1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
3.
Squamish people
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The Squamish people are an indigenous people in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. In 2012, there was population of 3,893 band members registered with the Squamish Nation and their language is the Squamish language or Sḵwx̱wú7mesh snichim, considered a part of the Coast Salish languages, and is categorized as nearly extinct with just 10 fluent speakers as of 2010. The traditional territory covered Point Grey as the southern border, from here, it continued northward to Roberts Creek on the Sunshine Coast, up the Howe Sound. The northern part included the Squamish, Cheakamus, Elaho and Mamquam rivers, up the Cheakamus River it included land past Whistler, British Columbia. The southern and eastern part of their territory includes Indian Arm, along Burrard Inlet, through False Creek then English Bay, today the Squamish people live mostly in seven communities, located in West Vancouver, North Vancouver, and within and nearby to the District of Squamish. The Squamish people’s history, culture, societal customs, and other knowledge was transmitted by tradition from generation to generation without a writing system. Today oral tradition continues to be an aspect of their traditional culture. This continued until European contact and diseases in 1791, which caused changes to the people. Charles Hill-Tout became the first European to document Squamish oral history in the early 1900s, later, many anthropologists and linguists came to work with Squamish informants and elders to document Squamish culture and history. Although first recorded contact with Europeans happened with George Vancouver and José María Narváez in 1791–1792 disease had devastated much of the population before in the 1770s, for decades following, more diseases, including influenza, reduced the population significantly. Oral tradition transmits history, literature, law and other knowledges verbally across generations, without a writing system, the passing on of this history is regarded as the duty of responsible elders. Those who possessed a great deal of knowledge were regarded as aristocrats, like other Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, the Squamish have stories of the Transformer brothers who went around the world transforming things and people. Other stories transmitted through generations are of ancestral characters doing things or involved in events, oral tradition and history, including new events, continues to be passed on in this form to this day. Squamish oral history traces back to founding fathers of their people, an aged informant of the Squamish people named Mel̓ḵw’s, said to be over 100 years old, was interviewed by Charles Hill-Tout in 1986. He recited oral history on the origins of the world, but the tops of the mountains came out of the sea and land was formed. The first man to appear was named X̱i7lánexw and he was given a wife, an adze, and a salmon trap. X̱i7lánexw and his wife populated the land and the Squamish descend from these ancestors, dominic Charlie told a similar story in 1965 about the origins of his people. Their oral history talks about the Great Flood also, in a story said to happen at Chʼiyáḵmesh, in the Squamish Valley, a man who survived the flood was walking down the river, feeling depressed about the loss of his people from the flood
4.
Language family
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A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that family. Linguists therefore describe the languages within a language family as being genetically related. Estimates of the number of living languages vary from 5,000 to 8,000, depending on the precision of ones definition of language, the 2013 edition of Ethnologue catalogs just over 7,000 living human languages. A living language is one that is used as the primary form of communication of a group of people. There are also dead and extinct languages, as well as some that are still insufficiently studied to be classified. Membership of languages in a family is established by comparative linguistics. Sister languages are said to have a genetic or genealogical relationship, speakers of a language family belong to a common speech community. The divergence of a proto-language into daughter languages typically occurs through geographical separation, individuals belonging to other speech communities may also adopt languages from a different language family through the language shift process. Genealogically related languages present shared retentions, that is, features of the proto-language that cannot be explained by chance or borrowing, for example, Germanic languages are Germanic in that they share vocabulary and grammatical features that are not believed to have been present in the Proto-Indo-European language. These features are believed to be innovations that took place in Proto-Germanic, language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. A family is a unit, all its members derive from a common ancestor. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a level. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, a top-level family is often called a phylum or stock. The closer the branches are to other, the closer the languages will be related. For example, the Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Romance, there is a remarkably similar pattern shown by the linguistic tree and the genetic tree of human ancestry that was verified statistically. Languages interpreted in terms of the phylogenetic tree of human languages are transmitted to a great extent vertically as opposed to horizontally. A speech variety may also be considered either a language or a dialect depending on social or political considerations, thus, different sources give sometimes wildly different accounts of the number of languages within a family. Classifications of the Japonic family, for example, range from one language to nearly twenty, most of the worlds languages are known to be related to others
5.
Salishan languages
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The Salishan languages are a group of languages of the Pacific Northwest in North America. They are characterised by agglutinativity and syllabic consonants, for instance the Nuxalk word xłp̓x̣ʷłtłpłłskʷc̓, meaning he had had a bunchberry plant, has thirteen obstruent consonants in a row with no phonetic or phonemic vowels. The terms Salish and Salishan are used interchangeably by linguists and anthropologists studying Salishan, the name Salish or Selisch is the endonym of the Flathead Nation. Linguists later applied the name Salish to related languages in the Pacific Northwest, all Salishan languages are considered critically endangered, some extremely so, with only three or four speakers left. Those languages considered extinct are often referred to as sleeping languages, in the early 21st century, few Salish languages have more than one to 2,000 speakers. Fluent, daily speakers of almost all Salishan languages are generally over sixty years of age, Salishan languages are most commonly written using the Americanist phonetic notation to account for the various vowels and consonants that do not exist in most modern alphabets. Many groups have evolved their own uses of the Latin alphabet, however. The Salishan language family consists of twenty-three languages, below is a list of Salishan languages, dialects, and subdialects. The genetic unity among the Salish languages is evident, neighboring groups have communicated often, to the point that it is difficult to untangle the influence each dialect and language has upon others. A1969 study found that relationships are highest and closest among the Interior Division. This list is a classification that may not correspond to political divisions. In contrast to classifications made by scholars, many Salishan groups consider their particular variety of speech to be a separate language rather than a dialect. Bella Coola Kimsquit Nuxalk Kwatna Tallheo A, Lushootseed Northern Skagit Snohomish Southern Duwamish-Suquamish Puyallup Nisqually 5. Klallam Becher Bay Eastern Western 10, Northern Straits Lummi Pauquachin (AKA Saanich Samish Semiahmoo Sooke Songhees 11. Upper Chehalis Oakville Chehalis Satsop Tenino Chehalis ii, Lower Chehalis Humptulips Westport-Shoalwater Wynoochee 15. Tillamook Siletz Siletz Tillamook Garibaldi-Nestucca Nehalem A, Shuswap Eastern Kinbasket Shuswap Lake Western Canim Lake Chu Chua Deadmans Creek–Kamloops Fraser River Pavilion-Bonaparte 18. Thompson River Salish Lytton Nicola Valley Spuzzum–Boston Bar Thompson Canyon B, columbia-Moses Chelan Entiat Columbian Wenatchee 22. Colville-Okanagan Northern Quilchena & Spaxomin Arrow Lakes Penticton Similkameen Vernon Southern Colville-Inchelium Methow San Poil–Nespelem Southern Okanogan 23, Montana Salish Salish Kalispel Chewelah Kalispel Upper Pend d’Oreile Spokane Pentlatch, Nooksack, Twana, Lower Chehalis, Upper Chehalis, Cowlitz, Klallam, and Tillamook are now extinct
6.
Writing system
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A writing system is any conventional method of visually representing verbal communication. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a form of information storage. The processes of encoding and decoding writing systems involve shared understanding between writers and readers of the meaning behind the sets of characters that make up a script, the general attributes of writing systems can be placed into broad categories such as alphabets, syllabaries, or logographies. Any particular system can have attributes of more than one category, in the alphabetic category, there is a standard set of letters of consonants and vowels that encode based on the general principle that the letters represent speech sounds. In a syllabary, each symbol correlates to a syllable or mora, in a logography, each character represents a word, morpheme, or other semantic units. Other categories include abjads, which differ from alphabets in that vowels are not indicated, alphabets typically use a set of 20-to-35 symbols to fully express a language, whereas syllabaries can have 80-to-100, and logographies can have several hundreds of symbols. Systems will also enable the stringing together of these groupings in order to enable a full expression of the language. The reading step can be accomplished purely in the mind as an internal process, writing systems were preceded by proto-writing, which used pictograms, ideograms and other mnemonic symbols. Proto-writing lacked the ability to capture and express a range of thoughts. Soon after, writing provided a form of long distance communication. With the advent of publishing, it provided the medium for a form of mass communication. Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that a system is always associated with at least one spoken language. In contrast, visual representations such as drawings, paintings, and non-verbal items on maps, such as contour lines, are not language-related. Some other symbols, such as numerals and the ampersand, are not directly linked to any specific language, every human community possesses language, which many regard as an innate and defining condition of humanity. However, the development of writing systems, and the process by which they have supplanted traditional oral systems of communication, have been sporadic, uneven, once established, writing systems generally change more slowly than their spoken counterparts. Thus they often preserve features and expressions which are no current in the spoken language. One of the benefits of writing systems is that they can preserve a permanent record of information expressed in a language. In the examination of individual scripts, the study of writing systems has developed along partially independent lines, thus, the terminology employed differs somewhat from field to field
7.
Squamish Nation
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The Squamish Nation, Sḵwx̱wú7mesh Úxwumixw in Sḵwx̱wú7mesh Sníchim, is an Indian Act government originally imposed on the Squamish by the Federal Government of Canada in the late 19th century. The Squamish are Indigenous, located in what is now considered British Columbia and their band government comprises 16 elected councillors, serving four-year terms, with an elected band manager. The Squamish Nation, is an amalgamation of different villages, which became reserves under the Indian Act which the Canadian government imposed on the Squamish people, the main goal of the Indian Act was the eventual assimilation of the indigenous people into the settlers colonial socio-political structures and lifestyle. The Canadian government created a system of governing the Squamish through selected chiefs and these chiefs were selected based on factors such as their compliance, professed religious affiliation and sobriety. After passing of the Indian Act, these became the Indian Act government. The Squamish people were categorized and placed into numerous small reserves, each reserve was originally in the ownership of specific Squamish families. On July 23,1923 a political agreement was signed by 16 chiefs. This amalgamation became the Squamish Nation, and each chief had a seat at the council table, after decades, the hereditary system for the band council changed into an elected council. Currently, the Squamish Nation has 16 seats for which elections occur every four years, the number 16 reflects the 16 signatures on the original amalgamation agreement. Prior to British Columbias hosting of the 2010 Olympic Games, the Squamish Nation engaged in negotiations with the Provincial Government of British Columbia and Lilwat First Nation. Numerous agreements were signed prior to and following the announcement of the host city for the Games, issues regarding the leasing of land, Nation-owned or operated businesses and other ventures currently account for much of the Squamish Nations band council government business. The Squamish Nation recently announced the purchase of a Tree Farm License and this is one of the rare instances of an Indigenous Nation buying forfeited land, as no agreement was ever signed between the Crown and the Squamish during colonization of the Lower Mainland. The Nation has been criticized as doing little for its people despite its economic growth, the Squamish Nation has close ties with the Burrard Band or Tsleil-Waututh First Nation, who reside further east on Burrard Inlet. They have family connections to the Musqueam who reside on the edge of the city of Vancouver. Squamish communities were affected by the 2005 CN Rail Cheakamus River derailment. About 40,000 litres of caustic soda were accidentally released into the Cheakamus, Squamish communities around the river were advised by the Vancouver Coastal Health Authority not to consume water from local wells, or local wildlife who use the river. The Squamish Nation Band Council is now taking legal action against CN Rail, the elected councilors make up the executive political body of this government. They operate on a term with elections occurring around in December
8.
International Phonetic Alphabet
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The International Phonetic Alphabet is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by lexicographers, foreign students and teachers, linguists, speech-language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are part of language, phones, phonemes, intonation. IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a letter, or with a letter plus diacritics. Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription, thus, /t/ is less specific than, occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005, there are 107 letters,52 diacritics and these are shown in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and at the website of the IPA. In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, for example, the sound was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the digraph ⟨ch⟩ in French. However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, the idea of making the IPA was first suggested by Otto Jespersen in a letter to Paul Passy. It was developed by Alexander John Ellis, Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the International Phonetic Association Kiel Convention in 1989, a minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid central vowels and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives. The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap, apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology were created in 1990, the general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound, although this practice is not followed if the sound itself is complex. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as do hard, finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as selectiveness. These are organized into a chart, the chart displayed here is the chart as posted at the website of the IPA. The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet, for this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither, for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a question mark
9.
Specials (Unicode block)
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Specials is a short Unicode block allocated at the very end of the Basic Multilingual Plane, at U+FFF0–FFFF. Of these 16 codepoints, five are assigned as of Unicode 9, U+FFFD � REPLACEMENT CHARACTER used to replace an unknown, unrecognized or unrepresentable character U+FFFE <noncharacter-FFFE> not a character. FFFE and FFFF are not unassigned in the sense. They can be used to guess a texts encoding scheme, since any text containing these is by not a correctly encoded Unicode text. The replacement character � is a found in the Unicode standard at codepoint U+FFFD in the Specials table. It is used to indicate problems when a system is unable to render a stream of data to a correct symbol and it is usually seen when the data is invalid and does not match any character, Consider a text file containing the German word für in the ISO-8859-1 encoding. This file is now opened with an editor that assumes the input is UTF-8. The first and last byte are valid UTF-8 encodings of ASCII, therefore, a text editor could replace this byte with the replacement character symbol to produce a valid string of Unicode code points. The whole string now displays like this, f�r, a poorly implemented text editor might save the replacement in UTF-8 form, the text file data will then look like this, 0x66 0xEF 0xBF 0xBD 0x72, which will be displayed in ISO-8859-1 as f�r. Since the replacement is the same for all errors this makes it impossible to recover the original character, a better design is to preserve the original bytes, including the error, and only convert to the replacement when displaying the text. This will allow the text editor to save the original byte sequence and it has become increasingly common for software to interpret invalid UTF-8 by guessing the bytes are in another byte-based encoding such as ISO-8859-1. This allows correct display of both valid and invalid UTF-8 pasted together, Unicode control characters UTF-8 Mojibake Unicodes Specials table Decodeunicodes entry for the replacement character
10.
Unicode
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Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the worlds writing systems. As of June 2016, the most recent version is Unicode 9.0, the standard is maintained by the Unicode Consortium. Unicodes success at unifying character sets has led to its widespread, the standard has been implemented in many recent technologies, including modern operating systems, XML, Java, and the. NET Framework. Unicode can be implemented by different character encodings, the most commonly used encodings are UTF-8, UTF-16 and the now-obsolete UCS-2. UTF-8 uses one byte for any ASCII character, all of which have the same values in both UTF-8 and ASCII encoding, and up to four bytes for other characters. UCS-2 uses a 16-bit code unit for each character but cannot encode every character in the current Unicode standard, UTF-16 extends UCS-2, using one 16-bit unit for the characters that were representable in UCS-2 and two 16-bit units to handle each of the additional characters. Many traditional character encodings share a common problem in that they allow bilingual computer processing, Unicode, in intent, encodes the underlying characters—graphemes and grapheme-like units—rather than the variant glyphs for such characters. In the case of Chinese characters, this leads to controversies over distinguishing the underlying character from its variant glyphs. In text processing, Unicode takes the role of providing a unique code point—a number, in other words, Unicode represents a character in an abstract way and leaves the visual rendering to other software, such as a web browser or word processor. This simple aim becomes complicated, however, because of concessions made by Unicodes designers in the hope of encouraging a more rapid adoption of Unicode, the first 256 code points were made identical to the content of ISO-8859-1 so as to make it trivial to convert existing western text. For other examples, see duplicate characters in Unicode and he explained that he name Unicode is intended to suggest a unique, unified, universal encoding. In this document, entitled Unicode 88, Becker outlined a 16-bit character model, Unicode could be roughly described as wide-body ASCII that has been stretched to 16 bits to encompass the characters of all the worlds living languages. In a properly engineered design,16 bits per character are more than sufficient for this purpose, Unicode aims in the first instance at the characters published in modern text, whose number is undoubtedly far below 214 =16,384. By the end of 1990, most of the work on mapping existing character encoding standards had been completed, the Unicode Consortium was incorporated in California on January 3,1991, and in October 1991, the first volume of the Unicode standard was published. The second volume, covering Han ideographs, was published in June 1992, in 1996, a surrogate character mechanism was implemented in Unicode 2.0, so that Unicode was no longer restricted to 16 bits. The Microsoft TrueType specification version 1.0 from 1992 used the name Apple Unicode instead of Unicode for the Platform ID in the naming table, Unicode defines a codespace of 1,114,112 code points in the range 0hex to 10FFFFhex. Normally a Unicode code point is referred to by writing U+ followed by its hexadecimal number, for code points in the Basic Multilingual Plane, four digits are used, for code points outside the BMP, five or six digits are used, as required. Code points in Planes 1 through 16 are accessed as surrogate pairs in UTF-16, within each plane, characters are allocated within named blocks of related characters
11.
Indian reserve
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A single band may control one reserve or several, in addition some reserves are shared between multiple bands. In 2003 the Department of Indian Affairs stated there were 2,300 reserves in Canada, according to Statistics Canada in 2011, there are more than 600 First Nations/Indian bands in Canada and 3,100 Indian reserves across Canada. Examples include the Sturgeon Lake First Nation, which many bands, has only one reserve. 4, and Sea Island Indian Reserve No.3 are governed by the Musqueam Indian Band, in 2003,60 percent of status Indians lived on reserves. Of the 637,660 First Nations people who reported being Registered Indians and this proportion varies across the country. Many reserves have no resident population, typically they are small, remote, discontiguous pieces of land, Statistics Canada counts only those reserves which are populated as subdivisions for the purpose of the national census. For the 2011 census, of the more than 3,100 Indian reserves across Canada, some reserves that were originally rural were gradually surrounded by urban development. Montreal, Vancouver and Calgary are examples of cities with urban reserves, another multi-band reserve of the Sto, lo peoples is Grass Indian Reserve No. 15, which is located in the City of Chilliwack and is shared by nine bands, separate powers covered status and civil rights on the one hand and Indian lands on the other. Numerous aboriginal groups lived in the territory and disputed the sovereignty of the area. This promise led to the numbered treaties, after the Royal Proclamation and before Confederation in 1867 the Upper Canada Treaties and the Douglas Treaties treaties were signed. Some of these pre-confederation and post-confederation treaties addressed reserve lands, hunting, fishing, trapping rights, annuities, the rights and freedoms of Canadas First Nations people have been governed by the Indian Act since its enactment in 1876 by the Parliament of Canada. The provisions of Section 91 of the Constitution Act,1867, provided Canadas federal government exclusive authority to legislate in relation to Indians and Lands Reserved for Indians. Wikwemikong Unceded Reserve on Manitoulin Island is subject to the Indian Act provisions governing reserves even though its lands were never ceded to the Crown by treaty. The Indian Act gives the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs the right to determine whether any purpose for which lands in a reserve are used is for the use, title to land within the reserve may be transferred to only the band or to individual band members. While the act was intended to protect the Indian holdings, the make it difficult for the reserves and their residents to obtain financing for development and construction. To answer this need, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation has created a housing loan program. Members of bands may enter into a trust agreement with CMHC, in other programs, loans to residents of reserves are guaranteed by the federal government
12.
Squamish, British Columbia
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Squamish is a community and a district municipality in the Canadian province of British Columbia, located at the north end of Howe Sound on the Sea to Sky Highway. The population of the Squamish census agglomeration – including First Nation reserves of the Squamish Nation not governed by the municipality – is 15,256, the town of Squamish had its beginning during the construction of the Pacific Great Eastern Railway in the 1910s. It was the first southern terminus of that railway, the town remains important in the operations of the line and also the port. Forestry has traditionally been the industry in the area. However, Western Pulps Squamish Operation permanently ceased operation on January 26,2006, before the pulp mill, the towns largest employer had been International Forest Products with its sawmill and logging operation, but it closed a few years prior to the pulp mills closing. In recent years, Squamish has become popular with Vancouver and Whistler residents escaping the increased cost of living in those places, tourism is an increasingly important part of the towns economy, with an emphasis on outdoor recreation. The Squamish people are a people whose homeland includes the present day area of Squamish, British Columbia. The word Squamish derives from the name of the people which in their language is Sḵwx̱wú7mesh, the people reside primarily on a number of Indian Reserves owned and managed by the Squamish Nation in the Squamish Valley area. A few places and names in the Squamish area derive from Squamish language words, ch’iyáḵmesh is the name of an old village that was located on the Cheakamus River. St’á7mes is a community located near the entrance to the town of Squamish, which lies below the Stawamus Chief. Mámx̱wem is where the Mamquam River name comes from as well, residents of Indian Reserves are not governed by the District of Squamish but by the Squamish Nation. The Squamish Nations population and Indian Reserves also include villages in North Vancouver, the name Keh Kait was the traditional name for the site of downtown Squamish. Attractions include the Stawamus Chief, a huge cliff-faced granite massif favoured by rock climbers, in all, between Shannon Falls, Murrin Park, The Malamute, and the Little Smoke Bluffs, there are over 1200 rock-climbing routes in the Squamish area. In recent years, Squamish has also become a destination for bouldering. Another activity for which Squamish is well known is mountain biking, there are over 600 trails suitable to riders that can ride very steep trails with large gaps and steep rock. One of the more well-known events supported by the mountain biking community is the Test of Metal, limited to 800 riders, the race is known to sell out quickly. Kiteboarding and windsurfing are popular sports in Squamish during the summer. Predictable wind on warm sunny days makes the Squamish Spit a top kiteboarding location in western Canada, squamishs extensive quality trail system is a key feature of an annual 50-mile ultra trail run, the Squamish 50
13.
North Vancouver (district municipality)
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The District of North Vancouver is a district municipality in British Columbia, Canada and is part of the Greater Vancouver Regional District. It surrounds the City of North Vancouver on three sides, as of 2016, the District stands as the second wealthiest city in Canada, with neighbouring West Vancouver the richest. The municipality is characterized as being a relatively quiet, affluent suburban hub home to many middle and upper-middle class families. Homes in the District generally range from mid-sized family bungalows to large luxury houses. Some developments have popped up across the district in recent years, the District is served by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, British Columbia Ambulance Service, and the District of North Vancouver Fire Department. The District of North Vancouver is separated from Vancouver by the Burrard Inlet and it can be accessed by the Lions Gate Bridge, the Ironworkers Memorial Second Narrows Crossing, and the SeaBus passenger ferry. The District is bounded by the Capilano River to the west, Indian Arm to the east, Burrard Inlet to the south, and it sprawls in an east-west direction across the mountain slopes, and is characterized by rugged terrain and steep and winding roadways. While there is no true urban core within the District, there are a number of separate commercial neighbourhood centres and these include, Edgemont Village, Upper Lonsdale, Lynn Valley, Main Street, Parkgate, and Deep Cove. The District has a lot in common with West Vancouver and the City of North Vancouver, together these three municipalities are commonly referred to as the North Shore. Most of the residents of the District live in single-family dwellings, except for a few more historical areas, much of the development of the District has occurred since the 1950s. The City of North Vancouver has considerably higher commercial and residential density, however, the differences between the two North Vans are most apparent to their respective residents. For the most part, other Lower Mainland residents rarely distinguish between the District and the City, referring to both collectively as North Vancouver. For thousands of years, the Indigenous Squamish and their kin Tsleil-Waututh, of the Coast Salish, slightly over 200 years ago, the people of the Squamish and Tsleil-Waututh living on the North Shore had their first glimpse of Europeans. First the Spanish arrived, giving their name to Vancouver’s Spanish Banks and, in 1792, Captain George Vancouver explored the local shores. But it was not until 1862 that the first attempt was made to harvest the North Shore’s rich stands of timber, the first industry on the North Shore was Pioneer Mills, founded in 1862 to log the huge trees of the coastal rainforest. After twice changing hands, the operation was bought by Sewell Prescott Moody in 1865, near where the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool grain elevators now stand, the town of Moodyville grew up and stood as the main centre of activity on the North Shore until the mill closed in 1901. The first school was established in Moodyville, in 1891, the first municipality on the North Shore was formed as the District of North Vancouver. It stretched across the North Shore from Horseshoe Bay to Deep Cove, in the early years of this century, a real estate boom took place, with speculators – including the British poet Rudyard Kipling – eager to turn a quick dollar
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West Vancouver
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West Vancouver is a district municipality in the province of British Columbia, Canada. Together with the District of North Vancouver and City of North Vancouver, it is part of a regional grouping referred to as the North Shore municipalities. West Vancouver has a population of 42,694, Cypress Provincial Park, mostly located within the municipal boundaries, was one of the venues for the 2010 Winter Olympics. The Municipality of West Vancouver was incorporated on March 15,1912, the first municipal election was held on April 6,1912. In November 1938, the Lions Gate Bridge was opened to traffic, allowing extensive growth of the semi-populated community, previously only accessible by ferry. Some homes in West Vancouver date back to the 1920s and 30s, though most of the existing dwellings were built in the 1970s and 80s. 1792 Captain George Vancouver names Point Atkinson 1872 James Blake preempted the first 65 hectares of land 1875 First lighthouse at Point Atkinson 1898 Mr and their house still stands today at Ambleside and there is a Navvy Jack Point. 1912 Population was approximately 1,500 people 1912 First Municipal election 1912 Council appointed John Teare as the first police constable on May 17, the bridge cost a total of $6 million to build. It was financed by the Guinness family, in conjunction with the development,1947 Ferry service stopped due to lack of demand after bridge constructed 1950 West Vancouver Memorial Library opened on November 11. The library lends more books per capita than any other library in Canada 1950 Park Royal Shopping Centre, the Police Department remained in the Public 1973 Clyde McRae completes a world record walk across Canada on Ambleside Beach. 2013 Park Royal Shopping Center sees first major expansion since 1978 Safety building West Vancouver has no manufacturing industry by law, West Vancouver is mainly a residential district as many residents are retired, work at home, or take the short commute to downtown Vancouver. A 25-block strip of Marine Drive serves as a district, featuring shops, small offices, garages and gas stations, restaurants, banks. This area is known as Ambleside, with a one-block section separated from that area known as Dundarave. West Vancouver is also home to Park Royal Shopping Centre, Canadas first mall. Opened in the 1950s, it now consumes 2 km of both sides of Marine Drive near North Vancouver, and is home to department stores and large retailers. Park Royal is also the largest mall on the North Shore, Ambleside Park and the 15 block long West Vancouver Seawall are popular spots for families and outdoor enthusiasts. Whytecliff Park is regarded as one of the best scuba diving spots in Western Canada, West Vancouver has several public recreation facilities including an 18-hole par 3 golf course, a pool, an ice rink, basketball and tennis courts, skateboard parks and numerous public parks. The new West Vancouver Community Centre has been rebuilt and opened Spring 2009, West Vancouver is also home to Cypress Provincial Park with mountain biking trails and a large ski and snowboard facility, which served as one of the venues for the 2010 Winter Olympics
15.
Skokomish people
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The Skokomish are one of nine tribes of the Twana, a Native American people of western Washington state in the United States. The tribe lives along Hood Canal, an inlet on the west side of the Kitsap Peninsula. Historically the Twana were hunters, fishers, and gatherers who had a lifestyle during the warmer months. Today, Skokomish people are enrolled in the federally recognized Skokomish Indian Tribe, like many Northwest Coast indigenous peoples, the Skokomish rely heavily on fishing for their survival. The name Skokomish comes from the Twana sqʷuqʷóbəš, also spelled sqWuqWub3sH, the Skokomish were one of the largest of the nine different Twana village communities that existed before about 1860. By their locations, the nine groups were the Dabop, Quilcene, Dosewallips, Duckabush, Hoodsport, Skokomish, Vance Creek, Tahuya, within these nine communities there were at least 33 settlements. The Skokomish, or Twana language belongs to the Coast Salish family of indigenous languages, the tribe moved onto the Skokomish Indian Reservation in the central part of modern-day Mason County, Washington near the Skokomish River around 1855. The reservation has an area of 21.244 km². The nearest outside communities are Union, to its east, and Hoodsport, Skokomish Reservation, Washington United States Census Bureau Skokomish Tribal Nation, official website
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Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, the Washington Territory was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The area was part of a region called the Columbia District after the Columbia River. The area was renamed Washington in order to avoid confusion with the District of Columbia, Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president. To distinguish it from the U. S. capital, which is named for George Washington, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, or, in more formal contexts. Washingtonians and other residents of the Pacific Northwest refer to the state simply as Washington, calling the nations capital Washington, D. C. or, often, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
17.
Halkomelem
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In the classification of Salishan languages, Halkomelem is a member of the Central Salish branch. There are four branches of the family, Tsamosan, Interior Salish, Bella Coola. Speakers of the Central and Tsamosan languages are identified in ethnographic literature as Coast Salish. The language differences are greatest between the Island and Upriver dialects, with the Downriver dialect providing a link between the other two. Arranged marriages between children in different language areas was common, helping to establish a regional social network in the Strait of Georgia-Puget Sound Basin. The Halkomelem language is near extinction, in 2000, it was estimated that the number of fluent Halkomelem speakers was less than one dozen. Most are middle-aged or older, and few are monolingual, as there was a flood of English-speaking settlers in the region in the mid-nineteenth century. Language programs at the Stó, lō Nation, Seabird Island First Nation, a program aimed at adults at Musqueam is a collaboration between the band and the University of British Columbia First Nations and endangered languages programme. In September 2009, The University of California Press published his Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem, a Halkomelem iPhone app was released in 2011. As of 2010,278 fluent speakers had been reported, note, All examples are drawn from the hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ dialect spoken by Musqueam, a band which speaks the Downriver dialect of Halkomelem. Relevant differences in the phonology of the Island and Upriver dialects are noted at the foot of the phoneme charts, vowel length is written in the native orthography as ⟨·⟩. Four of these phonemes are common, while /u/ occurs mainly in loan words. All five vowel phonemes vary considerably phonetically, the phoneme /i/ has three distinct allophones. It is realized as following unrounded uvulars and it is realized as with a central off-glide preceding both unrounded and rounded uvulars. Elsewhere, it is realized as low or high, the /e/ is realized as a low to mid-front vowel, usually between or high. The /a/ is low and central to back, often close to, the /u/ is high, back, and rounded, realized somewhere between low or high. Unstressed /ə/ can be as high as before /x/ and /y/ and this phoneme can also be assimilated to a stressed /e/ or a stressed /a/ in an adjacent syllable, by vowel harmony. The stops and affricates are grouped together for simplification purposes, the plain plosives are less aspirate before vowels than in English, but they are more aspirate finally
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History of the Squamish people
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Squamish history is the series of past events, both passed on through oral tradition and recent history, of the Squamish, a people indigenous to the southwestern part of British Columbia, Canada. Prior to colonization, they recorded their history through oral tradition as a way to transmit stories, law, no writing system was ever created until the 1970s and was based on the Latin alphabet. Most of their history was passed down from one generation to the next and it was considered the responsibility of knowledgeable elders, and also considered very respectable to do so. In recent history that goes back 200 years, their history includes the European discovery of North America, after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a massive influx of foreign settlers was brought into their traditional territory and drastically changed their way of life. Squamish oral history traces back to founding fathers of their people, an aged-informat of the Squamish people named Mel̓ḵw’s, said to be over 100 years old, was interviewed by Charles Hill-Tout in 1897. He recited oral history on the origins of the world, but the tops of the mountains came out of the sea and land was formed. The first man to appear was named X̱i7lánexw and he was given a wife, an adze, and a salmon trap. X̱i7lánexw and his wife populated the land and the Squamish descend from these ancestors, Dominic Charlie told a similar story in 1965 about the origins of his people. Their oral history talks about the Great Flood also, in a story said to happen at Chʼiyáḵmesh, in the Squamish Valley, a man who survived the flood was walking down the river, feeling depressed about the loss of his people from the flood. Then the Thunderbird helped him and gave him food and he continued down the river, with his food gathered by the Thunderbird, when the Thunderbird told him where to stay, and that he would give him a wife. That is where the people of Chʼiyáḵmesh came from, in another story of the first ancestors, two men first appeared at Chekw’élhp and Sch’enḵ, located at what is now known as Gibsons, British Columbia. The first man to appear here was Tseḵanchtn, then the man appeared named Sx̱eláltn. The people repopulated the land with large families and many Squamish people claim descent from these ancestors, a central part of Sḵwx̱wú7mesh history in their oral culture is the stories of supernatural deities often called The Transformers. These Transformers, were three brothers, sent by the Creator or keke7nex siyam and these three beings had supernatural powers, often using them to transform individuals into creatures, stone figures, or other supernatural event. In a story told by Dominic Charlie in 1965, he related about the first origins of his people and their very first ancestor was a man named X̱i7lánexw, translated as The First One. He was born in a village near Squamish, British Columbia, X̱i7lánexw did not know that his wife was with child, but he knew that someone or something was coming. He knew of something coming because of a bird that goes ahead of three supernatural men and these three men, called the Transformers, told the Rave, You go tell everybody we are coming. The first man understand the bird and he responded by getting ready with his canoe, near the mouth of the Cheakamus River, is a small mountain, and a little bay that fit his canoe
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Squamish culture
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They refer to themselves as Sḵwx̱wú7mesh. They are a part of the Coast Salish cultural group and their culture and social life is based on the abundant natural resource of the Pacific Northwest coast, rich in cedar trees, salmon, and other resources. They have complex kinship ties that connect their social life and cultural events to different families, an important distinction is to be made about Sḵwxwú7mesh culture. With the history of colonization and assimilation strategies, Sḵwxwú7mesh culture has been drastically changed from their pre-European contact. Despite these attempts, their culture intact and thriving. Some cultural practices and customs are not done in the same fashion and it is important to understand that though the practices of the Sḵwxwú7mesh have changed, many still continue, some the same as before, and some only slightly changed. There architecture in homes is similar to Coast Salish style dwellings called a longhouse. The housing structures are made from planks, posts. Historically extended families would live in a longhouse, with different branches of the living in different quarters of the house. Larger houses would have built to accommodate and host large amounts of guests in ceremonies, festivals. Typical sizes would be around 30 feet wide,40 feet long, the house posts on one side would stand slightly taller than the other, giving the roof a small pitch or shed look. Within the house, these posts would be carved into figures of ancestors depicting legendary events or other family history such as family rights in fishing, hunting. Beams crossed the house posts, where wood planks would sit to create the roof, within the house, wooden platforms formed along the walls holding families living and sleeping quarters. With this architectural style, houses could be built onto each end to end extending the length of the longhouse. This gave rise to the term ‘’longhouse’’, different types of homes once existed in a typical village, depending on size. Some villages houses a few or handful of houses, where others operated with dozens of houses, the larger longhouses were used for large potlatches or gatherings, and other longhouses were used exclusively for spiritual ceremonialism. These are Potlatch Houses or tle7enkáẃtxw, in the old village of X̱wáýx̱way, a large longhouse was measured at 200 feet long by 60 feet wide where 11 families lived in the house, numbering around 100 people. In 1875, over a people were invited by Supple Jack to be a part of a large potlatch
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Ustlawn
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Ustlawn is a Squamish village community located on the shores of North Vancouver. The Squamish name Eslhá7an translates as head bay, denoted what used to be the farthest out reaching bay enclave in the Burrard Inlet and it is also home to the Eslha7an Training Center, the Stitsma Employment Center, and the So-Sah-Latch Health and Family Centre. On the shores of the village is the Mosquito Creek Marina, the official name of the Indian Reserve it is situated on is Mission Indian Reserve No.1. List of Squamish villages Barman, Jean, stanley Parks Secret, The Forgotten Families of Whoi Whoi, Kanaka Ranch and Brockton Point. Squamish Nation Stitsma Employment Center Squamish Nation Marine Group The Creek Marina & Boatyard
21.
Tsleil-Waututh First Nation
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The Tsleil-Waututh Nation, formerly known as the Burrard Indian Band or Burrard Band, is a First Nations band government in the Canadian province of British Columbia. Numbering about 500 people, the Tsleil-Waututh consider themselves among the most progressive First Nations in British Columbia and his descendants still figure prominently in band government and culture. The band is known for its war canoe racing team. The band operates a war-canoe tour/experience known as Takaya Tours, in 2006, a documentary followed and was filmed by four Tsleil-Waututh youth to highlight their struggles with the education system. The documentary — titled as Reds, Whites & the Blues and/or, Squamish Nation Coast Salish peoples Dan George History of Squamish and Tsleil-Waututh Longshoremen, 1863-1963
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Musqueam Indian Band
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The name Musqueam relates to the grass məθkʷəy̓ which grew in throughout the community of Musqueam. It was noted that in some periods the məθkʷəy̓ grass flourished and it was also noted that in some periods the Musqueam people would flourish and in some periods the population would dwindle, perhaps by a plague or war. In this way the people known as the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm or Musqueam. The Musqueam are the residents of Vancouver. The Great Marpole Midden, is an ancient Musqueam village and burial site located in the Marpole neighbourhood of Vancouver, also known as the Great Fraser Midden, a thousands-year old deposit of skeletal remains, artefacts, stone and wooden tools, artwork and shells. The village itself was known as c̓əsnaʔəm, formerly there was a second residential area near the current one, maləy̓, known in English as Mahlie. Musqueams ancestors, the Coast Salish, have lived in the Fraser River estuary for thousands of years, chief Whattlekainum of the Kwantlen warned Fraser of an impending attack, thereby saving his life. Their traditional language is hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓, the Downriver Dialect of the Salishan language Halkomelem, the nearby Kwantlen and Katzie peoples just upriver share the same Hunquminum dialect, while the upriver Sto, lo people speak another dialect, Halq’əméyləm. Musqueam is currently the centre of hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ revitalization, the xʷməθkʷəy̓əm Musqueam dialect, hən̓q̓əmin̓əm is from the Hul’q’umi’num’/Halqeméyle/hən̓q̓əmin̓əm language family. Indian Reserves under the administration of the band are, Musqueam Indian Reserve No,2, at the mouth of the Fraser River to the north of Sea Island,190.40 ha. 49°14′00″N 123°13′00″W Musqueam Indian Reserve No. In 1952, Musqueam elected the youngest chief and council ever in Canada, Musqueam was one of the first to assume membership authority in Section 10 of the Indian Act. C̓əsnaʔəm, Musqueam, a culture, Vancouver, BC, Musqueam Indian Band,2011. -- ç¢sna, m, the Marpole Midden, and the Dispossession of Aboriginal Lands in British Columbia
23.
Shishalh
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The Sechelt or Shishalh people, are an indigenous people of Canada. At the time of the first European contact the Sechelt had a population of close to 26,000, Sechelt women were famous for their beautiful cedar woven baskets, which were made using materials such as cedar tree roots, cannery grass and birch bark. The Sechelt First Nations settlement included four villages on British Columbias Sunshine Coast, as the Europeans settled in the region, the Sechelt people experienced numerous changes. Disease brought over by the Europeans became rampant, and resulted in a decrease of the Sechelt population at their various traditional settlements. The language of the Sechelt is called sháshíshálh, shashishalhem is considered the most practical English spelling of this word. Sháshíshálh is part of the Coast Salish language group, Sechelt Indian Band/shíshálh first nation Herbermann, Charles, ed. Sechelt Indians
24.
Nooksack people
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The Nooksack are a federally recognized Native American people in northwestern Washington state in the United States. The tribe lives in the mainland northwest corner of the state along the Nooksack River and they have more than 1,800 enrolled members. In 1971, the tribe was ceded a one-acre reservation after they received federal recognition status from the United States government. They subsequently have increased reservation land to 2,500 acres by purchasing land and putting it in trust with the federal government, like most Northwest Coast indigenous peoples, prior to European settlement, the Nooksack relied on fishing as well as gathering for sustenance. Federal court decisions in the 1970s have affirmed their and other Native American traditional rights in Washington state to fish and gather food in this way. As of the 2000 census, the Nooksack Indian Reservation, at 48°53′03″N 122°20′54″W in Whatcom County, had a resident population of 547 persons living on 2,720 acres ) of land. Of these residents,373 persons, or 68.2 percent, the remainder of the tribe mostly lives in the area but some live in more distant larger cities. The Nooksack language belonged to the Coast Salishan family of Native American, as of 2016, the last fluent speaker of Nooksack and its dialects is George Adams, a 67-year-old elder of the tribe. In the late 20th century, observers thought the language had become extinct around 1988, in the 1970s the linguist Brent Galloway worked closely with another fluent native speaker. He worked toward creating a dictionary of their language but it is unclear if that work was published before his death and his book Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem covers a language that was in the same region but distinct from that spoken by the Nooksack people. The tribe elects members of an 8-person council, with half the positions elected in alternating years, the tribal chairman is elected as one of the eight, as are the vice-chairman, treasurer and secretary. All terms are for two years, the tribal council sets policy and passes laws affecting members. The tribe also has a branch, a tribal court. The council questioned the membership of 306 members, all living descendants of elder Annie George, Georges name did not appear in a 1942 tribal census, which has been the basis required for documenting descent for tribal membership, nor was she granted land. The 306 comprise about 15 percent of the tribe, and are all descendants of Annies daughters and their descendants enrolled in the tribe in the 1980s, about a decade after it achieved federal recognition. Over time members of these Rabang, Rapada, and Narte-Gladstone families gained political power in the tribe, other tribal members resented them, as well as worrying about some members prosecuted for drug trade. Notices were sent out to the 306 in February 2013, informing them of disenrollment, people opposed to the disenrollment marched in March 2013 in Seattle, the largest city in the state, in protest. The families hired Gabriel Galanda, a Native American attorney, to represent them, in March 2014, the disenrollment case was pending in tribal court, which, a KUOW reporter noted, usually decided in alliance with the majority on the tribal council
25.
Franz Boas
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Franz Uri Boas was a German-American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the Father of American Anthropology. His work is associated with the movement of anthropological historicism, studying in Germany, Boas was awarded a doctorate in 1881 in physics while also studying geography. He then participated in an expedition to northern Canada where he became fascinated with the culture. He went on to do work with the indigenous cultures and languages of the Pacific Northwest. Through his students, many of whom went on to found anthropology departments and research programmes inspired by their mentor, Boas profoundly influenced the development of American anthropology. Among his most significant students were Manuel Gamio, A. L. Kroeber, Ruth Benedict, Edward Sapir, Margaret Mead, Melville Herskovits, and Zora Neale Hurston. In this way, Boas introduced culture as the concept for describing differences in behavior between human groups, and as the central analytical concept of anthropology. Franz Boas was born in Minden, Westphalia, although his grandparents were observant Jews, his parents embraced Enlightenment values, including their assimilation into modern German society. Boass parents were educated, well-to-do, and liberal, they did not like dogma of any kind, due to this, Boas was granted the independence to think for himself and pursue his own interests. Early in life he displayed a penchant for both nature and natural sciences, Boas vocally opposed anti-Semitism and refused to convert to Christianity, but he did not identify himself as a Jew. This is disputed however by Ruth Bunzel, a protégée of Boas, according to his biographer, He was an ethnic German, preserving and promoting German culture and values in America. In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote, The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the revolution of 1848 were a living force. My father, liberal, but not active in affairs, my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters. My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma and my father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom. From kindergarten on, Boas was educated in history, a subject he enjoyed. In gymnasium, he was most proud of his research on the distribution of plants. In 1879, he hoped to transfer to Berlin University to study physics under Hermann von Helmholtz, the combination of physics and geography also may have been accomplished through a major in physics and a minor in geography. Boas, due to deafness, encountered difficulties studying tonal languages such as Laguna
26.
School District 48 Sea to Sky
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School District No.48 is a school district in British Columbia, Canada. Spanning from as far south as Furry Creek all the way North to D’Arcy, there are three major population centres, Squamish, Whistler and Pemberton. Even though each community within School District No.48 has its own set of needs and interests. This collaborative spirit is reflected in their statement, “Students Run to Learn Here. ”Sea to Sky School District has a clear mission. The District has high expectations for excellence across the curriculum—in academics, athletics, fine arts, there is also a keen awareness that students learn best in a safe, secure and respectful environment supported by strong connections between school and community. List of school districts in British Columbia
27.
Capilano University
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Capilano University is a teaching-focused university based in North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, with programming serving the Sunshine Coast and the Sea-to-Sky corridor. Capilano University is enabled by the University Act, enrolling its first students in 1968, the school was established by local school boards and residents of the North Shore and Howe Sound on the need for a public institution serving the local communities. Initial enrollment was 784 students in 1968, and as of 2016, has grown to enroll approximately 11,000 students per year, in 2008, under the direction of its president, Greg Lee, Capilano University was re-designated from a community college to a university. Capilano Universitys academic offerings include liberal arts, professional and career programs, leading to certificates, diplomas, Capilano Universitys sports teams are nicknamed The Blues, and periwinkle blue is the official school colour. The Blues have won national titles in the Canadian Colleges Athletic Association. The school boards of North and West Vancouver, Howe Sound, the proposal to build a college on the North Shore passed by a plebiscite in North and West Vancouver and the Howe Sound in 1968. However, the motion was defeated in Sechelt, the provincial government granted approval and Capilano College got its name selected from submissions made by North Shore residents. Capilano opened on September 10,1968 with 784 students attending classes after hours at West Vancouver Secondary, the Capilano College Foundation was created in 1970 to provide scholarships and bursaries for students. In 1970, construction began on the North Vancouver campus in the Lynnmour area, three years later, the permanent North Vancouver campus opened with 1,965 students in attendance. The first vocational programs were offered in portable buildings brought from West Vancouver Secondary, the first permanent structure at the North Vancouver campus, the original library building, also opened. In 1976, the Arbutus building at the North Vancouver campus opened, in 1991, the Cedar building, the Sportsplex, and Horticulture building were completed. Two years later, a new library replaced the former at the North Vancouver campus, in 1996, The Birch building at the North Vancouver campus is completed, housing a performance theatre, classrooms, student services, and providing teaching space. The Child Care Centre also opened in the same year, Capilano offered its first bachelor degree, a collaborative degree in music therapy with the B. C. A second music degree in studies was offered by 1992. Business administration was offered in 1993 and that year, Capilano also conferred its first associate degrees. Tourism management was added to degree offerings in 1997, the college was authorized by the provincial government in 2003 to become the first college in British Columbia to independently grant applied degrees after the dissolution of the B. C. Capilano was also named by the government as host of the British Columbia Centre for Tourism Leadership and Innovation in 2004. In 2008, Capilano became a candidate for accreditation with the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities, joined the OpenCourseWare consortium, Capilano Universitys main campus is at 2055 Purcell Way in the District of North Vancouver, on Metro Vancouvers North Shore
28.
Vowel
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In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. There is no build-up of air pressure at any point above the glottis and this contrasts with consonants, such as the English sh, which have a constriction or closure at some point along the vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, a phonetically equivalent but non-syllabic sound is a semivowel. In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak of many to all syllables, whereas consonants form the onset and coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, the word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning vocal. In English, the vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel sounds and the written symbols that represent them. The phonetic definition of vowel does not always match the phonological definition, the approximants and illustrate this, both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract, but they occur at the onset of syllables. A similar debate arises over whether a word like bird in a dialect has an r-colored vowel /ɝ/ or a syllabic consonant /ɹ̩/. The American linguist Kenneth Pike suggested the terms vocoid for a vowel and vowel for a phonological vowel, so using this terminology. Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the syllabic nasals in button, daniel Jones developed the cardinal vowel system to describe vowels in terms of the features of tongue height, tongue backness and roundedness. These three parameters are indicated in the schematic quadrilateral IPA vowel diagram on the right, there are additional features of vowel quality, such as the velum position, type of vocal fold vibration, and tongue root position. This conception of vowel articulation has been known to be inaccurate since 1928, Peter Ladefoged has said that early phoneticians. Thought they were describing the highest point of the tongue, and they were actually describing formant frequencies. The IPA Handbook concedes that the quadrilateral must be regarded as an abstraction. Vowel height is named for the position of the tongue relative to either the roof of the mouth or the aperture of the jaw. However, it refers to the first formant, abbreviated F1. Height is defined by the inverse of the F1 value, The higher the frequency of the first formant, however, if more precision is required, true-mid vowels may be written with a lowering diacritic. Although English contrasts six heights in its vowels, they are interdependent with differences in backness and it appears that some varieties of German have five contrasting vowel heights independently of length or other parameters
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Phoneme
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A phoneme is one of the units of sound that distinguish one word from another in a particular language. The difference in meaning between the English words kill and kiss is a result of the exchange of the phoneme /l/ for the phoneme /s/, two words that differ in meaning through a contrast of a single phoneme form a minimal pair. In linguistics, phonemes are written between slashes like this, /p/, whereas when it is desired to show the exact pronunciation of any sound, linguists use square brackets. Within linguistics there are differing views as to exactly what phonemes are, however, a phoneme is generally regarded as an abstraction of a set of speech sounds which are perceived as equivalent to each other in a given language. For example, in English, the k sounds in the kit and skill are not identical. Different speech sounds that are realizations of the same phoneme are known as allophones, phonemes are conventionally placed between slashes in transcription, whereas speech sounds are placed between square brackets. Thus /pʊʃ/ represents a sequence of three phonemes /p/, /ʊ/, /ʃ/, while represents the sequence of sounds. The symbols used for particular phonemes are often taken from the International Phonetic Alphabet, however, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the English phoneme /k/, which occurs in such as cat, kit, scat. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects the c/k sounds in words are not identical, in kit the sound is aspirated. The words therefore contain different speech sounds, or phones, transcribed for the aspirated form, the above shows that in English, and are allophones of a single phoneme /k/. For example, in Icelandic, is the first sound of kátur meaning cheerful, Icelandic therefore has two separate phonemes /kʰ/ and /k/. A pair of words like kátur and gátur that differ only in one phone is called a pair for the two alternative phones in question. The existence of pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme. In other languages, though, including Korean, even though both sounds and occur, no minimal pair exists. The lack of minimal pairs distinguishing and in Korean provides evidence that in this language they are allophones of a single phoneme /t/, the word /tata/ is pronounced, for example. Signed languages, such as American Sign Language also have minimal pairs, Sign language minimal pairs refer to one of the signs parameters, handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and non-manual signal/marker
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Front vowel
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Front vowels are sometimes also called bright vowels because they are perceived as sounding brighter than the back vowels. Near-front vowels are essentially a type of front vowels, no language is known to contrast front and near-front vowels based on frontness alone, rounded front vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-front in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the right of unrounded front vowels in the IPA vowel chart, in articulation, front vowels contrast with raised vowels and retracted vowels. In this conception, front vowels are a broader category than those listed in the IPA chart, including, raised or retracted vowels may be fronted by certain consonants, such as palatals and in some languages pharyngeals. For example, /a/ may be fronted to next to /j/ or /ħ/ and this change can be allophonic variation, or it can have become phonemic. English follows the French pattern, but without as much regularity, however, for native or early borrowed words affected by palatalization, English has generally altered the spelling after the pronunciation Back vowel List of phonetics topics
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Back vowel
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A back vowel is any in a class of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are also called dark vowels because they are perceived as sounding darker than the front vowels. Near-back vowels are essentially a type of vowels, no language is known to contrast back and near-back vowels based on backness alone. In their articulation, back vowels do not form a single category, unrounded back vowels are typically centralized, that is, near-back in their articulation. This is one reason they are written to the left of rounded vowels in the IPA vowel chart. Front vowel List of phonetics topics Relative articulation
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Close vowel
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A close vowel, also known as a high vowel, is any in a class of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. The term close is prescribed by the International Phonetic Association, close vowels are often referred to as high vowels, as in the Americanist phonetic tradition, because the tongue is positioned high in the mouth during articulation. In the context of the phonology of any language, a high vowel can be any vowel that is more close than a mid vowel. That is, close-mid vowels, near-close vowels, and close vowels can all be considered high vowels
Languages of British Columbia