1.
Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
2.
Stone tool
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A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, archaeologists often study such prehistoric societies, and refer to the study of stone tools as lithic analysis. Ethnoarchaeology has been a research field in order to further the understanding and cultural implications of stone tool use. Stone has been used to make a variety of different tools throughout history, including arrow heads, spearpoints. Stone tools may be made of ground stone or chipped stone. Chipped stone tools are made from materials such as chert or flint, radiolarite, chalcedony, obsidian, basalt. One simple form of reduction is to strike stone flakes from a nucleus of material using a hammerstone or similar hard hammer fabricator, if the goal of the reduction strategy is to produce flakes, the remnant lithic core may be discarded once it has become too small to use. In some strategies, however, a flintknapper reduces the core to a rough unifacial or bifacial preform, more complex forms of reduction include the production of highly standardized blades, which can then be fashioned into a variety of tools such as scrapers, knives, sickles and microliths. Archaeologists classify stone tools into industries that share distinctive technological or morphological characteristics and he assigned to them relative dates, Modes 1 and 2 to the Lower Palaeolithic,3 to the Middle Palaeolithic,4 to the Advanced and 5 to the Mesolithic. They were not to be conceived, however, as either universal—that is, they did not account for all lithic technology, Mode 1, for example, was in use in Europe long after it had been replaced by Mode 2 in Africa. Clarkes scheme was adopted enthusiastically by the archaeological community, one of its advantages was the simplicity of terminology, for example, the Mode 1 / Mode 2 Transition. The transitions are currently of greatest interest, Kenya Stone tools found from 2011 to 2014 at Lake Turkana in Kenya, are dated to be 3.3 million years old, and predate the genus Homo by half million years. The oldest known Homo fossil is 2.8 million years old compared to the 3.3 million year old stone tools. Dating of the tools was by dating volcanic ash layers in which the tools were found, Oldowan tools were characterised by their simple construction, predominantly using core forms. The blunt end is the surface, the sharp, the distal. Grasping the proximal surface, the hominid brought the surface down hard on an object he wished to detach or shatter. The earliest known Oldowan tools yet found date from 2.6 million years ago, during the Lower Palaeolithic period, and have been uncovered at Gona in Ethiopia. Homo habilis was the hominin who used the tools for most of the Oldowan in Africa, eventually, more complex, Mode 2 tools began to be developed through the Acheulean Industry, named after the site of Saint-Acheul in France
3.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
4.
Plane (tool)
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A hand plane is a tool for shaping wood using muscle power to force the cutting blade over the surface of a material. Some rotary power planers are motorized power tools used for the types of larger tasks. When powered by electricity to the breadth of a board or panel, the tool may be called a thickness planer or planer which are designed to shape, flatten, and finish larger boards or surfaces. Generally all planes are used to flatten, reduce the thickness of, planing is also used to produce horizontal, vertical, or inclined flat surfaces on workpieces usually too large for shaping, where the integrity of the whole requires the same smooth surface. Special types of planes are designed to cut joints or decorative mouldings, a cutter which extends below the bottom surface, or sole, of the plane slices off shavings of wood. A large, flat sole on a plane guides the cutter to remove only the highest parts of a surface, until, after several passes. When used for flattening, bench planes with longer soles are preferred for boards with longer longitudinal dimensions, a longer sole registers against a greater portion of the boards face or edge surface which leads to a more consistently flat surface or straighter edge. Conversely, using a smaller plane allows for more localized low or high spots to remain, though most planes are pushed across a piece of wood, holding it with one or both hands, Japanese planes are pulled toward the body, not pushed away. Hand planes are ancient, originating thousands of years ago, early planes were made from wood with a rectangular slot or mortise cut across the center of the body. The cutting blade or iron was held in place with a wooden wedge, the wedge was tapped into the mortise and adjusted with a small mallet, a piece of scrap wood or with the heel of the users hand. Planes of this type have been found in excavations of old sites as well as drawings of woodworking from medieval Europe, the earliest known examples of the woodworking plane have been found in Pompeii although other Roman examples have been unearthed in Britain and Germany. The Roman planes resemble modern planes in essential function, most having iron wrapping a wooden top, bottom, front and rear. One example found in Cologne has a body made entirely of bronze without a wooden core, a Roman plane iron used for cutting moldings was found in Newstead, England. There are suggestions that the earliest planes were simply wooden blocks fastened to the soles of adzes to effect greater control of the cutting action. In the mid-1860s, Leonard Bailey began producing a line of cast iron-bodied hand planes, the original Bailey designs were further evolved and added to by Justus Traut and others at Stanley Rule & Level. The Bailey and Bedrock designs became the basis for most modern metal hand plane designs manufactured today, the Bailey design is still manufactured by Stanley Works. In 1918 an air-powered handheld planing tool was developed to reduce shipbuilding labor during World War I, the air-driven cutter spun at 8000 to 15000 rpm and allowed one man to do the planing work of fifteen men who used manual tools. Modern hand planes are made from wood, ductile iron or bronze which produces a tool that is heavier, two styles of plane are shown with some parts labeled
5.
Surform
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A surform tool features perforated sheet metal and resembles a food grater. A surform tool consists of a strip with holes punched out. The strip is mounted in a carriage or handle, Surform tools were called cheese graters decades before they entered the market as kitchen utensils used to grate cheese. Surform planes have been described as a cross between a rasp and a plane, although similar to many food graters made of perforated sheet metal, surforms differ in having sharpened rims. Also, a surform typically is used to shape material, rather than grate it, the word surform is an apparent portmanteau of surface and form. It is unclear whether this is a trademark or the opposite. Surform is a trade mark of Stanley Black & Decker. Surform was first registered as a mark in the United Kingdom on 25 September 1953 The first Surform tools were the invention of a British company. A patent for a Surform tool blade was obtained in 1949 in Australia by Firth Cleveland Pty Ltd of Wolverhampton England, an affiliated UK company, Simmonds Aerocessories Ltd. was an early manufacturer of Surform tools. They made 3 planes using this blade and these were marketed by another affiliated UK company, British Lead Mills Limited, in or before 1956. Stanley Works first bought United States manufacturing rights, then bought the company, Stanley began marketing its first surform tools, a plane and a rasp that used the same blade, in 1956. By 1959, Stanley offered a choice of fine and coarse tooth blades, by 1966, the product line had grown to include pocket plane, files, and an electric drill drum. Reflecting their many uses, Stanley used the slogan it shaves everything, a feature of the product line was that on all the tools the blades were replaceable, this was important because they could not be sharpened. Stanley used the name Surform from the start of its campaign in 1956. Stanley now has several competitors that manufacture surform tools and these include Microplane, a manufacturer of woodworking tools and kitchen utensils, Sherrill, a manufacturer of utensils for working with clay, and G-Rasp, a manufacturer of small kitchen rasps. In addition to its own tools, Microplane markets stainless steel replacement blades that fit some of the Stanley surform tools, there are several types of surform tools, used to make different shapes. They include flat plane, flat, half-round, and round rasp, larger surform tools are designed for two-handed use, smaller ones for one-handed use. Compared to a rasp or sandpaper, the advantages of a surform rasp include a faster cutting action, no clogging of the tool with material being removed
6.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
7.
Drawknife
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A drawknife is a traditional woodworking hand tool used to shape wood by removing shavings. It consists of a blade with a handle at each end, the blade is much longer than it is deep. It is pulled or drawn toward the user, the drawknife in the illustration has a blade 23 centimetres although much shorter drawknives are also made. The blade is sharpened to a chisel bevel, traditionally, it is a rounded, smooth bevel. The handles can be below the level of the blade or at the same level, the thin blade lends itself to create complex concave or convex curves. Unlike a spokeshave, it not have a closed mouth to control chip formation. They are also a piece of equipment in hand-made cricket bats. The operator gently levers the blade to bite into the wood, one works from the centre of the piece to the end, not the entire length all at once. The operator then reverses the piece in the horse or vise and works from near centre to trim the fatter end to match the centre. Final work can be done by spokeshave, sanding block or lathe, when operated conventionally, that is blade bevel-side upward the drawknife takes deeper cuts and some novices may find it has a tendency to dive. When operated bevel-side down there is the advantage of removing less stock, the operator applies little leverage from centre and most leverage, so the blade bites deeper, thus removing more wood as they approach the end grain. The operator applies minimal, then most, then least force on the handles from centre toward the end grain, the work stock is reversed and same method repeated this time commencing a tiny distance away from centre so as to leave a coarse raised section. The coarse raised section where the two curves meet can be finished with a rasp, file, spokeshave or other tool. For very rapid and rough removal of stock, the blade is drawn toward the user, the operator immediately stops pulling, and uses the drawknife blade to lever upward so as to flick the splinter or splice out of the worked piece. This technique is advanced and may damage the worked piece and drawknife blade if due care is not observed, traditionally, the waste shavings, which are particularly durable, are used for basket weaving or for kindling. They also make excellent compost and plant bed material, large drawknives can be used to dress logs, and small sizes for carving and shaving. A common use of a drawknife is to create a roughly cylindrical billet of wood for turning on a pole lathe. Fifty million tent pegs were manufactured in the United Kingdom throughout World War II via the drawknife method, a pushknife is a similar tool, used by pushing, rather than pulling
8.
Finger plane
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A finger plane is a small plane, usually with a brass body, typically used by luthiers, violin and guitar makers. Finger planes are used for final trimming work after glue-up, particularly around curved edges and they are thus small in length, as they do not need to span a wide area as a jointer plane does. They are also narrow in width, as they are meant for trimming the edges of thin boards. Some have flat bases, for work, the more distinctive have curved bases for concave surfaces. They are made with soles in a range of curvatures and a workshop will have several. To add mass to such a plane, they are commonly cast in a dense brass or bronze alloy. Luthiers making their own planes typically make them from offcuts of dense tropical hardwoods, ibex is a widely known manufacturer of bronze planes
9.
Rebate plane
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The rebate plane is a hand plane designed for cutting rabbets in wood. Its a simple tool, used in many Western countries, with hundreds of years of history and it was in use in England at least as early as the 11th century. The blade is slightly wider than the body of the plane. Rebate planes are intended for long grain cutting and are set up to remove large amounts of material quickly. The mouth is set quite coarsely to allow large chips to be removed, in the latter mode, the duplex rebate plane is similar to a bullnose plane. The rebate plane commonly has a stop and a fence which allows the width and depth of the rabbet to be gauged. They also are equipped with a spur which is designed to score the wood as the rabbet is cut. This is particularly valuable when working across the grain
10.
Tang (tools)
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One can classify various tang designs by their appearance, by the manner in which they attach to a handle, and by their length in relation to the handle. A full tang extends the length of the grip-portion of a handle. A full tang may or may not be as wide as the handle itself, there are a wide variety of full and partial tang designs. The tang is left exposed along the belly, butt, and spine of the handle, partial tang designs include stub, half, and three-quarter tangs, describing how far the tang extends into the handle of the tool. The most common partial tang design found in commercial knives is on folding knives, hollow-handled knives also incorporate a partial tang. Many inexpensive knives and swords designed for decorative purposes incorporate partial tangs and are not intended to be used for cutting applications. In general, a forward-balanced blade excels at chopping but sacrifices agility and ease of manipulation, knives and swords intended for specific purposes will usually incorporate whichever design is most suited to how the tool will be handled for that specific purpose. A partial tang knife or sword is not able to leverage as much force against the resistance of material being cut as a full tang design would allow. This limits the amount of force which a user should apply to the handle of such a weapon, such designs may be optimal in light-weight knives or swords designed to be kept extremely sharp and used to cut less-resistant materials. Scalpels and Japanese samurai swords are perhaps the most well-known examples of such tools and it should be noted that most of these design styles can be used with full or partial tangs and the use of one does not exclude the use of another. For example, a sword may have a hidden, encapsulated, push Tang, the tang is inserted or pushed into a pre-made handle and fastened in place. Encapsulated Tang, handle material is molded around the tang itself, hidden Tang, the tang is fastened within the handle such that neither the tang nor the mechanism by which it is fastened is visible on the surface of the handle. A hidden tang may be accomplished in a number of ways, the simplest way to accomplish a hidden tang is with epoxy. A more sophisticated method is to construct the tang with a protrusion which fits into a notch in the handle. Another common method is to cut bolt-threading into the end of the tang whereby a pommel-nut screws into place and this style of tang is often used in decorative swords and blades, which are never intended for actual use and therefore do not require a strong, functional tang. Tapered Tang, the width of the tang gradually decreases in one or more dimensions along its length, tapered tangs may feature thinning along the spine from blade to pommel, thinning from spine to belly, or even hollowing from the edges toward the midsection of the tang-stock. This is an uncommon but sophisticated design used to reduce the amount of material in the handle of the tool without significant sacrifice of strength along horizontal and vertical vectors. Skeletonized Tang, large sections along the tang are cut away and this is another sophisticated, modern method of reducing the material weight of the tang without sacrificing significant material strength or support
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