1.
Ulleungdo
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Ulleung-do is a South Korean island 120 km east of the Korean Peninsula, formerly known as the Dagelet Island or Argonaut Island in Europe, Yulingdao in China, and Utsuryo in Japan. Volcanic in origin, the rocky steep-sided island is the top of a stratovolcano which rises from the seafloor. The island is 11.3 kilometres in length and 12.4 kilometres in width and it has a population of 10,426 inhabitants. The island makes up the part of Ulleung County, North Gyeongsang Province. The main city of Ulleung-do is the port of Dodong, which serves as the ferry port between Ulleung-do and the South Korean mainland. After tourism, the economic activity is fishing, including its well-known harvest of squid. The island consists primarily of trachyandesite rock, archaeological evidence indicates that the island has been inhabited since the 1st millennium BC. The first confirmed reference to Ulleung-do is in the Samguk Sagi for the year 512. In that year, the Silla general Kim Isabu conquered the island, some accounts relate that he used a number of wooden lions to intimidate the population, threatening to turn them loose unless they surrendered. Usan-guk did not remain under the Silla rule, however, and the island did not become a permanent political part of Korea until 930, remote as it is from the Korean mainland, Ulleung-do was a recurrent security headache for the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties. It was devastated by Jurchen pirate raids in the 11th century, a clash with Japan over fishing rights in the 1690s was precipitated by the Korean fisherman An Yong-bok. In response to difficulties, Joseon adopted an empty-island policy which however proved impossible to enforce. The empty-island policy was rescinded in 1881, after which the government sought to encourage additional settlement of Ulleungdo. American whaleships cruised for right whales off the island between 1848 and 1892, some went ashore nearby Jukdo to club pinnipeds. Favorite activities for tourists are hiking, fishing, and eating hoe, other scenic sites are Seonginbong, the highest peak on the island, Bongnae waterfall, the natural icehouse, and a coastal cliff from which Liancourt Rocks can be discerned in the distance. Sunshine is also low in the winter if again not so markedly as in the previously-mentioned Japanese cities. List of volcanoes in Korea Lee Kyu-Won Global Volcanism Program, Ulreung Narangoa, historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590-2010, Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Ulleung County government Ullungdo. com, Tourist Information Ulleungdo, Dokdo islands to be preserved as Natl Park
2.
Squid
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Squid are cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 304 species. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle. Squid, like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs, squid are strong swimmers and certain species can fly for short distances out of the water. Squid are members of the class Cephalopoda, subclass Coleoidea, order Teuthida, Teuthida is the largest cephalopod order with around 300 species classified into 29 families. The order Teuthida is a member of the superorder Decapodiformes, two other orders of decapodiform cephalopods are also called squid, although they are taxonomically distinct from Teuthida and differ recognizably in their gross anatomical features. They are the bobtail squid of order Sepiolida and the rams horn squid of the monotypic order Spirulida, the vampire squid, however, is more closely related to the octopuses than to any squid. Class Cephalopoda Subclass Nautiloidea, nautilus Subclass Coleoidea, squid, octopus, what before may have been the foot of the ancestor is modified into a complex set of tentacles and highly developed sense organs, including advanced eyes similar to those of vertebrates. The ancestral shell has been lost, with only an internal gladius, or pen, the pen is a feather-shaped internal structure that supports the squids mantle and serves as a site for muscle attachment. It is made of a chitin-like material, the main body mass is enclosed in the mantle, which has a swimming fin along each side. These fins, unlike in other organisms, are not the main source of locomotion in most species. The skin is covered in chromatophores, which enable the squid to change color to suit its surroundings, the underside is also almost always lighter than the topside, to provide camouflage from both prey and predator. Under the body are openings to the cavity, which contains the gills and openings to the excretory. At the front of the mantle cavity lies the siphon, which the squid uses for locomotion via precise jet propulsion, in this form of locomotion, water is sucked into the mantle cavity and expelled out of the siphon in a fast, strong jet. The direction of the siphon can be changed, to suit the direction of travel, inside the mantle cavity, beyond the siphon, lies the visceral mass, which is covered by a thin, membranous epidermis. Under this are all the internal organs. The giant axon, which may be up to 1 mm in diameter in some species, innervates the mantle. As cephalopods, squid exhibit relatively high intelligence among invertebrates, for example, groups of Humboldt squid hunt cooperatively, using active communication. In females, the ink sac is hidden from view by a pair of white nidamental glands, also, red-spotted accessory nidamental glands are present
3.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
4.
Fish and chips
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Fish and chips is a hot dish of English origin consisting of fried battered fish and hot chips. It is a common food and an early example of culinary fusion. First appearing in the 1860s, in 1910 there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, fried fish was first brought to England by Spanish Jews, and is considered the model for the fish element of the dish. Originally, Spanish Jews settling in England in the 17th century would have prepared fried fish in a similar to Pescado frito. Battered fish is first coated in flour then dipped into a batter consisting of flour mixed with liquid, usually water, some newer modifications to the recipe may have cornflour added, and instead of beer sometimes soda water is added. In 1860, the first fish and chip shop was opened in London by Joseph Malin who sold fish fried in the Jewish fashion, the modern fish-and-chip shop originated in the United Kingdom, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe. Early fish-and-chip shops had only basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a cauldron of cooking fat. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers. By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the country, in 1928, Harry Ramsdens fast food restaurant chain opened in the UK. On a single day in 1952, his fish and chip shop in Guiseley, West Yorkshire served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, during World War II fish and chips remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdom not subject to rationing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred to the combination of fish and chips as the good companions, British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard or plastic being used instead. In the United Kingdom the Food Standards Agency guidance excludes caterers from this, the first chip shop stood on the present site of Oldhams Tommyfield Market. It remains unclear exactly when and where these two combined to become the fish-and-chip shop industry we know. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop in London in 1860 or in 1865, a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, in Mossley, in 1863. Isaacs first restaurant opened in London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence, and its popularity ensured a rapid expansion of the chain. The restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations as their popularity grew to a total of thirty restaurants. Sam Isaacs trademark was the phrase This is the Plaice, combined with a picture of the fish in question
5.
Dried shredded squid
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Dried shredded squid is a dried, shredded, seasoned, seafood product, made from squid or cuttlefish, commonly found in coastal Asian countries, Russia, and Hawaii. The snack is also referred to as dried shredded cuttlefish, historically, squid is common in Pacific coastal regions of East Asia and Southeast Asia. Only after the form began shipping to English speaking regions. The snack was popularized, sold and consumed regularly in Hong Kong during the 1970s, Shredded squid began being sold in Macau as an addition to their almond biscuit. In China, it is considered to be a light snack. In Japan, dried shredded squid is served as an otsumami. In Singapore. It was marketed as Chewing gum of the Orientals by the manufacturing company Ken Ken. Northern Pacific squid is separated into different parts and skinned, cooked at 65-80 °C for 3–5 minutes, sugar, salt, sorbitol, sweeteners, organic acid and MSG are typical additives. They are then dried at 40-45 °C for 12–20 hours until it reaches a level of 40%. It is then aged in a room for 2 weeks or longer. It is then machine-shredded and seasoned for a time, dried again to a reduced moisture level of 25-27%. At this phase, the color is yellow or brownish, the amino acids on the squid are revealed by the increase in brown color over prolonged storage time. Vacuum packaging or nitrogen-filled packaging also increase browning, consumers generally do not want excessive browning. The most common method in todays Asian countries is the pre-packaged format. The bags are usually sealed airtight to keep the squid chewy, depending on the company doing the packaging or preparation, each brand usually have their own ratio of MSG added on top. Unpackaged versions are more rare as they have traditionally been available in select specialty shops. News reports have claimed that arsenic and other metals have been found in DSS packaged in Hong Kong. Jerky List of dried foods List of seafood dishes Pulled pork Rousong Shredded beef Food portal
6.
Spanish cuisine
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Spanish cuisine is heavily influenced by regional cuisines and the particular historical processes that shaped culture and society in those territories. Geography and climate, had influence on cooking methods and available ingredients. Spanish cuisine derives from a history, where invasions of the country and conquests of new territories modified traditions. Authors such as Strabo, however, write about aboriginal people using nuts, the Romans introduced the custom of collecting and eating mushrooms, which is still preserved in many parts of Spain, especially in the north. The Romans along with the Greeks introduced viticulture, it appears that the extension of the vine along the Mediterranean seems to be due to colonization of the Greeks. The change came in 711 AD, when Muslim troops composed of Arabs and Berbers crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, invading the Iberian Peninsula. The discovery of America, in 1492, initiated the advent of new elements, such as tomatoes, cucumbers, potatoes, corn, bell peppers, spicy peppers, paprika, vanilla. The latter caused a furor in the Spanish society in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, other ingredients traveled to the Americas, such as rice, grapes, olives and many types of cereals. A continental-style breakfast may be taken just after waking up, or before entering the workplace, due to the large time span between breakfast and lunch, it is not uncommon to halt the working schedule to take a mid-morning snack. Lunch, the midday meal in Spain, contains several courses. It usually starts between 2,00 pm or 2,30 pm finishing around 3,00 pm to 3,30 pm, and is followed by Sobremesa. Menus are organized according to these courses and include five or six choices in each course. At home, Spanish meals wouldnt be too fancy, and would contain soup or a dish, salad, a meat or a fish dish. Green salad with the meat or fish courses, in some regions of Spain, the word almuerzo refers to the mid-morning snack, instead of lunch. La cena, meaning both dinner or supper, is taken between 8, 30pm and 10pm and it is lighter than lunch, consisting of one course and dessert. Due to the time span between lunch and dinner, an afternoon snack, la merienda, equivalent to afternoon tea. Appetizers before lunch or dinner are common in the form of tapas, in the last years, the Spanish government is starting to take action to shorten the lunch break, in order to end the working day earlier. Most businesses shut down for two or three hours for lunch, then resume the working day until dinner time in the evening, the following is a list of traditional Spanish meals, Andalusian cuisine is twofold, rural and coastal
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
8.
Tapas
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Tapas are a wide variety of appetizers, or snacks, in Spanish cuisine. In select bars in Spain, tapas have evolved into an entire, in Spain, patrons of tapas can order many different tapas and combine them to make a full meal. In some Central American countries, such snacks are known as bocas, in Mexico, similar dishes are called botanas. The word tapas is derived from the Spanish verb tapar, to cover, before the 19th century, European roads were in bad condition. Some were originally old Roman roads, some were trails dating from the Middle Ages, most people could not read or write, and Spain was no exception. Inns, called posadas, albergues, or bodegas, grew up along the roads, offering meals and rooms, since few innkeepers could write and few travellers read, inns offered their guests a sample of the dishes available, on a tapa. In fact, a tapa was a portion of any kind of Spanish cuisine. According to The Joy of Cooking, the original tapas were thin slices of bread or meat which sherry drinkers in Andalusian taverns used to cover their glasses between sips and this was a practical measure meant to prevent fruit flies from hovering over the sweet sherry. The meat used to cover the sherry was normally ham or chorizo, because of this, bartenders and restaurant owners created a variety of snacks to serve with sherry, thus increasing their alcohol sales. The tapas eventually became as important as the sherry, Tapas have evolved through Spanish history by incorporating new ingredients and influences. Most of the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Romans, who introduced the olive, the discovery of the New World brought the introduction of tomatoes, sweet and chili peppers, maize, and potatoes, which were readily accepted and easily grown in Spains microclimates. There are many competitions throughout Spain, but there is only one National Tapas competition. Since 2008, the City of Valladolid and the International School of Culinary Arts have celebrated the International Tapas Competition for Culinary Schools, various schools from around the world come to Spain annually to compete for the best tapa concept. Though the primary meaning of tapa is cover or lid, it has in Spain also become a term for this style of food. It is also said that since one would be standing while eating a tapa in traditional Spanish bars, they would need to place their plates on top of their drinks to eat. Others believe the tradition began when king Alfonso X of Castile recovered from an illness by drinking wine with small dishes between meals. After regaining his health, the ordered that taverns would not be allowed to serve wine to customers unless it was accompanied by a small snack or tapa. Another popular explanation says that King Alfonso XIII stopped by a tavern in Cádiz where he ordered a cup of wine
9.
Andalusian cuisine
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Andalusian cuisine is the cuisine of Andalusia, Spain. Notable dishes include gazpacho, fried fish, the jamones of Jabugo, Valle de los Pedroches and Trevélez, frying in Andalucian cuisine is dominated by the use of olive oil that is produced in the provinces of Jaén, Córdoba, Seville, and Granada. Málaga, Almería, Cádiz and Huelva produces olive oil too, the foods are dredged in flour a la andaluza. They are then fried in a quantity of hot olive oil. Andalucian cuisine includes also some unusual seafood, like ortiguillas, sea anemones in batter, Andalucian desserts are heavily influenced by Arabic medieval Andalucian cuisine. Notable dishes include pestiños, alfajores, amarguillos from Medina Sidonia, the wines of Jerez are famous the world over, praised even by William Shakespeare. The liquors of the region are popular, included the anís made in Rute, and in Cazalla de la Sierra. The wine from Montilla, while similar to sherry, is not technically a sherry, some other Andalucian dishes include, Tapas Gastronomía Andaluza en Tertulia Andaluza Grupo Gastronómico Gaditano Official Web site for sherry Take a Taste of Andalusia Andalusian recipes
10.
Cantabrian cuisine
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Seafood is widely used, from the entire coast and the Bay of Santander in particular, including clams, mussels, pod razors, cockles, crabs, barnacles, crayfish, snails, lobster, and squid. Fish include sea bass, hake, scorpion fish, anchovies, sardines, the tuna or bonito is used in one of the most typical dishes of the region, sorropotún or marmita. Some of the most renowned Cantabrian dishes are hake in green sauce, squid with onions and squid ink maganos encebollaos, veal is widely consumed, often from the Tudanca cattle. The National Cattle Fair of Torrelavega, the largest cattle fair in Spain, is held in Cantabria, game is also of high quality, deer, roe deer and wild boar. Pork is a key element for the cocido montañés, literally mountain stew, with beans, cabbage, Cantabrian pastries include the traditional sobaos and Quesada Pasiega. Puff pastry is used, with different names in different regions, Corbatas in Unquera and San Vicente de la Barquera, polkas in Torrelavega. Other notables sweetmeats are frisuelos and the canónigo, both of Liébana, corazones in Liérganes, the palucos of Cabezón de la Sal, other desserts not of Cantabrian origin are rice pudding, natillas and leche frita, and fruit jams. Dairy products include Cantabrian cream cheese, Picón Bejes-Tresviso in Tresviso, smoked cheeses such as Áliva or Pido, orujo is the Cantabrian pomace brandy. Historically cider and chacoli wine were a specialty, after a major decline they are recovering, Cantabria has two wines with Denominación de Origen Calificada, Vino de la Tierra Costa de Cantabria and Vino de la Tierra de Liébana
11.
Tentacle
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In zoology, a tentacle is a flexible, mobile, elongated organ present in some species of animals, most of them invertebrates. In animal anatomy, tentacles usually occur in one or more pairs, anatomically, the tentacles of animals work mainly like muscular hydrostats. Most forms of tentacles are used for grasping and feeding, many are sensory organs, variously receptive to touch, vision, or to the smell or taste of particular foods or threats. Examples of such tentacles are the eye stalks of various kinds of snails, some kinds of tentacles have both sensory and manipulatory functions. The word tentillum literally means little tentacle, however, irrespective of size, it usually refers to a side branch of a larger tentacle. In some cases such tentilla are specialised for particular functions, for example, in the Cnidaria tentilla usually bear cnidocytes, many molluscs have tentacles of one form or another. Both pairs are fully retractable muscular hydrostats, but they are not used for manipulation or prey capture, some marine snails such as abalone and top snails, Trochidae, have numerous small tentacles around the edge of the mantle. These are known as pallial tentacles, among cephalopods, squid have spectacular tentacles. They take the form of highly mobile muscular hydrostats with various appendages such as suction disks, up to the early twentieth century tentacles were interchangeably called arms. The modern convention however, is to speak of appendages as tentacles when they have relatively thin peduncles or stalks with clubs at their tips, in contrast the convention refers to the relatively shorter appendages as arms. By this definition the eight appendages of octopuses, though quite long, in terms of this article however, both types of organs count as tentacles because in relevant ways they are structurally and functionally similar. The tentacles of the giant squid and colossal squid have powerful suckers, the teeth of the giant squid resemble bottle caps, and function like tiny, hole saws, while the tentacles of the colossal squid wield two long rows of swiveling, tri-pointed hooks. Cnidarians, such as jellyfish, sea anemones, Hydra and coral have numerous hair-like tentacles, cnidarians have huge numbers of cnidocytes on their tentacles. In medusoid form, the floats on water so that the tentacles hang down in a ring around the mouth. In polyp form, such as sea anemone and coral, the body is below with the tentacles pointed upwards, many species of the jellyfish-like ctenophores have two tentacles, while some have none. Their tentacles have adhesive structures called colloblasts or lasso cells, the colloblasts burst open when prey comes in contact with the tentacle, releasing sticky threads that secure the food. The tentacles of the Lions mane jellyfish may be up to 120 feet long and they are hollow and are arranged in 8 groups of between 70 and 150. The longer tentacles are equipped with cnidocytes whose venom paralyses and kills prey, the smaller tentacles guide food into the mouth
12.
Tarator
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Tarator, tarathor, taratur, or ttalattouri, is a soup, appetizer, or sauce found in the cuisines of Eastern Europe. It generally includes ground walnuts, garlic, and yogurt or tahini, and often cucumber, herbs, in the Balkans, it is a cold soup, popular in the summer. It is made of yogurt, cucumber, garlic, walnut, dill, vegetable oil, and water, local variations may replace yogurt with water and vinegar, omit nuts or dill, or add bread. The cucumbers may on occasions be replaced with lettuce or carrots. Turkish and Levantine tarator is usually a sauce based on tahini and it is often served with fish or fried seafood. Cypriot Greek, τταλαττούρι is not a soup-like sauce like Bulgarian tarator, the word is found in languages from the Balkans to the Levant, and appears to be of Bulgarian origin. In Bulgaria, tarator is a meze but also served as a side dish along with Shopska salad with most meals. It is probably the most popular dish in the hot summer days, sunflower and olive oil are more commonly used and walnut is sometimes omitted. Tarator is seasoned with garlic and dill both of which can be omitted if so desired, Tarator is a popular dish in Bulgaria. A salad version of tarator is known as Snow-white salad, also called Dry Tarator and it is made of thick yogurt, without water. It can be served as an appetizer or as a side to the main meal, in Albania, Tarator is a very popular dish in summertime. It is usually served cold and is made from yoghurt, garlic, parsley, cucumber, salt. Fried squids are usually offered with tarator, in Greece, a similar dish is known as Tzatziki. Tzatziki usually contains olive oil, dill, lemon juice in addition to the ingredients listed above, a similar dish in Iran is called ab-doogh-khiar which contains salt, basil, leek, mint, black pepper, raisins, and ice. In this style, sometimes dried bread chips are put in the dish just before serving, Tarator is a popular salad and dip in Serbia and Macedonia, it is also known as tarator salata. It is made with yogurt, sliced cucumber and diced garlic, in Turkish cuisine, tarator is a dip sauce generally eaten with fried fish and squid. The sauce includes white bread crumbs, walnuts, lemon juice or vinegar, salt, pepper, garlic, herbs, one Turkish version using the name, tahinli tarator, is a similar dish specifically containing tahin or sesame. In the coastal towns of Turkey, fried squid or mussels are almost always served with tarator sauce, in Syria and Lebanon, طرطور is made of Tahini, lemon juice, crushed garlic, salt and water
13.
Batter (cooking)
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Batter is a liquid mixture of one or more flours made with ground grains or soaked grains that are ground. Batters are used to various foods. The word batter comes from the old French word battre which means to beat, many batters are made by combining dry flours with liquids such as water, milk or eggs. Batters can also be made by soaking grains in water and grinding them wet. Often a leavening agent such as baking powder is included to aerate and fluff up the batter as it cooks, carbonated water or another carbonated liquid such as beer may instead be used to aerate the batter in some recipes. The liquid mixture churned and frozen in order to ice cream is also referred to as batter. The viscosity of batter may range from heavy to thin. Heat is applied to the batter, usually by frying, baking or steaming, in order to cook the ingredients, batters may be sweet or savoury, often with either sugar or salt being added. Many other flavourings such as herbs, spices, fruits or vegetables may be added to the mixture, beer is a popular ingredient in batters used to coat foods before frying. One reason is that a batter can be made from merely flour, beer. The purpose of using beer is so the bubbles in the beer will add body, depending on the type and quality of the beer, beer may also add colour or some flavour to the batter. The practice of beer battering is popular in Australia, New Zealand, some foods that are commonly beer battered and fried are fish, chips, and onion rings. Batters are used in many cuisines under many names, tempura in Japan, pakora in India, spoon bread in the USA, and many other examples are all types of batters. All batters work by forming a shell around the food, preventing scorching and retaining flavor. The ideal batter for fried foods is to be enough to adhere to the food. This ideal batter has been described poetically as being like a newlywed brides negligee, batters thicken with every second that passes after mixing because of the development of gluten. Strategies to reduce this effect include the use of ice water when mixing, alcohol, media related to Batter at Wikimedia Commons
14.
Hors d'oeuvre
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An hors doeuvre, appetizer, or starter is a small dish served before a meal. Some hors doeuvres are served cold, others hot, Hors doeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal, or they may be served before seating. Formerly, hors doeuvres were also served between courses, typically smaller than a main dish, it is often designed to be eaten by hand. Hors doeuvre in French means outside the work—that is, not part of the set of courses in a meal. Appetizer is a synonym for hors doeuvre, starter is sometimes used to denote an hors doeuvre, sometimes to denote more substantial courses, known in Europe and North America as entrées. A small number of historians believe that the tradition may have begun in Russia. However, it may be that the custom originated in China, possibly coming through Steppes, into Russia, Scandinavia, France, the tradition may have reached Italy, Greece and the Balkan nations through Russia or Persia. Many national customs are related, including the Swedish smörgåsbord, Russian zakuska, Lebanese mezze, during the Roman Period the meal practice was to have two main courses which were supplemented before the meal with small amounts of fish, vegetables, cheeses, olives and even stuffed dormice. These would be served at the start of the known as either gustatio or promulsis. The Greeks called the appetizer course propoma, during the Middle Ages formal French meals were served with entremets between the serving of plates. These secondary dishes could be either actual food dishes, or elaborate displays, in the 14th century, recipes for entremets were mostly made with meat, fish, pork and vegetables. Along with this came elaborate silver and ceramic table displays as well as pièces montées, the entremets were placed between the other dishes within the main work of the meal. At about this time in the 17th century, smaller dishes began to be served by being placed outside the work of symmetrically placed dishes. These were known as hors doeuvre, Hors doeuvres were originally served as a canapé of small toasted bread with a savoury topping before a meal. In the French publication Les plaisirs de la table, Edouard Nignon stated that hors doeuvres originated in Asia and he went on to state that the French considered hors-doeuvres to be superfluous to a well cooked meal. Service à la française continued in Europe until the early 19th century, after the 19th century the entremet would become almost exclusively a sweet dish or dessert with the British custom of the savoury being the only remaining tradition of the savoury entremet. The style of formal dining changed drastically in the 19th century, some traditional hors doeuvres would remain on the table throughout the meal. These included olives, nuts, celery and radishes, the changing, contemporary hors doeuvres, sometimes called dainty dishes became more complicated in preparation
15.
Parsley
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Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. Parsley is widely used in European, Middle Eastern, and American cooking, curly leaf parsley is often used as a garnish. In central Europe, eastern Europe and southern Europe, as well as in western Asia, root parsley is very common in central, eastern and southern European cuisines, where it is used as a snack or a vegetable in many soups, stews, and casseroles. Mycenaean Greek se-ri-no, in Linear B, is the earliest attested form of the word selinon, garden parsley is a bright green, biennial, plant in temperate climates, or an annual herb in subtropical and tropical areas. Where it grows as a biennial, in the first year, it forms a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10–25 cm long with numerous 1–3 cm leaflets, and a taproot used as a food store over the winter. In the second year, it grows a stem to 75 cm tall with sparser leaves. The seeds are ovoid, 2–3 mm long, with prominent style remnants at the apex, one of the compounds of the essential oil is apiol. The plant normally dies after seed maturation, Parsley grows best in moist, well-drained soil, with full sun. It grows best between 22–30 °C, and usually is grown from seed, germination is slow, taking four to six weeks, and it often is difficult because of furanocoumarins in its seed coat. Typically, plants grown for the crop are spaced 10 cm apart. Parsley attracts several species of wildlife, bees and other nectar-feeding insects also visit the flowers. Birds such as the goldfinch feed on the seeds, in cultivation, parsley is subdivided into several cultivar groups, depending on the form of the plant, which is related to its end use. Often these are treated as varieties, but they are cultivated selections. The two main groups of parsley used as herbs are curly leaf and Italian, or flat leaf, of these, a third type, sometimes grown in southern Italy, has thick leaf stems resembling celery. Another type of parsley is grown as a vegetable, the Hamburg root parsley. This type of parsley produces much thicker roots than types cultivated for their leaves. Although seldom used in Britain and the United States, root parsley is common in central and eastern European cuisine, although root parsley looks similar to the parsnip, which is among its closest relatives in the family Apiaceae, its taste is quite different. Parsley is widely used in Middle Eastern, European, Brazilian and American cooking, curly leaf parsley is used often as a garnish
16.
Parmigiano-Reggiano
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Parmigiano-Reggiano, or Parmesan cheese, is a hard, granular cheese. The name Parmesan is often used generically for various simulations of this cheese and it is named after the producing areas, which comprise the provinces of Parma, Reggio Emilia, Bologna, Modena, and Mantua, Italy. Parmigiano is the Italian adjective for Parma and Reggiano is the adjective for Reggio Emilia, outside the EU, the name Parmesan can legally be used for cheeses similar to Parmigiano-Reggiano, with only the full Italian name unambiguously referring to Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese. It has been called the King of Cheeses, Parmigiano-Reggiano is made from unpasteurized cows milk. The whole milk of the morning milking is mixed with the naturally skimmed milk of the previous evenings milking, resulting in a part skim mixture and this mixture is pumped into copper-lined vats. Starter whey is added, and the temperature is raised to 33–35 °C, calf rennet is added, and the mixture is left to curdle for 10–12 minutes. The curd is broken up mechanically into small pieces. The temperature is raised to 55 °C with careful control by the cheese-maker. The curd is left to settle for 45–60 minutes, the compacted curd is collected in a piece of muslin before being divided in two and placed in molds. There is 1100 L of milk per vat, producing two cheeses each, the curd making up each wheel at this point weighs around 45 kg. The remaining whey in the vat was used to feed the pigs from which Prosciutto di Parma was produced. The barns for these animals were usually just a few yards away from the cheese production rooms, the cheese is put into a stainless steel, round form that is pulled tight with a spring-powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day, after brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or 2160 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every seven days, the cheese is also turned at this time. At 12 months, the Consorzio Parmigiano-Reggiano inspects every wheel, the cheese is tested by a master grader who taps each wheel to identify undesirable cracks and voids within the wheel. Wheels that pass the test are then heat branded on the rind with the Consorzios logo, traditionally, cows have to be fed only on grass or hay, producing grass fed milk. Only natural whey culture is allowed as a starter, together with calf rennet, the only additive allowed is salt, which the cheese absorbs while being submerged for 20 days in brine tanks saturated to near total salinity with Mediterranean sea salt
17.
Black pepper
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Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. When dried, the fruit is known as a peppercorn, when fresh and fully mature, it is approximately 5 millimetres in diameter, dark red, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed. Peppercorns, and the ground pepper derived from them, may be described simply as pepper, or more precisely as black pepper, green pepper, black pepper is native to south India and is extensively cultivated there and elsewhere in tropical regions. Currently, Vietnam is the worlds largest producer and exporter of pepper, dried ground pepper has been used since antiquity for both its flavour and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the worlds most traded spice and it is one of the most common spices added to cuisines around the world. The spiciness of black pepper is due to the chemical piperine, black pepper is ubiquitous in the modern world as a seasoning and is often paired with salt. The word pepper has its roots in the Tamil word for long pepper, todays pepper derives from the Old English pipor. and from Latin which was the source of Romanian piper, Italian pepe, Dutch peper, German Pfeffer, French poivre, and other similar forms. In the 16th century, pepper started referring to the unrelated New World chili pepper as well, Pepper was used in a figurative sense to mean spirit or energy at least as far back as the 1840s, in the early 20th century, this was shortened to pep. Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe drupes of the pepper plant. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water, both to them and to prepare them for drying, the heat ruptures cell walls in the pepper. The drupes are dried in the sun or by machine for several days, during which the pepper around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin, once dried, the spice is called black peppercorn. On some estates, the berries are separated from the stem by hand, once the peppercorns are dried, pepper spirit and oil can be extracted from the berries by crushing them. Pepper spirit is used in medicinal and beauty products. Pepper oil is used as an ayurvedic massage oil and used in certain beauty. White pepper consists solely of the seed of the pepper plant and this is usually accomplished by a process known as retting, where fully ripe red pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week, during which the flesh of the pepper softens and decomposes. Rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit, and the seed is dried. Sometimes alternative processes are used for removing the outer pepper from the seed, ground white pepper is used in Chinese and Thai cuisine, but also in salads, cream sauces, light-coloured sauces, and mashed potatoes. White pepper has a different flavour from black pepper, it lacks certain compounds present in the layer of the drupe
18.
Mayonnaise
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Mayonnaise is a thick, creamy dressing often used as a condiment. It is an emulsion of oil, egg yolk, and either vinegar or lemon juice, with many options for embellishment with other herbs. Proteins and lecithin in the egg yolk serve as emulsifiers in both mayonnaise and hollandaise sauce, commercial egg-free alternatives are available for vegans and others who want to avoid animal products and cholesterol, or who are allergic to eggs. Mayonnaise varies in color, but is white, cream. It may range in texture from that of light cream to a thick gel, the word mayonnaise was not used for a dressing before the start of the 19th century. The earliest reference appears to be by Alexandre Viard, who never quite gives a recipe for the dressing itself. At that point, the sauce was made with aspic or jelly, in 1815, Louis Eustache Ude wrote, No 58. —Mayonnaise. Take three spoonfuls of Allemande, six ditto of aspic, and two of oil, add a little tarragon vinegar, that has not boiled, some pepper and salt, and minced ravigotte, or merely some parsley. Then put in the members of fowl, or fillets of soles and your mayonnaise must be put to ice, neither are you to put the members into your sauce till it begins to freeze. Next dish your meat or fish, mask with the sauce before it be quite frozen, and garnish your dish with whatever you think proper, as beet root, jelly, nasturtiums, &c. In a 1820 work, Viard describes something like the more familiar emulsified version, This sauce is made to take in many ways, with raw egg yolks, with gelatine and this sauce is used for cold fish entrees, or salad of vegetables cooked in salt water. According to this version, the sauce was known as salsa mayonesa in Spanish and maonesa in Catalan. The Larousse Gastronomique suggests, Mayonnaise, in our view, is a corruption of moyeunaise, derived from the very old French word moyeu. It is highly probable that wherever olive oil existed, a preparation of oil and egg came about — particularly in the Mediterranean region. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term mayonnaise was in use in English as early as 1823 in the journal of Lady Blessington, traditional mayonnaise is a mixture of egg, vinegar, oil and spices. Mayonnaise made in this fashion typically contains 70–80% fat, despite the high oil content relative to water, mayonnaise is an oil-in-water emulsion. This emulsion is formed by first mixing the eggs, vinegar and mustard and this results in an emulsion consisting of a closely packed foam of oil droplets. By contrast, if the oil and aqueous phases are mixed all at once the result is a water-in-oil emulsion similar in viscosity to the oil from which it is made, oil may account for 75% or more of the total volume
19.
Tzatziki
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Tzatziki is a sauce served with grilled meats or as a dip. Tzatziki is made of salted strained yogurt or diluted yogurt mixed with cucumbers, garlic, salt, olive oil, sometimes with vinegar or lemon juice, the Greek word tzatziki comes from the Turkish word cacık which in turn is likely a loanword from the Armenian word cacıg. The root cac is likely related to words in Western Asian languages. Persian zhazh refers to various herbs used for cooking, evliya Çelebis 17th-century Seyâhatnâme travelogue defined cacıχ as a kind of herb. Ahmet Vefik Pashas 1876 Ottoman Turkish dictionary defined cacık as a salad with yogurt. This remains the most common definition today, there are dishes similar to cacık called tarator in many Balkan countries. In Bulgaria and Serbia, the dish is known as dry tarator, or as Snezhanka salad, which means snow white salad. During preparation, the yoghurt is hung for several hours in a kerchief and loses half of its water (drained yogurt, Bulgarian, цедено кисело мляко and Serbian. The cucumbers, garlic, minced walnuts, salt and vegetable oil are then added, in Bulgaria, tarator is a popular meze but also served as a side dish along with Shopska salad with most meals. Sunflower and olive oil are commonly used and walnut is sometimes omitted. Tarator is seasoned with garlic and dill both of which can be omitted if so desired, Tarator is a popular dish in Bulgaria. A salad version of tarator is known as Snowwhite salad, also called Dry Tarator and it is made of thick yogurt, without water. It can be served as an appetizer or as a side to the main meal and it is a common refresher during the summer. Tarator is a salad and dip in Serbia rather than a soup. It is made with yogurt, sliced cucumber and diced garlic, in Albania Tarator is a very popular dish in summer time. It is usually served cold and is made from yoghurt, garlic, parsley, cucumber, salt. Fried squids are usually offered with Tarator, in Cyprus, the dish is known as talattouri, and recipes often include less garlic and includes the herb mint, unlike the version used in Greece. Greek-style tzatziki sauce is served with grilled meats or may be served as a mezze alongside other mezzes, dishes, tzatziki is made of strained yogurt mixed with cucumbers, garlic, salt, olive oil, and sometimes lemon juice, and dill or mint or parsley
20.
Marinara sauce
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Marinara sauce is an Italian sauce that originated in Naples, usually made with tomatoes, garlic, herbs, and onions. Its many variations can include the addition of capers, olives, spices, and this sauce is widely used in Italian-American cuisine, which has greatly diverged from its Old World origins. Italians refer to marinara sauce only in association with other recipes, for instance, spaghetti alla marinara literally translates to spaghetti mariners style, but tomato sauce alone in Italy is called sugo/salsa al/di pomodoro or pummarola. Another theory states this was a prepared by the wives of Neapolitan sailors upon their return from sea. Historically, however, the first Italian cookbook to include tomato sauce, Latini served as the Steward of the First Minister to the Spanish Viceroy of Naples. This early tomato sauce was more like a tomato salsa. List of sauces List of common dips List of condiments Food portal Marinara Sauce at Wikibook Cookbooks
21.
Tartar sauce
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Tartar sauce is a mayonnaise or aioli-based sauce, typically of a rough consistency. It is often used as a condiment with seafood dishes, Tartar sauce is based on either mayonnaise or aioli, with certain other ingredients added. In the UK, recipes typically add to the base capers, gherkins, lemon juice, US recipes may include chopped pickles or prepared green sweet relish, capers, onions, and fresh parsley. Chopped hard-boiled eggs or olives are sometimes added, as may be Dijon mustard, paul Bocuse describes sauce tartare explicitly as a sauce remoulade, in which the characterising anchovy purée is to be substituted by some hot Dijon mustard. The sauce and its name have been found in cookbooks since the 19th century, the name derives from the French sauce tartare, named after the Tatars from the Eurasian Steppe, who once occupied Ukraine and parts of Russia. Although it is unlikely that the Tatars ever made or consumed Tartar sauce, the origin of the sauce is indeed found East of France. In Turkey and the Levant, a condiment known as tarator has traditionally used as a condiment to fried sea food. Remoulade Tarator Steak tartare List of common dips An explanation of the origin, from The Straight Dope Tartar sauce
22.
Cocktail sauce
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The sauce, and the dish for which it is named, were invented by British cook Fanny Cradock. Prawn cocktail, the dish where cocktail sauce originates, was served with shrimp hanging around the edge of a cocktail glass. This is the origin of the name, in America it generally consists of, at a minimum, ketchup or chili sauce mixed with prepared horseradish. Lemon juice, Worcestershire sauce and Tabasco sauce are common additives, some restaurants use chili sauce, a spicier tomato-based sauce in place of the ketchup. It is so similar to Thousand Island dressing that it is referred to by that name. In Belgium, a dash of whisky is often added to the sauce and it is popularly served with steamed shrimp and seafood on the half shell. In Australia, it is provided in fish and chip shops. In most American oyster bars, cocktail sauce is the standard accompaniment for raw oysters, the standard ingredients are ketchup, horseradish, hot sauce, Worcestershire sauce, and lemon juice. A soufflé cup is set in the middle of the platter of oysters along with a cocktail fork. Often, the bottles of ketchup and other sauces are grouped together in stations every couple of feet along the counter, but in some oyster bars, patrons are served with their own ingredients. Court-bouillon List of dips List of sauces Marie Rose sauce Prawn cocktail Squid cocktail Basic recipe from cdkitchen. com Recipe from southernfood. about. com Recipe from recipezaar. com
23.
Cuisine of Mexico
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Mexican cuisine is primarily a fusion of indigenous Mesoamerican cooking with European, especially Spanish, elements added after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century. The staples are native foods, such as corn, beans, avocados, tomatoes, and chili peppers, along with rice, which was brought by the Spanish. Europeans introduced a number of other foods, the most important of which were meats from domesticated animals, dairy products. African and Asian influences were introduced into the mixture during this era as a result of African slavery in New Spain. Over the centuries, this resulted in regional cuisines based on conditions, such as those in Oaxaca, Veracruz. Mexican cuisine is an important aspect of the culture, social structure, the most important example of this connection is the use of mole for special occasions and holidays, particularly in the South and Center regions of the country. For this reason and others, traditional Mexican cuisine was inscribed in 2010 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO, Mexican cuisine is as complex as any other world cuisine, such as those of China, France, Italy and Japan. It is created mostly with ingredients native to Mexico, as well as those brought over by the Spanish conquistadors, vegetables play an important role in Mexican cuisine. Common vegetables include zucchini, cauliflower, corn, potatoes, spinach, swiss chard, mushrooms, jitomate, green tomato, other traditional vegetable dishes include chile rellenos, huitlacoche, huauzontle, and nopalitos to name a few. European contributions include pork, chicken, beef, cheese, herbs and spices, tropical fruits such as guava, prickly pear, sapote, mangoes, bananas, pineapple and cherimoya are popular, especially in the center and south of the country. It has been debated how much Mexican food is still indigenous, however, the basis of the diet is still corn and beans, with chile pepper as a seasoning, as they are complementary foods. Despite the introduction of wheat and rice to Mexico, the basic starch remains corn in almost all areas of the country, while it is eaten fresh, most corn is dried, treated with lime and ground into a dough called masa. This dough is used fresh and fermented to make a wide variety of dishes from drinks to tamales, sopes. However, the most common way to eat corn in Mexico is in the form of a tortilla, tortillas are made of corn in most of the country, but other versions exist, such as wheat in the north or plantain, yuca and wild greens in Oaxaca. The other basic ingredient in all parts of Mexico is the chile pepper, Mexican food has a reputation for being very spicy, but its seasoning can be better described as strong. Many dishes also have subtle flavors, chiles are used for their flavors and not just their heat, with Mexico using the widest variety. If a savory dish or snack does not contain chile pepper, hot sauce is usually added, the importance of the chile goes back to the Mesoamerican period, where it was considered to be as much of a staple as corn and beans. In the 16th century, Bartolomé de las Casas wrote that without chiles, even today, most Mexicans believe that their national identity would be at a loss without chiles
24.
Tabasco sauce
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Tabasco sauce is a brand of hot sauce made exclusively from tabasco peppers, vinegar and salt. It is produced by the McIlhenny Company of Louisiana, although the name comes from the Mexican state of Tabasco, the sauce is an American product produced by the McIlhenny Company. Tabasco sauce was formulated in Mexico by a Mexican company called Salsa Mexicana, Tabasco sauce was first produced in 1868 by Edmund McIlhenny, a Maryland-born former banker who moved to Louisiana around 1840. McIlhenny initially used discarded cologne bottles to distribute his sauce to family, in 1868 when he started to sell to the public he ordered thousands of new cologne bottles from a New Orleans glassworks. Walter S. McIlhenny in turn succeeded his uncle Edward Avery McIlhenny, Edward Ned McIlhenny Simmons then ran the company as president and CEO for several years, and remained chairman of the board until his death in 2012. Paul McIlhenny, sixth in the line of McIlhenny men to run the business, assumed the presidency in 1998, in 2012, McIlhenny cousin Tony Simmons assumed the companys presidency and runs the company today. McIlhenny is one of just a few U. S. companies to have received a warrant of appointment that certifies the company as a supplier to Queen Elizabeth II. McIlhenny is one of the 850 companies around the world that have officially designated as suppliers to the queen by such warrants. The warrant held is Supplier of Tabasco Sauce HM The Queen – Master of the Household – Granted in 2009, originally all peppers used in Tabasco sauce were grown on Avery Island. Today peppers grown on the Island are used to produce seed stock, more predictable weather and readily available farmland in these locales allow a constant year-round supply. This ensures the availability of peppers should severe weather or other problems occur at a particular growing location, following company tradition, peppers are picked by hand. To ensure ripeness, pickers compare peppers to a red stick. Peppers are ground into a mash on the day of harvest, to prepare the barrel, the inside of the barrel is de-charred, torched and cleaned, to minimize the presence of any residual whiskey. The barrels are used in warehouses on Avery Island for aging the mash. After aging for up to three years, the mash is strained to remove skins and seeds, the resulting liquid is then mixed with vinegar, stirred occasionally for a month, and then bottled as finished sauce. Much of the used in Tabasco production comes from an Avery Island salt mine, one of the largest in the U. S. In 2005, Avery Island was hit hard by Hurricane Katrina, as a result, the family constructed a 17-foot -high levee around the low side of the factory and invested in back-up generators. Several sauces are produced under the Tabasco brand name, including jalapeño-based green, chipotle-based smoked, habanero, garlic, sweet and spicy, the habanero, chipotle, and garlic sauces include the tabasco peppers blended with other peppers, whereas the jalapeño variety does not include tabasco peppers
25.
Habanero
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The habanero is a variety of chili pepper. Unripe habaneros are green, and they color as they mature, common colors are orange and red, but white, brown, yellow, green, and purple are also seen. Typically, a ripe habanero chili is 2–6 cm long, habanero chilis are very hot, rated 100, 000–350,000 on the Scoville scale. The habaneros heat, its flavor, and its floral aroma have made it a popular ingredient in hot sauces, the name indicates something or someone from La Habana. In English, it is spelled and pronounced habañero, the tilde being added as a hyperforeignism patterned after jalapeño. The habanero chili comes from the Amazon region, from where it was spread, a specimen of a domesticated habanero plant, dated at 8,500 years old, was found at an archaeological site in Peru. An intact fruit of a domesticated habanero, found in pre-ceramic levels in Guitarrero Cave in the Peruvian highlands, was dated to 6500 BC. The habanero chili was disseminated by the Spanish to other areas of the world, to the point that 18th-century taxonomists mistook China for its place of origin, today, the largest producer is Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula. Habaneros are a part of Yucatecan food, accompanying most dishes. Other modern producers include Belize, Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, and parts of the United States, including Texas, Idaho, and California. The Scotch bonnet is often compared to the habanero, since they are two varieties of the species, but have different pod types. Both the Scotch bonnet and the habanero have thin, waxy flesh and they have a similar heat level and flavor. Although both varieties average around the level of pungency, the actual degree varies greatly from one fruit to another with genetics, growing methods, climate. In 1999, the habanero was listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the worlds hottest chili, the bhut jolokia and Trinidad moruga scorpion have since been identified as native Capsicum chinense subspecies even hotter than the habanero. Breeders constantly crossbreed subspecies to attempt to create cultivars that will break the record on the Scoville scale, one such example is the Carolina Reaper, a cross between a Bhut jolokia pepper with a particularly pungent red habanero. As with all peppers, the habanero does well in an area with good morning sun, the habanero should be watered only when dry. Overly moist soil and roots will produce bitter-tasting peppers, the habanero is a perennial flowering plant, meaning that with proper care and growing conditions, it can produce flowers for many years. Habanero bushes are good candidates for a container garden, in temperate climates, though, it is treated as an annual, dying each winter and being replaced the next spring
26.
Ketchup
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Traditionally, recipes featured ketchups made from egg whites, mushrooms, oysters, mussels, walnuts, or other foods, but in modern times the unmodified term usually refers to tomato ketchup. Tomato sauce is the common term in Australia, New Zealand, and India. Ketchup is a sweet and tangy sauce, typically made from tomatoes, sweetener, vinegar, seasonings vary by recipe, but commonly include onions, allspice, coriander, cloves, cumin, garlic, mustard and sometimes celery, cinnamon or ginger. The market leader in United States and United Kingdom is Heinz, tomato ketchup is often used as a condiment to various dishes that are usually served hot, French fries, hamburgers, hot sandwiches, hot dogs, cooked eggs, and grilled or fried meat. Ketchup is sometimes used as the basis for, or an ingredient in, other sauces and dressings, in the 17th century, the Chinese mixed a concoction of pickled fish and spices and called it kôe-chiap or kê-chiap meaning the brine of pickled fish or shellfish. By the early 18th century, the sauce had made it to the Malay states. The Indonesian-Malay word for the sauce was kecap and that word evolved into the English word ketchup. English settlers then took ketchup with them to the American colonies, the term Ketchup was used in 1690 in the Dictionary of the Canting Crew which was well acclaimed in North America. The spelling catchup may have also used in the past. In the United Kingdom, preparations of ketchup were historically and originally prepared with mushrooms as a primary ingredient, Ketchup recipes began to appear in British and then American cookbooks in the 18th century. In a 1742 London cookbook, the sauce had already taken on a very British flavor, with the addition of shallots. The mushrooms soon became an ingredient, and from 1750 to 1850 the word ketchup began to mean any number of thin dark sauces made of mushrooms or even walnuts. In the United States, mushroom ketchup dates back to at least 1770, in contemporary times, mushroom ketchup is available in the UK, although it is not a commonly used condiment. Many variations of ketchup were created, but the version did not appear until about a century later after other types. One version of the recipe was created by Sandy Addison and published in an American cookbook, The Sugar House Book. Get quite ripe on a dry day, squeeze them with your hands till reduced to a pulp, then put half a pound of salt to one hundred tomatoes. While hot press them through a sieve, with a silver spoon till nought but the skin remains, then add a little mace,3 nutmegs, allspice, cloves, cinnamon, ginger. Boil over a slow fire till quite thick, stir all the time, One hundred tomatoes will make four or five bottles and keep good for two or three years
27.
Aioli
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Aioli or aïoli is a Mediterranean sauce made of garlic and olive oil and, in some regions other emulsifiers such as egg. The sauces names mean garlic and oil in Catalan and Provençal and it is particularly associated with the cuisines of the Mediterranean coasts of Spain, France, and Italy. This gives the sauce a more pasty texture, while making it considerably more laborious to make as the emulsion is much harder to stabilize, there are many variations, such as adding lemon juice or other seasonings. In France it can include mustard and it is usually served at room temperature. Aioli is, like mayonnaise, an emulsion or suspension of small globules of oil and oil-soluble compounds in water and water-soluble compounds. Using only garlic as an emulsifier requires it to be thoroughly crushed, since the late 1980s, it has become fashionable to call all flavored mayonnaises aioli, with flavorings such as saffron or chili. However, purists insist that flavored mayonnaise can contain garlic, but true aioli contains no seasoning, the word is a compound of the words meaning garlic and oil. The English spelling comes from the French aïoli, which comes from Occitan. The spelling in Occitan may be alhòli, following the norm, or aiòli. In Catalan, it is spelled allioli, in southeastern Spain, it is called ajoaceite or ajiaceite, whereas in the rest of Spain, the Catalan term is more common. Garlic is crushed in a mortar and pestle and emulsified with egg yolks, salt, today, aioli is often made in a food processor or blender, but traditionalists object that this does not give the same result. In Malta, arjoli or ajjoli is commonly made with the addition of either crushed galletti or tomato, in Occitan cuisine, aioli is typically served with seafood, fish soup, and croutons, in a dish called merluça amb alhòli. In the Occitan Valleys of Italy it is served with potatoes boiled with salt and this dish is often served during the festivities on the feast days of the patron saint of Provençal villages and towns. It is traditional to serve it with snails for Christmas Eve, aïoli is so strongly associated with Provence that when the poet Frédéric Mistral started a regionalist, Provençal-language, newspaper in 1891, he called it LAiòli. Other commonly used vegetables are beets, fennel, celery, zucchini, cauliflower, chick peas, agliata List of common dips Mujdei, a Romanian garlic sauce Skordalia, a Greek garlic sauce Toum, an Arabic garlic sauce
28.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
29.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
31.
Fish and chip
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Fish and chips is a hot dish of English origin consisting of fried battered fish and hot chips. It is a common food and an early example of culinary fusion. First appearing in the 1860s, in 1910 there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, fried fish was first brought to England by Western Sephardim Jews, and is considered the model for the fish element of the dish. Originally, Western Sephardim Jews settling in England in the 17th century would have prepared fried fish in a similar to Pescado frito. Battered fish is first coated in flour then dipped into a batter consisting of flour mixed with liquid, usually water, some newer modifications to the recipe may have cornflour added, and instead of beer sometimes soda water is added. In 1860, the first fish and chip shop was opened in London by Joseph Malin who sold fish fried in the Jewish fashion, the modern fish-and-chip shop originated in the United Kingdom, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe. Early fish-and-chip shops had only basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a cauldron of cooking fat. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers. By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the country, in 1928, Harry Ramsdens fast food restaurant chain opened in the UK. On a single day in 1952, his fish and chip shop in Guiseley, West Yorkshire served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, during World War II fish and chips remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdom not subject to rationing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred to the combination of fish and chips as the good companions, British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard or plastic being used instead. In the United Kingdom the Food Standards Agency guidance excludes caterers from this, the first chip shop stood on the present site of Oldhams Tommyfield Market. It remains unclear exactly when and where these two combined to become the fish-and-chip shop industry we know. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop in London in 1860 or in 1865, a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, in Mossley, in 1863. Isaacs first restaurant opened in London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence, and its popularity ensured a rapid expansion of the chain. The restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations as their popularity grew to a total of thirty restaurants. Sam Isaacs trademark was the phrase This is the Plaice, combined with a picture of the fish in question
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Whitefish (fisheries term)
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Whitefish or white fish is a fisheries term referring to several species of demersal fish with fins, particularly cod, Caspian kutum, whiting, and haddock, but also hake, pollock, or others. Whitefish is also the name of species of Atlantic freshwater fish. White fish live on or near the seafloor, and can be contrasted with the oily or pelagic fish live in the water column away from the seafloor. Unlike oily fish, white fish contain oils only in their liver, rather than in their gut, white fish have dry and white flesh. White fish can be divided into benthopelagic fish and benthic fish, white fish is sometimes eaten straight but is often used reconstituted for fishsticks, gefilte fish, lutefisk, surimi, etc. For centuries it was preserved by drying as stockfish and clipfish and it is commonly used as the fish in the classic British dish of fish and chips
33.
Cuttlefish
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Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squid, octopuses, cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone. Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs, cuttlefish have large, W-shaped pupils, eight arms, and two tentacles furnished with denticulated suckers, with which they secure their prey. They generally range in size from 15 to 25 cm, with the largest species, Sepia apama, reaching 50 cm in mantle length, cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, octopus, worms, and other cuttlefish. Their predators include dolphins, sharks, fish, seals, seabirds, the average life expectancy of a cuttlefish is about one to two years. Recent studies indicate cuttlefish are among the most intelligent invertebrates, cuttlefish also have one of the largest brain-to-body size ratios of all invertebrates. The cuttle in cuttlefish comes from the Old English name for the species, cudele, which may be cognate with the Old Norse koddi, the Greco-Roman world valued the cuttlefish as a source of the unique brown pigment the creature releases from its siphon when it is alarmed. The word for it in both Greek and Latin, sepia, now refers to a pigment in English. The family Sepiidae, which contains all cuttlefish, inhabit tropical/temperate ocean waters and they are mostly shallow-water animals, although they are known to go to depths of about 600 m. By the time the family evolved, ostensibly in the Old World, the common cuttlefish, is found in the Mediterranean, and North and Baltic Seas, although it has been suggested populations occur as far south as South Africa. They are found in sublittoral depths, between the low line and the edge of the continental shelf, to about 180 m. The cuttlefish is listed under the Red List category of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, ocean acidification, however, caused largely by higher levels of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, is cited as a potential threat. Cuttlefish possess a structure called the cuttlebone, which is porous and is made of aragonite. The pores provide it with buoyancy, which the cuttlefish regulates by changing the ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the ventral siphuncle. Each species cuttlebone has a shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, and is one of the features that distinguish them from their squid relatives, cuttlefish, like other cephalopods, have sophisticated eyes. The organogenesis and the structure of the cephalopod eye fundamentally differ from those of vertebrates such as humans. Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of convergent evolution, the cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly curving W-shape
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Mantle (mollusc)
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The mantle is a significant part of the anatomy of molluscs, it is the dorsal body wall which covers the visceral mass and usually protrudes in the form of flaps well beyond the visceral mass itself. In many species of molluscs the epidermis of the mantle secretes calcium carbonate and conchiolin, in sea slugs there is a progressive loss of the shell and the mantle becomes the dorsal surface of the animal. The words mantle and pallium both originally meant cloak or cape, see mantle, the mantle cavity is a central feature of molluscan biology. This cavity is formed by the skirt, a double fold of mantle which encloses a water space. This space contains the gills, anus, osphradium, nephridiopores. The mantle cavity functions as a chamber in most molluscs. In bivalves it is part of the feeding structure. In some molluscs the mantle cavity is a chamber, and in cephalopods and some bivalves such as scallops. In cephalopods the contraction of the mantle is used to water through a tubular siphon, the hyponome. In gastropods it is used as a kind of foot for locomotion over the surface, in Patella the foot includes the entire ventral surface of the animal. The foot of the Bivalvia is a fleshy process adapted by its form to digging rather than to locomotion, in shelled molluscs, the mantle is the organ that forms the shell, and adds to the shell to increase its size and strength as the animal grows. Shell material is secreted by the cells of the mantle tissue. The mantle of many gastropods is usually fully or partially hidden inside the gastropod shell, in species where the shell is small compared to the size of the body, more of the mantle shows. Shell-less slugs have the mantle fully visible, the dorsal surface of the mantle is called the notum, while the ventral surface of the mantle is called the hyponotum. In the family Philomycidae, the covers the whole back side of the body. Mollusc shell, which is formed by the mantle Siphon, which is a part of the mantle in some groups of molluscs
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Cephalopod ink
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Cephalopod ink is a dark pigment released into water by most species of cephalopod, usually as an escape mechanism. All cephalopods, with the exception of the Nautilidae and the Cirrina, are able to release ink, the ink is released from the ink sacs and is dispersed more widely when its release is accompanied by a jet of water from the siphon. Its dark colour is caused by its constituent, melanin. Each species of cephalopod produces slightly differently coloured inks, generally, octopuses produce black ink, squid ink is blue-black, a number of other aquatic molluscs have similar responses to attack, including the gastropod clade known as sea hares. Two distinct behaviours have been observed in inking cephalopods, the second response to a predator is to release pseudomorphs, smaller clouds of ink with a greater mucus content, which allows them to hold their shape for longer. These are expelled slightly away from the cephalopod in question, which will release several pseudomorphs. Furthermore, green turtle hatchlings that have been observed mistakenly attacking pseudomorphs released by Octopus bocki have subsequently ignored conspecific octopuses, unfortunately, few controlled experiments have been conducted to substantiate this. Octopuses have also been observed squirting ink at snails or crabs approaching their eggs, cephalopod ink contains a number of chemicals in a variety of different concentrations, depending on the species. However, its constituents are melanin and mucus. It can also contain, among other things, tyrosinase, dopamine and L-DOPA, as well as small amounts of amino acids, including taurine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid. The typical defence response of the sea hare to a predator is the release of such as free amino acids, ink from the ink gland. Chemical deterrence involves the release of chemicals that are noxious to predators. Ink creates a dark, diffuse cloud in the water that disrupts the perception of the predator by acting as a smoke screen. The opaline, which affects the senses dealing with feeding, causes the predator to attack the cloud of chemicals as if it were indeed food. Modern use of ink is generally limited to cooking, where it is used as a food colouring and flavouring, for example in pasta. For this purpose it is generally obtainable from fishmongers or gourmet food suppliers, the ink is extracted from the ink sacs during preparation of the dead cephalopod, usually squid, and therefore contains no mucus. Recent studies have shown that cephalopod ink is toxic to some cells, cephalopod An article on harvesting squid ink
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Cephalopod beak
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All extant cephalopods have a two-part beak, or rostrum, situated in the buccal mass and surrounded by the muscular head appendages. The dorsal mandible fits into the mandible and together they function in a scissor-like fashion. They can be used to estimate the length and total body weight of the original animal as well as the total ingested biomass of the species. Cephalopod beaks gradually become less stiff as one moves from the tip to the base, in hydrated beaks of the Humboldt squid this stiffness gradient spans two orders of magnitude. Fossilised remains of beaks are known from a number of cephalopod groups, aptychi – paired plate-like structures found in ammonites – may also have been jaw elements. The beak may also be referred to as the mandibles or jaws, the abbreviations LRL and URL are commonly used in teuthology to refer to lower rostral length and upper rostral length, respectively. This is the measure of beak size in Decapodiformes, hood length is preferred for Octopodiformes
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Gladius (cephalopod)
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The gladius, or pen, is a hard internal bodypart found in many cephalopods of the superorder Decapodiformes and in a single extant member of the Octopodiformes, the vampire squid. It is so named for its resemblance to the Roman short sword of the same name, and is a vestige of the ancestral mollusc shell. The gladius is located dorsally within the mantle and usually extends for its entire length, composed primarily of chitin, it lies within the shell sac, which is responsible for its secretion. Gladii are known from a number of cephalopod groups, including teudopseids, loligosepiids. Gladii are shaped in many ways and vary considerably between species, though are often like a feather or leaf. Cuttlebone Belemnoidea Argonaut Nautilus Mollusc shell Bizikov, V. A, squid gladius, its use for the study of growth, age, intraspecies structure and evolution. Institute of Oceanology, SSSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, the comparative morphology of the gladius in the order Teuthoidea in relation to systematics and phylogeny. University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 586, 55–67
38.
Paella
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Paella is a Valencian rice dish. Paella has ancient roots, but its modern form originated in the mid-19th century near the Albufera lagoon on the east coast of Spain adjacent to the city of Valencia, many non-Spaniards view paella as Spains national dish, but most Spaniards consider it to be a regional Valencian dish. Valencians, in turn, regard paella as one of their identifying symbols, types of paella include Valencian paella, vegetarian/vegan paella, seafood paella, and mixed paella, among many others. Valencian paella is believed to be the recipe and consists of white rice, green beans, meat, white beans, snails. Another very common but seasonal ingredient is artichokes, seafood paella replaces meat with seafood and omits beans and green vegetables. Mixed paella is a combination of meat from land animals, seafood, vegetables. Most paella chefs use bomba rice due to it being less likely to overcook, all types of paellas use olive oil. Paella is a Valencian word which derives from the Old French word paelle for pan, the word paella is also related to paila used in many Latin American countries. Paila in the Spanish language of Latin America refers to a variety of cookware resembling metal and clay pans, the Latin root patella from which paella derives is also akin to the modern French poêle, the Italian padella and the Old Spanish padilla. Valencians use the word paella for all pans in the Valencian language, paelleras are traditionally round, shallow, and made of polished steel with two handles. Moors in Muslim Spain began rice cultivation around the 10th century, consequently, Valencians often made casseroles of rice, fish, and spices for family gatherings and religious feasts, thus establishing the custom of eating rice in Spain. This led to becoming a staple by the 15th century. Afterwards, it became customary for cooks to combine rice with vegetables, beans, along Spains eastern coast, rice was predominantly eaten with fish. On special occasions, 18th century Valencians used calderos to cook rice in the air of their orchards near lake Albufera. Water vole meat was one of the ingredients of early paellas, along with eel. Novelist Vicente Blasco Ibáñez described the Valencian custom of eating water voles in Cañas y Barro, living standards rose with the sociological changes of the late 19th century in Spain, giving rise to gatherings and outings in the countryside. This led to a change in ingredients, as well, using instead rabbit, chicken, duck. This dish became so popular that in 1840, a local Spanish newspaper first used the word paella to refer to the rather than the pan
39.
Risotto
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Risotto /rᵻˈzɒtoʊ/ is a northern Italian rice dish cooked in a broth to a creamy consistency. The broth can be derived from meat, fish, or vegetables, many types of risotto contain butter, wine, and onion. It is one of the most common ways of cooking rice in Italy, Risotto in Italy is normally a primo, served on its own before the main course, but risotto alla milanese, is often served together with ossobuco alla milanese. A high-starch, low-amylose round medium- or short- grain white rice is used for making risotto. Such rices have the ability to absorb liquids and to release starch, the principal varieties used in Italy are Arborio, Baldo, Carnaroli, Maratelli, Padano, Roma, and Vialone Nano. Carnaroli, Maratelli and Vialone Nano are considered to be the best varieties, for example, Carnaroli is less likely than Vialone Nano to get overcooked, but the latter, being smaller, cooks faster and absorbs condiments better. Other varieties like Roma, Baldo, Ribe and Originario may be used and these varieties are considered better for soups and other non-risotto rice dishes and for making sweet rice desserts. Rice designations of Superfino, Semifino and Fino refer to the size and shape of the grains, there are many different risotto recipes with different ingredients, but they are all based on rice of an appropriate variety, cooked in a standard procedure. The rice is first cooked briefly in a soffritto of onion and butter or olive oil, to coat each grain in a film of fat, called tostatura, white or red wine is added and must be absorbed by the grains. At that point, the pot is taken off the heat for the mantecatura, to make the texture as creamy and it may be removed from the heat a few minutes earlier and left to cook with its residual heat. Properly cooked risotto is rich and creamy, but has some resistance or bite and separate grains, the traditional texture is fairly fluid, or allonda. It is served on flat dishes and should easily spread out and it must be eaten at once, as it continues to cook in its own heat and can become too dry with the grains too soft. Many variations have their own names, Maratelli rice, historical variety of Italian rice production Paella Pilaf List of Italian dishes List of rice dishes Barrett, Judith, and Wasserman, Norma. Risotto Secrets, The Six Steps to Risotto Perfection—Italy In SF WNYC - Last Chance Foods, Common Sense Risotto, Lidia Bastianichs How to Cook Risotto How RISOTTO ALLA MILANESE was born
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Soup
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Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot, that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups, clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé, other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains, many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes. Soups are similar to stews, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two, however, soups generally have more liquid than stews. Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC, boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers. Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this, to boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was used to cook acorns and other plants. The word soup comes from French soupe, which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa from a Germanic source, from which comes the word sop. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups and this prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments. A1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife, contained a chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking, but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, in particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an establishment in Boston called The Restorator. The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing, Soups, portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, doctor John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company, invented condensed soup in 1897. Today, Campbells Tomato, Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America, americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Canned soup can be condensed, in case it is prepared by adding water, or it can be ready-to-eat. Canned soup can be prepared by heating in a pan, on the stovetop or in the microwave, such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can, the soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a can full of water or milk
41.
Pasta
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Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine, with the first reference dating to 1154 in Sicily. It can also be made with flour from other cereals or grains, pastas may be divided into two broad categories, dried and fresh. Most dried pasta is produced via an extrusion process although it can be produced in most homes. Both dried and fresh pasta come in a number of shapes and varieties, in Italy the names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary with locale. For example, the form cavatelli is known by 28 different names depending on region, common forms of pasta include long shapes, short shapes, tubes, flat shapes and sheets, miniature soup shapes, filled or stuffed and specialty or decorative shapes. As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes, as pasta asciutta cooked pasta is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment. A second classification of pasta dishes is pasta in brodo in which the pasta is part of a soup-type dish, a third category is pasta al forno in which the pasta incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked. Pasta is generally a dish, but comes in many varieties due to its versatility. Some pasta dishes are served as a first course in Italy because the portion sizes are small, Pasta is also prepared in light lunches, such as salads or large portion sizes for dinner. It can be prepared by hand or food processor and served hot or cold, Pasta sauces vary in taste, color and texture. When choosing which type of pasta and sauce to serve together, simple sauces like pesto are ideal for long and thin strands of pasta while tomato sauce combines well with thicker pastas. Thicker and chunkier sauces have the ability to cling onto the holes and cuts of short, tubular. The extra sauce left on the plate after all of the pasta is eaten is often mopped up with a piece of bread. First attested in English in 1874, the word comes from Italian pasta, in turn from Latin pasta dough, pastry cake. In the 1st century AD writings of Horace, lagana were fine sheets of fried dough and were an everyday foodstuff, an early 5th century cookbook describes a dish called lagana that consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, a possible ancestor of modern-day lasagna. The first concrete information concerning pasta products in Italy dates from the 13th or 14th century, historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd century AD Greek physician Galen mention itrion, homogeneous compounds made of flour, the Jerusalem Talmud records that itrium, a kind of boiled dough, was common in Palestine from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. A dictionary compiled by the 9th century Arab physician and lexicographer Isho bar Ali defines itriyya and its ever-flowing streams propel a number of mills
42.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
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Seville
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Seville is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville, Spain. It is situated on the plain of the river Guadalquivir, the inhabitants of the city are known as sevillanos or hispalenses, after the Roman name of the city, Hispalis. Its Old Town, with an area of 4 square kilometres, the Seville harbour, located about 80 kilometres from the Atlantic Ocean, is the only river port in Spain. Seville is also the hottest major metropolitan area in the geographical Western Europe, Seville was founded as the Roman city of Hispalis. It later became known as Ishbiliya after the Muslim conquest in 712, in 1519, Ferdinand Magellan departed from Seville for the first circumnavigation of the Earth. Spal is the oldest known name for Seville and it appears to have originated during the Phoenician colonisation of the Tartessian culture in south-western Iberia and, according to Manuel Pellicer Catalán, meant lowland in the Phoenician language. During Roman rule, the name was Latinised as Hispalis, nO8DO is the official motto of Seville. It is popularly believed to be a rebus signifying the Spanish No me ha dejado, meaning It has not abandoned me, the eight in the middle represents a madeja, or skein of wool. The emblem is present on the flag and features on city property such as manhole covers. Seville is approximately 2,200 years old, the passage of the various civilisations instrumental in its growth has left the city with a distinct personality, and a large and well-preserved historical centre. The city was known from Roman times as Hispalis, important archaeological remains also exist in the nearby towns of Santiponce and Carmona. The walls surrounding the city were built during the rule of Julius Caesar. Following Roman rule, there were successive conquests of the Roman province of Hispania Baetica by the Vandals, the Suebi, Seville was taken by the Moors, Muslims from North of Africa, during the conquest of Hispalis in 712. It was the capital for the kings of the Umayyad Caliphate, the Moorish urban influences continued and are present in contemporary Seville, for instance in the custom of decorating with herbaje and small fountains the courtyards of the houses. However, most buildings of the Moorish aesthetic actually belong to the Mudéjar style of Islamic art, developed under Christian rule and inspired by the Arabic style. Original Moorish buildings are the Patio del Yeso in the Alcázar, the city walls, in 1247, the Christian King Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon began the conquest of Andalusia. The decisive action took place in May 1248 when Ramon Bonifaz sailed up the Guadalquivir, the city surrendered on 23 November 1248. The citys development continued after the Castilian conquest in 1248, Public buildings constructed including churches, many of which were built in the Mudéjar style, and the Seville Cathedral, built during the 15th century with Gothic architecture
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Sardinia
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Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
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Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
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