of land is divided between Mauritania and Western Sahara, on the western side lies the ghost town of La Guera, on the eastern side, less than a mile from the border, lies Mauritanias Nouadhibou. The Tropic of Cancer runs through the peninsula, portuguese sailing explorers first reached the location they called Cabo Branco in 1441. The Spanish interest in Western Africa, in the desert coast of the Sahara, resulted from fishing activities carried out from the Canary Islands by Spanish fishermen, who also hunted and traded seal. These fishing activities have had a impact on wildlife and caused the disappearance or endangerment of many species of marine mammals. The Spanish originally claimed the land from 20°51 N to 26°8 N in 1885 and this protectorate was governed from the Canary Islands in 1887. France would later claim the Western Sahara, at a joint convention held in 1900, the French and Spanish settled the boundary, dividing the area between Spanish Sahara and French West Africa. Today, the border separates Western Sahara from Mauretania. However, the side is currently policed by Mauritania, as neither Morocco nor the Polisario Front occupies the area. A lighthouse was constructed on the cape in 1910. as far west as the Azores, vagrants could be found as far south as Gambia and the Cape Verde islands, and as far north as continental Portugal and Atlantic France. Today, the hosts the largest surviving single population of the species. In the summer of 1997, two-thirds of its population were wiped out within two months, extremely compromising the species viable population. While opinions on the causes of this epidemic remain divided the mass die-off emphasized the precarious status of a species already regarded as critically endangered throughout its range. While still far below the early 1997 count, numbers in this all-important location have started a slow-paced recovery ever since, currently, the population in this location is estimated at 270 individuals, down from some 310 in 1997, but still the largest single colony by far. The threat of an incident that could wipe out the entire population remains. Captain James Rileys captivity memoir, Sufferings in Africa, recounts his and his mens experiences after beaching their ship at what is thought to be Cabo Blanco, robert Adamss Narrative recounts a similar experience
Cape Blanc
–
1958 map, showing what was then called Cap Blanc, divided between
Spain and
France
Cape Blanc
–
A
monk seal colony on Ras Nouadhibou in 1945
46.
Cape Bojador
–
Cape Bojador is a headland on the northern coast of Western Sahara, at 26°07 37N, 14°29 57W. as well as the name of the large nearby town with a population of 41,178. The name of the province also derives its name from the cape. It is shown on charts with the original Portuguese name Cabo Bojador. It is said that it is known as the Bulging Cape. The Capes name in Arabic is Abu Khatar, meaning the father of danger, the cape is not prominent on maps but may be located by looking 220 km due south of the south-western point of the hook of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands. Eanes had made an attempt in 1433 which resulted in failure, but tried again under orders of Prince Henry the Navigator. He was successful after the second expedition, the disappearance of numerous European vessels that had made prior attempts to round the Cape despite its violent seas, led some to suggest the presence of sea monsters. The regions coastal areas became a very important area for Portuguese traders. The mythic importance of the cape for Portugal was captured in Fernando Pessoas early 20th century work Mensagem, in famous stanzas from this longer poem Pessoa wrote of the enormous costs of the Portuguese explorations to the nation. Capturing the symbolic importance to the nation of rounding Cape Bojador, Pessoa wrote, Who wants to pass beyond Bojador and they thought the ocean was burning past cape Bojador but Henrys men went past Bojador. A rocky patch, with a least depth of 8m, lies about 2 miles W of the cape, the coast between Cabo Falso Bojador and Cabo Bojador,10 miles SW, consists of a sandy beach fringed by rocks. Clumps of scrub top the sand dunes which stand about 0.5 mile inland of this beach, heavy breakers have been observed along this coast at all times. Cabo Bojador, a low point, is located 9.5 miles SW of Cabo Falso Bojador and is bordered on the S side by black rocks. From the N, the cape appears as a mass of red sand with a slope towards the sea. From the W, the cape is difficult to identify, and it is here that the winds start to blow strongly from the northeast at all seasons. In the end it was discovered that by sailing well out to out of sight of land—a more favorable wind could be picked up. This tragedy is recounted in the Skeletons on the Zahara, by Dean King, Dean reports that any coastal map of Western Sahara is inaccurate because of the ever-changing physical features, due to the harsh conditions of the Sahara. It also mentions that the depth of the water surrounding Cape Bojador is deceptively shallow, the cape had a fearsome reputation among mariners even prior to the wreck of the Commerce, as there had been at least thirty known shipwrecks between 1790 and 1806
Cape Bojador
–
Lighthouse and Moroccan military base in modern day Bojador.
47.
Alfonso XII of Spain
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Alfonso XII was King of Spain, reigning from 1874 to 1885, after a coup détat restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral First Spanish Republic. Having been forced into exile after the Glorious Revolution deposed his mother Isabella II from the throne in 1868, Alfonso studied in Austria and his mother abdicated in his favour in 1870, and he returned to Spain as king in 1874 following a military coup. Alfonso died aged 27 in 1885, and was succeeded by his unborn son, Alfonso was born in Madrid as the eldest son of Queen Isabella II. Officially, his father was her husband, King Francis, alfonsos biological paternity is uncertain, there is speculation that his biological father may have been Enrique Puigmoltó y Mayans. These rumours were used as propaganda against Alfonso by the Carlists. His mothers accession created the second cause of instability, which was the Carlist Wars, the supporters of the Count of Molina as king of Spain rose to have him enthroned. This led to the cause of instability of note, the Independence of the American Kingdoms. When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the Revolution of 1868, from there, he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On 25 June 1870, he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, after Amadeos abandonment in 1873, Parliament declared the Federal Republic, the first act of President Estanislao Figueras was to extend the Abolition Act to Puerto Rico. Cuban slaves would have to wait until 1889, but the republicans were not in agreement either, and they had to contend with the War in Cuba, and Muslim uprisings in Spanish Morocco. By 1872, the Third Carlist War erupted and this unrest led to the creation of a group in favor of the Bourbon restoration, made by some sectors of the conservatives led by Canovas del Castillo. The Prince of Asturias, Alfonso, was the chosen to develop the new road map proposed by Canovas. The new road map, which indeed ended the eternal crisis begun in 1810 was called Alfonsismo, as having Alfonso in Spain would be a problem, Cánovas became responsible for his education. He sent Alfonso to the Sandhurst Military Academy in England, where the training Alfonso received was severe but more cosmopolitan than in Spain, on 1 December 1874, Alfonso issued the Sandhurst Manifesto, where he set the ideological basis of the Bourbon Restoration. It was drafted in reply to a greeting from his followers. Thereupon the President resigned, and his power was transferred to the kings plenipotentiary and adviser, the 29 December 1874 military coup of Gen. Martinez Campos in Sagunto ended the failed republic and meant the rise of the young Prince Alfonso. In 1876, a campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos. Cánovas was the architect of the new regime of the Restoration
Alfonso XII of Spain
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1884 photograph
Alfonso XII of Spain
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Prince Alfonso.
Alfonso XII of Spain
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Alfonso XII in the uniform of the Supreme Commander of the
Spanish Navy.
Alfonso XII of Spain
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5 Peseta of Alfonso XII
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