1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
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In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
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Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
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The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
Symbolism (arts)
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Symbolism was a late nineteenth-century art movement of French, Russian and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts. In literature, the style originates with the 1857 publication of Charles Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, the works of Edgar Allan Poe, which Baudelaire admired greatly and translated into French, were a significant influence and the source of many stock tropes and images. The aesthetic was developed by Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine during the 1860s and 1870s, in the 1880s, the aesthetic was articulated by a series of manifestos and attracted a generation of writers. The name symbolist itself was first applied by the critic Jean Moréas, distinct from, but related to, the style of literature, symbolism in art is related to the gothic component of Romanticism and Impressionism. In ancient Greece, the symbolon was a shard of pottery which was inscribed, Symbolism was a reaction in favour of spirituality, the imagination, and dreams. Some writers, such as Joris-Karl Huysmans, began as naturalists before becoming symbolists, for Huysmans, the Symbolist poets have a more complex relationship with Parnassianism, a French literary style that immediately preceded it. The Symbolists continued to admire Théophile Gautiers motto of art for arts sake, many Symbolist poets, including Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine, published early works in Le Parnasse contemporain, the poetry anthologies that gave Parnassianism its name. One of Symbolisms most colourful promoters in Paris was art and literary critic Joséphin Péladan, a number of Symbolists were associated with the Salon. Symbolists believed that art should represent absolute truths that could only be described indirectly, thus, they wrote in a very metaphorical and suggestive manner, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. Jean Moréas published the Symbolist Manifesto in Le Figaro on 18 September 1886, the Symbolist Manifesto names Charles Baudelaire, Stéphane Mallarmé, and Paul Verlaine as the three leading poets of the movement. In a nutshell, as Mallarmé writes in a letter to his friend Cazalis, to not the thing. Symbolist poems were attempts to evoke, rather than primarily to describe, – both poets seek to identify one sense experience with another. The earlier Romanticism of poetry used symbols, but these symbols were unique, the symbolists were more extreme, investing all things, even vowels and perfumes, with potential symbolic value. The physical universe, then, is a kind of language that invites a privileged spectator to decipher it, Symbolist symbols are not allegories, intended to represent, they are instead intended to evoke particular states of mind. The nominal subject of Mallarmés Le cygne is of a trapped in a frozen lake. Significantly, in French, cygne is a homophone of signe, un cygne d’autrefois se souvient que c’est lui Magnifique mais qui sans espoir se délivre. They were also portrayed as at odds with society, having tragic lives and these traits were not hindrances but consequences of their literary gifts. Schopenhauers aesthetics represented shared concerns with the symbolist programme, they tended to consider Art as a contemplative refuge from the world of strife and will
Symbolism (arts)
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Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Jeunes Filles au Bord de la Mer (Young Girls on the Edge of the Sea), 1879,
Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Symbolism (arts)
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Victor Vasnetsov, The Knight at the Crossroads, 1878
Symbolism (arts)
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John William Waterhouse, Cecilia, 1895
Symbolism (arts)
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Henri Fantin-Latour, By the Table, depicting: seated:
Paul Verlaine,
Arthur Rimbaud, Léon Valade, Ernest d'Hervilly and
Camille Pelletan; standing: Pierre Elzéar, Emile Blémont and
Jean Aicard.
3.
Cubism
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Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-garde art movement that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century, the term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. The movement was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Andre Lhote, Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris. A primary influence that led to Cubism was the representation of form in the late works of Paul Cézanne. The impact of Cubism was far-reaching and wide-ranging, Cubism spread rapidly across the globe and in doing so evolved to a greater or lesser extent. In essence, Cubism was the origin of a process that produced diversity. In France, offshoots of Cubism developed, including Orphism, Abstract art, in other countries Futurism, Suprematism, Dada, Constructivism, De Stijl and Art Deco developed in response to Cubism. Other common threads between these movements include the faceting or simplification of geometric forms, and the association of mechanization. Cubism began between 1907 and 1911, Pablo Picassos 1907 painting Les Demoiselles dAvignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braques 1908 Houses at L’Estaque prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques, Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebro, as the first Cubist paintings. A second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919, english art historian Douglas Cooper proposed another scheme, describing three phases of Cubism in his book, The Cubist Epoch. Douglas Coopers restrictive use of terms to distinguish the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris. Alternative interpretations of Cubism have therefore developed, wider views of Cubism include artists who were later associated with the Salle 41 artists, e. g. John Berger identifies the essence of Cubism with the mechanical diagram. The metaphorical model of Cubism is the diagram, The diagram being a symbolic representation of invisible processes, forces, structures. A diagram need not eschew certain aspects of appearance but these too will be treated as not as imitations or recreations. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Europeans were discovering African, Polynesian, Micronesian, artists such as Paul Gauguin, Henri Matisse, and Pablo Picasso were intrigued and inspired by the stark power and simplicity of styles of those foreign cultures. Around 1906, Picasso met Matisse through Gertrude Stein, at a time when artists had recently acquired an interest in primitivism, Iberian sculpture, African art and African tribal masks. Picassos paintings of 1907 have been characterized as Protocubism, as seen in Les Demoiselles dAvignon
Cubism
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Pablo Picasso, 1910, Girl with a Mandolin (Fanny Tellier), oil on canvas, 100.3 x 73.6 cm,
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Cubism
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Pablo Picasso,
Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the founding of the Cubist movement
Cubism
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Pablo Picasso, 1909-10, Figure dans un Fauteuil (Seated Nude, Femme nue assise), oil on canvas, 92.1 x 73 cm,
Tate Modern, London
Cubism
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Paul Cézanne, Quarry Bibémus, 1898-1900,
Museum Folkwang,
Essen,
Germany
4.
Futurism (art)
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Futurism was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. It emphasized speed, technology, youth, and violence, and objects such as the car, the aeroplane, although it was largely an Italian phenomenon, there were parallel movements in Russia, England, Belgium and elsewhere. It glorified modernity and aimed to liberate Italy from the weight of its past, Cubism contributed to the formation of Italian Futurisms artistic style. Important Futurist works included Marinettis Manifesto of Futurism, Boccionis sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, to some extent Futurism influenced the art movements Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism. Futurism is a movement founded in Milan in 1909 by the Italian poet Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. He was soon joined by the painters Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Giacomo Balla, Gino Severini, Marinetti expressed a passionate loathing of everything old, especially political and artistic tradition. We want no part of it, the past, he wrote, publishing manifestos was a feature of Futurism, and the Futurists wrote them on many topics, including painting, architecture, religion, clothing and cooking. The founding manifesto did not contain an artistic programme, which the Futurists attempted to create in their subsequent Technical Manifesto of Futurist Painting. This committed them to a universal dynamism, which was to be represented in painting. The motor bus rushes into the houses which it passes, the Futurist painters were slow to develop a distinctive style and subject matter. In 1910 and 1911 they used the techniques of Divisionism, breaking light and color down into a field of stippled dots and stripes, which had been originally created by Giovanni Segantini and others. Later, Severini, who lived in Paris, attributed their backwardness in style and method at this time to their distance from Paris, the centre of avant-garde art. Severini was the first to come into contact with Cubism and following a visit to Paris in 1911 the Futurist painters adopted the methods of the Cubists, Cubism offered them a means of analysing energy in paintings and expressing dynamism. They often painted modern urban scenes, carràs Funeral of the Anarchist Galli is a large canvas representing events that the artist had himself been involved in, in 1904. The action of an attack and riot is rendered energetically with diagonals. His Leaving the Theatre uses a Divisionist technique to render isolated, Boccionis The City Rises represents scenes of construction and manual labour with a huge, rearing red horse in the centre foreground, which workmen struggle to control. The Futurists aimed through their art thus to enable the viewer to apprehend the inner being of what they depicted, Boccioni developed these ideas at length in his book, Pittura scultura Futuriste, Dinamismo plastico. Ballas Dynamism of a Dog on a Leash exemplifies the Futurists insistence that the world is in constant movement
Futurism (art)
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Gino Severini, 1912, Dynamic Hieroglyphic of the Bal Tabarin, oil on canvas with sequins, 161.6 x 156.2 cm (63.6 x 61.5 in.),
Museum of Modern Art, New York
Futurism (art)
–
Futurists
Luigi Russolo,
Carlo Carrà,
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti,
Umberto Boccioni and
Gino Severini in front of Le Figaro, Paris, February 9, 1912
Futurism (art)
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Giacomo Balla, Abstract Speed + Sound, 1913–1914
Futurism (art)
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Umberto Boccioni, sketch of
The City Rises (1910)
5.
Dada
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Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century, with early centers in Zürich, Switzerland at the Cabaret Voltaire, in New York, and after 1920, in Paris. The art of the movement spanned visual, literary, and sound media, including collage, sound poetry, cut-up writing, Dadaist artists expressed their discontent with violence, war, and nationalism, and maintained political affinities with the radical left. Others note that it suggests the first words of a child, evoking a childishness, still others speculate that the word might have been chosen to evoke a similar meaning in any language, reflecting the movements internationalism. The roots of Dada lay in pre-war avant-garde, the term anti-art, a precursor to Dada, was coined by Marcel Duchamp around 1913 to characterize works which challenge accepted definitions of art. Cubism and the development of collage and abstract art would inform the movements detachment from the constraints of reality, the work of French poets, Italian Futurists and the German Expressionists would influence Dadas rejection of the tight correlation between words and meaning. Works such as Ubu Roi by Alfred Jarry, and the ballet Parade by Erik Satie would also be characterized as proto-Dadaist works, the Dada movements principles were first collected in Hugo Balls Dada Manifesto in 1916. The movement influenced later styles like the avant-garde and downtown music movements, Dada was an informal international movement, with participants in Europe and North America. The beginnings of Dada correspond to the outbreak of World War I, avant-garde circles outside France knew of pre-war Parisian developments. Futurism developed in response to the work of various artists, many Dadaists believed that the reason and logic of bourgeois capitalist society had led people into war. They expressed their rejection of that ideology in artistic expression that appeared to reject logic and embrace chaos, for example, George Grosz later recalled that his Dadaist art was intended as a protest against this world of mutual destruction. According to Hans Richter Dada was not art, it was anti-art, Dada represented the opposite of everything which art stood for. Where art was concerned with aesthetics, Dada ignored aesthetics. If art was to appeal to sensibilities, Dada was intended to offend, as Hugo Ball expressed it, For us, art is not an end in itself. But it is an opportunity for the perception and criticism of the times we live in. A reviewer from the American Art News stated at the time that Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man. Art historians have described Dada as being, in large part, a systematic work of destruction and demoralization. In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege, to quote Dona Budds The Language of Art Knowledge, Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of the First World War. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zürich, Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition
Dada
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Cover of the first edition of the publication Dada by
Tristan Tzara;
Zürich, 1917
Dada
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Francis Picabia, Dame! Illustration for the cover of the periodical Dadaphone, n. 7, Paris, March 1920
Dada
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Francis Picabia, (left) Le saint des saints c'est de moi qu'il s'agit dans ce portrait, 1 July 1915; (center) Portrait d'une jeune fille americaine dans l'état de nudité, 5 July 1915: (right) J'ai vu et c'est de toi qu'il s'agit, De Zayas! De Zayas! Je suis venu sur les rivages du Pont-Euxin, New York, 1915.
Dada
–
Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife through the Last Weimar Beer-Belly Cultural Epoch in Germany, 1919, collage of pasted papers, 90×144 cm,
Nationalgalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
6.
Surrealism
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Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings. The aim was to resolve the previously contradictory conditions of dream, leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary movement. Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities during World War I, the word surrealist was coined by Guillaume Apollinaire and first appeared in the preface to his play Les Mamelles de Tirésias, which was written in 1903 and first performed in 1917. The Dadaists protested with anti-art gatherings, performances, writings and art works, after the war, when they returned to Paris, the Dada activities continued. Meeting the young writer Jacques Vaché, Breton felt that Vaché was the son of writer. He admired the young writers anti-social attitude and disdain for established artistic tradition, later Breton wrote, In literature, I was successively taken with Rimbaud, with Jarry, with Apollinaire, with Nouveau, with Lautréamont, but it is Jacques Vaché to whom I owe the most. Back in Paris, Breton joined in Dada activities and started the literary journal Littérature along with Louis Aragon and they began experimenting with automatic writing—spontaneously writing without censoring their thoughts—and published the writings, as well as accounts of dreams, in the magazine. Breton and Soupault delved deeper into automatism and wrote The Magnetic Fields, continuing to write, they came to believe that automatism was a better tactic for societal change than the Dada form of attack on prevailing values. They also looked to the Marxist dialectic and the work of such theorists as Walter Benjamin, freuds work with free association, dream analysis, and the unconscious was of utmost importance to the Surrealists in developing methods to liberate imagination. They embraced idiosyncrasy, while rejecting the idea of an underlying madness, as Salvador Dalí later proclaimed, There is only one difference between a madman and me. Beside the use of analysis, they emphasized that one could combine inside the same frame, elements not normally found together to produce illogical. The more the relationship between the two juxtaposed realities is distant and true, the stronger the image will be−the greater its emotional power, the group aimed to revolutionize human experience, in its personal, cultural, social, and political aspects. They wanted to people from false rationality, and restrictive customs. Breton proclaimed that the aim of Surrealism was long live the social revolution. To this goal, at various times Surrealists aligned with communism and anarchism, in 1924 two Surrealist factions declared their philosophy in two separate Surrealist Manifestos. That same year the Bureau of Surrealist Research was established, leading up to 1924, two rival surrealist groups had formed. Each group claimed to be successors of a revolution launched by Guillaume Apollinaire, the other group, led by Breton, included Louis Aragon, Robert Desnos, Paul Éluard, Jacques Baron, Jacques-André Boiffard, Jean Carrive, René Crevel and Georges Malkine, among others. Goll and Breton clashed openly, at one point literally fighting, at the Comédie des Champs-Élysées, in the end, Breton won the battle through tactical and numerical superiority
Surrealism
–
Max Ernst,
The Elephant Celebes (1921),
Tate, London
Surrealism
–
Cover of the first issue of
La Révolution surréaliste, December 1924.
Surrealism
–
Yvan Goll, Surréalisme, Manifeste du surréalisme, Volume 1, Number 1, October 1, 1924, cover by
Robert Delaunay
Surrealism
–
André Masson. Automatic Drawing. 1924. Ink on paper, 23.5 x 20.6 cm.
Museum of Modern Art, New York.
7.
Salon (gathering)
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These gatherings often consciously followed Horaces definition of the aims of poetry, either to please or to educate. Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings, the salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century, one important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664, Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve. Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were held in the bedroom. This practice may be contrasted with the formalities of Louis XIVs petit lever. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry, the historiography of the salons is far from straightforward. The salons have been studied in depth by a mixture of feminist, Marxist, each of these methodologies focus on different aspects of the salons, and thus have varying analyses of the salons’ importance in terms of French history and the Enlightenment as a whole. Major historiographical debates focus on the relationship between the salons and the sphere, as well as the role of women within the salons. Breaking down the salons into historical periods is complicated due to the various historiographical debates that surround them, most studies stretch from the early 16th century up until around the end of the 18th century. Goodman is typical in ending her study at the French Revolution where, she writes, Steven Kale is relatively alone in his recent attempts to extend the period of the salon up until Revolution of 1848. This world did not disappear in 1789, as recently as the 1940s, salons hosted by Gertrude Stein gained notoriety for including Pablo Picasso and other twentieth-century luminaries like Alice B. The content and form of the salon to some extent defines the character, contemporary literature about the salons is dominated by idealistic notions of politesse, civilité and honnêteté, but whether the salons lived up to these standards is matter of debate. Older texts on the salons tend to paint a picture of the salons. Today, however, this view is considered an adequate analysis of the salon. Dena Goodman claims that rather than being leisure based or schools of civilité salons were instead at the heart of the philosophic community. In short, Goodman argues, the 17th and 18th century saw the emergence of the academic, Enlightenment salons, politeness, argues Goodman, took second-place to academic discussion. The period in which salons were dominant has been labeled the age of conversation, the topics of conversation within the salons - that is, what was and was not polite to talk about - are thus vital when trying to determine the form of the salons
Salon (gathering)
–
Réunion de dames,
Abraham Bosse, 17th century.
Salon (gathering)
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A Reading in the Salon of Mme Geoffrin, 1755
Salon (gathering)
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"Abbé Delille reciting his poem, La Conversation in the salon of Madame Geoffrin" from Jacques Delille, "La Conversation" (Paris, 1812)
Salon (gathering)
–
Portrait of Mme Geoffrin, salonnière, by
Marianne Loir (National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC)
8.
William Butler Yeats
–
William Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th-century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, he helped to found the Abbey Theatre, Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival along with Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn and others. He was born in Sandymount, Ireland and educated there and in London and he spent childhood holidays in County Sligo and studied poetry from an early age when he became fascinated by Irish legends and the occult. These topics feature in the first phase of his work, which lasted roughly until the turn of the 20th century. His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889, and its slow-paced and lyrical poems display Yeatss debts to Edmund Spenser, Percy Bysshe Shelley, from 1900, his poetry grew more physical and realistic. He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth, though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks, in 1923, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Of Anglo-Irish descent, William Butler Yeats was born at Sandymount in County Dublin and his father, John Butler Yeats, was a descendant of Jervis Yeats, a Williamite soldier, linen merchant, and well-known painter who died in 1712. Benjamin Yeats, Jerviss grandson and Williams great-great-grandfather, had in 1773 married Mary Butler of a family in County Kildare. Following their marriage, they kept the name Butler in the family name, Mary was a descendant of the Butler of Ormond family from the Neigham Gowran branch of the family. They were descendants of the first Earls of Ormond, by his marriage, Williams father John Yeats was studying law but abandoned his studies to study art at Heatherleys Art School in London. His mother, Susan Mary Pollexfen, came from a merchant family in Sligo. Yeats was raised a member of the Protestant Ascendancy, which was at the time undergoing a crisis of identity. In 1997, his biographer R. F. Foster observed that Napoleons dictum that to understand the man you have to know what was happening in the world when he was twenty is manifestly true of W. B. Y. Yeatss childhood and young adulthood were shadowed by the power-shift away from the minority Protestant Ascendancy, the 1880s saw the rise of Charles Stewart Parnell and the home rule movement, the 1890s saw the momentum of nationalism, while the Catholics became prominent around the turn of the century. These developments had an effect on his poetry, and his subsequent explorations of Irish identity had a significant influence on the creation of his countrys biography. In 1867, the moved to England to aid their father, John. At first the Yeats children were educated at home and their mother entertained them with stories and Irish folktales. John provided an education in geography and chemistry, and took William on natural history explorations of the nearby Slough countryside
William Butler Yeats
–
William Butler Yeats photographed in 1903 by
Alice Boughton.
William Butler Yeats
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Balscadden House in
Howth, County Dublin, where Yeats lived in 1880–83
William Butler Yeats
–
1900 portrait by
John Butler Yeats
William Butler Yeats
–
Maud Gonne c. 1900
9.
Rainer Maria Rilke
–
Several critics have described Rilkes work as inherently mystical. These deeply existential themes tend to him as a transitional figure between the traditional and the modernist writers. While Rilke is most known for his contributions to German literature, over 400 poems were written in French. In the later 20th century, his work found new audiences through its use by New Age theologians and self-help authors, in the United States, Rilke remains among the more popular, best-selling poets. He was born René Karl Wilhelm Johann Josef Maria Rilke in Prague and his childhood and youth in Prague were not especially happy. His father, Josef Rilke, became an official after an unsuccessful military career. His mother, Sophie Entz, came from a well-to-do Prague family, the Entz-Kinzelbergers, who lived in a house on the Herrengasse 8, where René also spent many of his early years. The relationship between Phia and her son was colored by her mourning for an earlier child, a daughter who had died only one week old. During Rilkes early years Phia acted as if she sought to recover the lost girl through the boy by dressing him in girls clothing and his parents marriage failed in 1884. His parents pressured the poetically and artistically talented youth into entering a military academy, which he attended from 1886 until 1891, from 1892 to 1895 he was tutored for the university entrance exam, which he passed in 1895. Until 1896 he studied literature, art history, and philosophy in Prague, in 1897 in Munich, Rainer Maria Rilke met and fell in love with the widely travelled, intellectual woman of letters Lou Andreas-Salomé. Rilke changed his first name from René to Rainer at Lous urging because she thought that name to be masculine, forceful. His relationship with married woman, with whom he undertook two extensive trips to Russia, lasted until 1900. But even after their separation, Lou continued to be Rilkes most important confidante until the end of his life, having trained from 1912 to 1913 as a psychoanalyst with Sigmund Freud, she shared her knowledge of psychoanalysis with Rilke. In 1898, Rilke undertook a journey lasting several weeks to Italy, in 1899, he travelled with Lou and her husband, Friedrich Andreas, to Moscow where he met the novelist Leo Tolstoy. Author Anna A. Tavis cites the cultures of Bohemia and Russia as the key influences on Rilkes poetry, in 1900, Rilke stayed at the artists colony at Worpswede. It was here that he got to know the sculptor Clara Westhoff and their daughter Ruth was born in December 1901. In the summer of 1902, Rilke left home and travelled to Paris to write a monograph on the sculptor Auguste Rodin, before long his wife left their daughter with her parents and joined Rilke there
Rainer Maria Rilke
–
Rilke in 1900, aged 24
Rainer Maria Rilke
–
Paula Modersohn-Becker (1876–1907), an early expressionist painter, became acquainted with Rilke in Worpswede and Paris, and painted his portrait in 1906.
Rainer Maria Rilke
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Duino Castle near Trieste, Italy, was where Rilke began writing the Duino Elegies in 1912—recounting that he heard the famous first line as a voice in the wind while walking along the cliffs and that he wrote it quickly in his notebook.
Rainer Maria Rilke
–
Château de Muzot in Veyras, Switzerland, was where Rilke completed writing the Duino Elegies in "a savage creative storm" in February 1922.
10.
Stefan George
–
Stefan Anton George was a German poet, editor, and translator. George was born in 1868 in Büdesheim, today part of Bingen in the Grand Duchy of Hesse and his father, also Stephan George, was an inn keeper and wine merchant. His early travels also included Vienna, where in 1891 he met, for the first time and he began to publish poetry in the 1890s, while in his twenties. George founded and edited an important literary magazine called Blätter für die Kunst and he was also at the center of an influential literary and academic circle known as the George-Kreis, which included many of the leading young writers of the day. In addition to sharing cultural interests, the circle reflected mystical and political themes, George knew and befriended the Bohemian Countess of Schwabing, Fanny zu Reventlow, who sometimes satirized the circle for its melodramatic actions and views. George and his writings were identified with the Conservative Revolutionary movement and he was a homosexual, yet exhorted his young friends to lead a celibate life like his own. In 1914 at the start of the war he foretold a sad end for Germany, the outcome of the war saw the realization of his worst fears. In 1933 after the Nazi takeover Joseph Goebbels offered him the presidency of a new Academy for the arts and he also stayed away from celebrations prepared for his 65th birthday. Instead he travelled to Switzerland, where he died near Locarno, after his death, his body was interred before a delegation from the National Socialist government could attend the ceremony. George was an important bridge between the 19th century and German modernism, even though he was a critic of the then modern era. He experimented with various poetic metres, punctuation, obscure allusions, the relevance of Georges sexuality to his poetic work has been discussed by contemporary critics, such as Thomas Karlauf and Marita Keilson-Lauritz. Algabal is one of Georges best remembered collections of poetry, if one of his strangest. George was also an important translator, he translated Dante, Shakespeare and Baudelaire into German, George was awarded the Goethe Prize in 1927. Georges late and seminal work, Das neue Reich, was published in 1928 and he dedicated the work, including the Geheimes Deutschland written in 1922, to Berthold Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, who, in 1944, took part in the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler. It outlines a new form of society ruled by hierarchical spiritual aristocracy, George rejected any attempts to use it for mundane political purposes, especially National Socialism. There was something magnetic about him and his poetry emphasized self-sacrifice, heroism and power, and he thus gained popularity in National Socialist circles. The group of writers and admirers that formed around him were known as the Georgekreis, although many National Socialists claimed George as an important influence, George himself was aloof from such associations and did not get involved in politics. Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power, George left Germany for Switzerland where he died the same year, although some members of the circle were explicitly anti-semitic, it also included Jewish writers such as Gundolf, the historian Ernst Kantorowicz, and the Zionist Karl Wolfskehl
Stefan George
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Stefan George (1910)
Stefan George
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From 1921 George spent his summers in the hills on the south-western edge of
Frankfurt at this house in
Königstein, where he was looked after by his sister, Anna
11.
Paul Verlaine
–
Paul-Marie Verlaine was a French poet associated with the Decadent movement. He is considered one of the greatest representatives of the fin de siècle in international, born in Metz, Verlaine was educated at the Lycée Impérial Bonaparte in Paris and then took up a post in the civil service. He began writing poetry at an age, and was initially influenced by the Parnassien movement and its leader. Verlaines first published poem was published in 1863 in La Revue du progrès, Verlaines first published collection, Poèmes saturniens, though adversely commented upon by Sainte-Beuve, established him as a poet of promise and originality. Verlaines private life spills over into his work, beginning with his love for Mathilde Mauté de Fleurville, Mathilde became Verlaines wife in 1870. At the proclamation of the Third Republic in the year, Verlaine joined the 160th battalion of the Garde nationale. He became head of the bureau of the Central Committee of the Paris Commune. Verlaine escaped the deadly street fighting known as the Bloody Week, or Semaine Sanglante, Verlaine returned to Paris in August 1871, and, in September, he received the first letter from Arthur Rimbaud. By 1872, he had lost interest in Mathilde, and effectively abandoned her and their son, Rimbaud and Verlaines stormy affair took them to London in 1872. In Brussels in July 1873 in a drunken, jealous rage, romances sans paroles was published while Verlaine was imprisoned. From there he went to teach in Boston, before moving to Bournemouth, while in England he produced another successful collection, Sagesse. He returned to France in 1877 and, while teaching English at a school in Rethel, fell in love one of his pupils, Lucien Létinois. Verlaine was devastated when Létinois died of typhus in 1883, Verlaines last years saw his descent into drug addiction, alcoholism, and poverty. He lived in slums and public hospitals, and spent his days drinking absinthe in Paris cafes and his poetry was admired and recognized as ground-breaking, and served as a source of inspiration to composers. Gabriel Fauré composed many mélodies, such as the song cycles Cinq mélodies de Venise and La bonne chanson, claude Debussy set to music Clair de lune and six of the Fêtes galantes poems, forming part of the mélodie collection known as the Recueil Vasnier. Reynaldo Hahn set several of Verlaines poems as did the Belgian-British composer Poldowski and his drug dependence and alcoholism caught up with him and took a toll on his life. Paul Verlaine died in Paris at the age of 51 on 8 January 1896, much of the French poetry produced during the fin de siècle was characterized as decadent for its lurid content or moral vision. But with the publication of Jean Moréas Symbolist Manifesto in 1886, along with Verlaine, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Paul Valéry, Albert Samain and many others began to be referred to as Symbolists
Paul Verlaine
–
The House of Verlaine, Verlaine's birthplace in
Metz, today a museum dedicated to the poet's life and artworks
Paul Verlaine
–
Paul Verlaine
Paul Verlaine
–
Plaque in
Brussels
Paul Verlaine
–
Paul Verlaine during his career
12.
Charles Baudelaire
–
Charles Pierre Baudelaire was a French poet who also produced notable work as an essayist, art critic, and pioneering translator of Edgar Allan Poe. His most famous work, Les Fleurs du mal, expresses the nature of beauty in modern. Baudelaires highly original style of prose-poetry influenced a generation of poets including Paul Verlaine, Arthur Rimbaud. He is credited with coining the term modernity to designate the fleeting, ephemeral experience of life in a metropolis. This obsessive idea is all a child of giant cities. Baudelaire is one of the innovators in French literature. He made Paris the subject of modern poetry and he would bring the citys details to life in the eyes and hearts of his readers. Baudelaire was born in Paris, France, on April 9,1821 and his father, François Baudelaire, a senior civil servant and amateur artist, was 34 years older than Baudelaires mother, Caroline. François died during Baudelaires childhood, in 1827, the following year, Caroline married Lieutenant Colonel Jacques Aupick, who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts. He stated in a letter to her that, There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you, Baudelaire regularly begged his mother for money throughout his career, often promising that a lucrative publishing contract or journalistic commission was just around the corner. Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he boarded, Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to idleness. Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris, studying law and he began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period. He also began to run up debts, mostly for clothes, upon gaining his degree in 1839, he told his brother I dont feel I have a vocation for anything. His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy and his mother later recalled, Oh, what grief. If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have very different. He would not have left a name in literature, it is true and his stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India, in 1841 in the hope of ending his dissolute habits. The trip provided strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, on returning to the taverns of Paris, he began to compose some of the poems of Les Fleurs du Mal. At 21, he received an inheritance but squandered much of it within a few years
Charles Baudelaire
–
Charles Baudelaire by
Étienne Carjat, 1863
Charles Baudelaire
–
Portrait of Baudelaire, painted in 1844 by Emile Deroy (1820–1846)
Charles Baudelaire
–
The first edition of
Les Fleurs du mal with author's notes
Charles Baudelaire
–
Illustration cover for Les Épaves, by Baudelaire's friend
Félicien Rops
13.
Poetry
–
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
Poetry
–
Aristotle
Poetry
–
Literature
Poetry
–
John Keats
Poetry
–
Archibald MacLeish
14.
Arts
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The arts represent an outlet of expression that is usually influenced by culture in society and which in turn helps to change culture. As such, the arts are a manifestation of peoples internal creative impulse. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance or artwork with the written word, from prehistoric cave paintings to modern day films, art serves as a vessel for storytelling and conveying humankinds relationship with its environment. A debate exists in the arts and video game cultures over whether video games can be counted as an art form. In its most basic definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessible medium so that anyone can view. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. If this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is good or has value depends on those who access and rate it and this public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines the arts as painting, sculpture, music, theater, literature, etc. considered as a group of activities done by people with skill, and the study and application of the arts to the human environment. In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the same word, thus, there was no distinction between the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration of the form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty. Ancient Roman art depicted gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic distinguishing features, in Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dominance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. Eastern art has worked in a style akin to Western medieval art, namely a concentration on surface patterning. A characteristic of this style is that the colour is often defined by an outline. This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet, religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. The Artes Mechanicae were practised and developed in guild environments, the modern distinction between artistic and non-artistic skills did not develop until the Renaissance. In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with or as a subset of the humanities, some subjects in the humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, philosophy, and/or logic. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a variety of tools. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colour pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers
Arts
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Hans Rottenhammer, Allegory of the Arts (second half of the 16th century).
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
Arts
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Lawrence Alma-Tadema 's Catullus-at-Lesbia's (1865)
Arts
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The
Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the
Western world.
Arts
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The
Parthenon on top of the
Acropolis,
Athens,
Greece
15.
Poets
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A poet is a person who writes poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others, a poet may simply be a writer of poetry, or may perform their art to an audience. The work of a poet is one of communication, either expressing ideas in a literal sense, such as writing about a specific event or place. Poets have existed since antiquity, in all languages, and have produced works that vary greatly in different cultures. In Ancient Rome, professional poets were generally sponsored by patrons, wealthy supporters including nobility, for instance, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, friend to Caesar Augustus, was an important patron for the Augustan poets, including both Horace and Virgil. Poets held an important position in pre-Islamic Arabic society with the poet or shair filling the role of historian, soothsayer, words in praise of the tribe and lampoons denigrating other tribes seem to have been some of the most popular forms of early poetry. The shair represented an individual tribes prestige and importance in the Arabian peninsula, ukaz, a market town not far from Mecca, would play host to a regular poetry festival where the craft of the shairs would be exhibited. In the High Middle Ages, troubadors were an important class of poets and they lived and travelled in many different places and were looked upon as actors or musicians as much as poets. They were often under patronage, but many travelled extensively, the Renaissance period saw a continuation of patronage of poets by royalty. Many poets, however, had other sources of income, including Italians like Dante Aligheri, Giovanni Boccaccio and Petrarchs works in a pharmacists guild and William Shakespeares work in the theater. In the Romantic period and onwards, many poets were independent writers who made their living through their work and this included poets such as William Wordsworth and Robert Burns. Poets such as Virgil in the Aeneid and John Milton in Paradise Lost invoked the aid of a Muse, Poets of earlier times were often well read and highly educated people while others were to a large extent self-educated. A few poets such as John Gower and John Milton were able to write poetry in more than one language, some Portuguese poets, as Francisco de Sá de Miranda, wrote not only in Portuguese but also in Spanish. Jan Kochanowski wrote in Polish and in Latin, France Prešeren and Karel Hynek Mácha wrote some poems in German, although they were poets of Slovenian, adam Mickiewicz, the greatest poet of Polish language, wrote a Latin ode for emperor Napoleon III. Another example is Jerzy Pietrkiewicz, a Polish poet, when he moved to Great Britain, he ceased to write poetry in Polish, but started writing novel in English. He also translated poetry from English and into English, many universities offer degrees in creative writing though these only came into existence in the 20th century. While these courses are not necessary for a career as a poet, they can be helpful as training, list of poets Bard Lyricist Poet Laureate Prose poetry Expressionism Writer Reginald Gibbons, The Poets Work,29 poets on the origins and practice of their art. ISBN9780226290546 at Google Books Poets Graves
Poets
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Orpheus, the greatest poet of Classical mythology
Poets
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Postmortal fictional portrait of Slovak poet
Janko Kráľ (1822-1876) - an idealized romanticized picture of "how a real poet should look like" in Western culture.
Poets
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The Italian
Giacomo Leopardi, one of the most radical and challenging thinkers of the 19th century.
16.
Homophony
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In music, homophony is a texture in which a primary part is supported by one or more additional strands that flesh out the harmony and often provide rhythmic contrast. This differentiation of roles contrasts with equal-voice polyphony and monophony, historically, homophony and its differentiated roles for parts emerged in tandem with tonality, which gave distinct harmonic functions to the soprano, bass and inner voices. A homophonic texture may be homorhythmic, which means all parts have the same rhythm. Chorale texture is another variant of homophony, initially, in Ancient Greece, homophony indicated music in which a single melody is performed by two or more voices in unison or octaves, i. e. monophony with multiple voices. Homophony as a term first appeared in English with Charles Burney in 1776, the choral arrangement of four voices has since become common in Western music. Homophony began by appearing in sacred music, replacing polyphony and monophony as the dominant form, however, some traditional devices, such as repeated chords, are still used. Jazz and other forms of popular music generally feature homophonic influences. Homophony has appeared in several cultures, perhaps particularly in regions where communal vocal music has been cultivated. When explorer Vasco da Gama landed in West Africa in 1497, singers normally harmonize voices in homophonic parallelism moving in parallel thirds or fourths. This type of model is also, implemented in instrumental music where voices are stacked in thirds or fourths. Homophonic Parallelism is not restricted to thirds and fourths, however all harmonic material adheres to the system the particular tune or song is based on. The use of harmony in sixths is common in areas where a scale system is used. For instance, the Fang people of Gabon use homophony in their music, in eastern Indonesia, two-part harmonies are common, usually in intervals of thirds, fourths or fifths. In melody-dominated homophony, accompanying voices provide chordal support for the lead voice, some popular music today might be considered melody-dominated homophony, voice typically taking on the lead role, while instruments like piano, guitar and bass guitar normally accompany the voice. Monody is similar to melody-dominated homophony in that one becomes the melody
Homophony
–
Melody dominated homophony in
Chopin's Nocturne in E Op. 62 No. 2. The left hand (bass
clef) provides chordal support for the melody played by the right hand (treble clef).
Homophony
–
Homophony in
Tallis' "If ye love me," composed in 1549. The voices move together using the same rhythm, and the relationship between them creates chords: the excerpt begins and ends with an F
major triad. This example can be heard in the listening sample below.
17.
Claude Debussy
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Achille-Claude Debussy, known since the 1890s as Claude-Achille Debussy or Claude Debussy, was a French composer. He and Maurice Ravel were the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music and he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1903. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Debussys music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of nontraditional tonalities. The prominent French literary style of his period was known as Symbolism, Debussy, the oldest of five children, was born Achille-Claude Debussy on 22 August 1862 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France. His father, Manuel-Achille Debussy, owned a shop there, his mother. The family moved to Paris in 1867, but in 1870 Debussys pregnant mother fled with Claude to his aunts home in Cannes to escape the Franco-Prussian War. At the age of seven, he began lessons with an Italian violinist in his early 40s named Jean Cerutti. In 1871 he drew the attention of Marie Mauté de Fleurville, Debussy always believed her, although there is no independent evidence to support her claim. His talents soon became evident, and in 1872, at age ten, Debussy entered the Paris Conservatoire and he also became a lifelong friend of fellow student and distinguished pianist Isidor Philipp. After Debussys death, many pianists sought Philipps advice on playing his works, Debussy was experimental from the outset, favouring dissonances and intervals that were not taught at the Academy. Like Georges Bizet, he was a brilliant pianist and a sight reader. However, Debussy never once won a competition, and his personal opinion on competitions are that it is rather. The rules are taught in places called Conservatories, Art Schools, the contests, preceded by strict training, take place once a year and the umpires of the game are members of the institute —Monsieur Croche. The pieces he played in public at this time included sonata movements by Beethoven, Schumann and Weber,2, a movement from the Piano Concerto No. 1, and the Allegro de concert, during the summers of 1880,1881, and 1882, he accompanied Nadezhda von Meck, the wealthy patroness of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, as she travelled with her family in Europe. Despite von Mecks closeness to Tchaikovsky, the Russian master appears to have had effect on Debussy. In September 1880 she sent his Danse bohémienne for Tchaikovskys perusal, a month later Tchaikovsky wrote back to her, It is a pretty piece. Not a single idea is expressed fully, the form is terribly shriveled, Debussy did not publish the piece, and the manuscript remained in the von Meck family, it was eventually sold to B
Claude Debussy
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Claude Debussy in 1908
Claude Debussy
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Debussy at the
Villa Medici in Rome, 1885, at centre in the white jacket
Claude Debussy
–
Debussy, by
Marcel Baschet, 1884
Claude Debussy
–
Debussy's last home, now 23 Square Avenue Foch, Paris
18.
Afternoon of a Faun (poem)
–
Laprès-midi dun faune is a poem by the French author Stéphane Mallarmé. It is his work and a landmark in the history of symbolism in French literature. Paul Valéry considered it to be the greatest poem in French literature, initial versions of the poem were written between 1865 and 1867, and the final text was published in 1876. It describes the experiences of a faun who has just woken up from his afternoon sleep. Mallarmés poem formed the inspiration for the orchestral work Prélude à laprès-midi dun faune by Claude Debussy, the Debussy and Njinsky works would be of great significance in the development of modernism in the arts. The Afternoon of the Faun, translated by Roger Fry, in The Poems of Mallarmé, Chatto and Windus,1936 OCLC1616026 A Faun in the Afternoon, translated by E. H. Blackmore, eine vergleichende Studie zur Kunstanschauung am Beispiel von „LAprès-midi dun Faune“. Dr. Kovac, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-8300-1685-9, the poem in French on wikisource English translation by A. S. Kline
Afternoon of a Faun (poem)
–
Stéphane Mallarmé as a faun, cover of the literary magazine Les hommes d'aujourd'hui, 1887
Afternoon of a Faun (poem)
–
Frontispiece for "L'après-midi d'un faune", drawing by
Édouard Manet.
19.
Maurice Ravel
–
Joseph Maurice Ravel was a French composer, pianist and conductor. He is often associated with impressionism along with his elder contemporary Claude Debussy, in the 1920s and 1930s Ravel was internationally regarded as Frances greatest living composer. After leaving the conservatoire Ravel found his own way as a composer, developing a style of great clarity, incorporating elements of baroque, neoclassicism and, in his later works, jazz. He liked to experiment with form, as in his best-known work, Boléro. He made some arrangements of other composers music, of which his 1922 version of Mussorgskys Pictures at an Exhibition is the best known. As a slow and painstaking worker, Ravel composed fewer pieces than many of his contemporaries. Among his works to enter the repertoire are pieces for piano, chamber music, many of his works exist in two versions, a first, piano score and a later orchestration. Some of his music, such as Gaspard de la nuit, is exceptionally difficult to play. Ravel was among the first composers to recognise the potential of recording to bring their music to a wider public, from the 1920s, despite limited technique as a pianist or conductor, he took part in recordings of several of his works, others were made under his supervision. Ravel was born in the Basque town of Ciboure, France and his father, Pierre-Joseph Ravel, was an educated and successful engineer, inventor and manufacturer, born in Versoix near the Franco-Swiss border. His mother, Marie, née Delouart, was Basque but had grown up in Madrid, in 19th-century terms, Joseph had married beneath his status – Marie was illegitimate and barely literate – but the marriage was a happy one. Both Ravels parents were Roman Catholics, Marie was also something of a free-thinker, a trait inherited by her elder son and he was baptised in the Ciboure parish church six days after he was born. The family moved to Paris three months later, and there a younger son, Édouard, was born and he was close to his father, whom he eventually followed into the engineering profession. Maurice was particularly devoted to their mother, her Basque-Spanish heritage was an influence on his life. Among his earliest memories were folk songs she sang to him, the household was not rich, but the family was comfortable, and the two boys had happy childhoods. Ravel senior delighted in taking his sons to factories to see the latest mechanical devices, in later life, Ravel recalled, Throughout my childhood I was sensitive to music. My father, much better educated in art than most amateurs are, knew how to develop my taste. There is no record that Ravel received any formal schooling in his early years
Maurice Ravel
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Ravel in 1925
Maurice Ravel
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Joseph Ravel (1875), Marie Ravel (1870) and Maurice Ravel aged four (1879)
Maurice Ravel
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Piano class of
Charles de Bériot in 1895, with Ravel on the left
Maurice Ravel
–
Gabriel Fauré, Ravel's teacher and supporter
20.
Darius Milhaud
–
Darius Milhaud was a French composer, conductor, and teacher. He was a member of Les Six—also known as The Group of Six—and one of the most prolific composers of the 20th century and his compositions are influenced by jazz and Brazilian music and make extensive use of polytonality. Milhaud is considered one of the key modernist composers, born in Marseille to a Jewish family from Aix-en-Provence, Milhaud began as a violinist, later turning to composition instead. Milhaud studied in Paris at the Paris Conservatory where he met his fellow group members Arthur Honegger and he studied composition under Charles Widor and harmony and counterpoint with André Gedalge. He also studied privately with Vincent dIndy, while in Brazil, they collaborated on a ballet, LHomme et son désir. On his return to France, Milhaud composed works influenced by the Brazilian popular music he had heard, including compositions of Brazilian pianist, Le bœuf sur le toit includes melodies by Nazareth and other popular Brazilian composers of the time, and evokes the sounds of Carnaval. The recurring theme is, in fact, a Carnaval tune by the name of The Bull on the Roof and he also produced Saudades do Brasil, a suite of twelve dances evoking twelve neighborhoods in Rio. Shortly after the piano version appeared, he orchestrated the suite. On a trip to the United States in 1922, Darius Milhaud heard authentic jazz for the first time, on the streets of Harlem, which left a great impact on his musical outlook. The following year, he completed his composition La création du monde, using ideas and idioms from jazz, in 1925, Milhaud married his cousin, Madeleine, an actress and reciter. In 1930 she gave birth to a son, the painter and sculptor Daniel Milhaud, the invasion of France by Nazi Germany forced the Milhauds to leave France in 1940 and emigrate to the United States. He secured a teaching post at Mills College in Oakland, California, where he composed the opera Bolivar and collaborated with Henri Temianka, the following year, these same pieces were performed at the Aspen Music Festival in Colorado, by the Paganini and Juilliard String Quartets. The jazz pianist Dave Brubeck became one of Milhauds most famous students when Brubeck furthered his studies at Mills College in the late 1940s. My older brother Howard was his assistant and had all of his classes. Brubeck named his first son Darius, Milhauds former students also include popular songwriter Burt Bacharach. Milhaud told Bacharach, Dont be afraid of writing something people can remember, Dont ever feel discomfited by a melody. Milhaud was an extremely rapid creator, for whom the art of writing music seemed almost as natural as breathing and his most popular works include Le bœuf sur le toit, La création du monde, Scaramouche, and Saudades do Brasil. His autobiography is titled Notes sans musique, later revised as Ma vie heureuse, from 1947 to 1971, he taught alternate years at Mills and the Paris Conservatoire, until poor health, which caused him to use a wheelchair during his later years, compelled him to retire
Darius Milhaud
–
Darius Milhaud (1926), Paris
21.
Pierre Boulez
–
Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez CBE was a French composer, conductor, writer and organiser of institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of the classical music world. Born in Montbrison in the Loire district of France, the son of an engineer, Boulez studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Olivier Messiaen and he began his professional career in the late 1940s as Music Director of the Renaud-Barrault theatre company in Paris. As a young composer in the 1950s he quickly became a figure in avant-garde music, playing an important role in the development of integral serialism. From the 1970s onwards he pioneered the transformation of instrumental music in real time. In parallel with his activities as a composer Boulez became one of the most prominent conductors of his generation and he made frequent guest appearances with many of the worlds other great orchestras, including the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra. His recorded legacy is extensive and he received 26 Grammy Awards, Pierre Boulez died at his home in Baden-Baden on 5 January 2016, aged 90. Pierre Boulez was born on 26 March 1925, in Montbrison and he was the third of four children, an older sister, Jeanne and younger brother, Roger were preceded by a first child, also called Pierre, who died in infancy. By the age of fifteen he was sceptical about religion, what struck me most was that it was so mechanical, as a child he took piano lessons, played chamber music with local amateurs and sang in the school choir. After completing the first part of his baccalaureate a year early he spent the year of 1940–41 at the Pensionnat St. Louis. The following year he took courses in advanced mathematics at the University of Lyon which his father hoped would prepare him for a career in engineering and he was in Lyon when the Vichy government fell and the Germans took over. It was not a time, and nothing to eat. It was in Lyon that he first heard an orchestra, saw his first operas and met the well-known soprano Ninon Vallin, impressed by his ability, she persuaded Léon to allow his son to apply to the Conservatoire in Lyon, but the selection board rejected him. Boulez was determined to pursue a career in music, the following year, with his sisters support in the face of opposition from his father, he studied the piano and harmony privately with Lionel de Pachmann. Our parents were strong, but finally we were stronger than they, in fact, when he moved to Paris in the autumn of 1943, Léon accompanied him, helped him to find a room and subsidised him until he could earn a living. In late 1943 he entered the preparatory class of Georges Dandelot at the Paris Conservatoire. There he was introduced to Andrée Vaurabourg, wife of the composer Arthur Honegger and he greatly enjoyed working with her and she remembered him as an exceptional student, using his exercises as models in advanced counterpoint until the end of her teaching career. He also studied the piano privately in the hope of entering Jean Doyens class, but he was unsuccessful
Pierre Boulez
–
Pierre Boulez (1968)
Pierre Boulez
–
The 1976 production of
Der Ring des Nibelungen at
Bayreuth Festival, conducted by Boulez
Pierre Boulez
–
Boulez and
Roger Wright, Director of the
BBC Proms returning to the
Royal Albert Hall
Pierre Boulez
–
The
Ensemble InterContemporain after a performance of
Sur Incises in
Barbican Hall, London, April 2015
22.
Man Ray
–
Man Ray was an American visual artist who spent most of his career in France. He was a significant contributor to the Dada and Surrealist movements and he produced major works in a variety of media but considered himself a painter above all. He was best known for his photography, and he was a renowned fashion, Man Ray is also noted for his work with photograms, which he called rayographs in reference to himself. During his career as an artist, Man Ray allowed few details of his life or family background to be known to the public. He even refused to acknowledge that he ever had an other than Man Ray. Man Ray was born as Emmanuel Radnitzky in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and he was the eldest child of Russian Jewish immigrants. He had a brother and two sisters, the youngest born in 1897 shortly after settled in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn. In early 1912, the Radnitzky family changed their surname to Ray, Man Rays brother chose the surname in reaction to the ethnic discrimination and antisemitism prevalent at the time. Emmanuel, who was called Manny as a nickname, changed his first name to Man, Man Rays father worked in a garment factory and ran a small tailoring business out of the family home. He enlisted his children to assist him from an early age, Man Rays mother enjoyed designing the familys clothes and inventing patchwork items from scraps of fabric. Man Ray wished to disassociate himself from his background. Mannequins, flat irons, sewing machines, needles, pins, threads, swatches of fabric, Art historians have noted similarities between Rays collage and painting techniques and styles used for tailoring. Mason Klein, curator of a Man Ray exhibition at the Jewish Museum, titled Alias Man Ray, The Art of Reinvention, Man Ray was the uncle of the photographer Naomi Savage, who learned some of his techniques and incorporated them into her own work. Man Ray displayed artistic and mechanical abilities during childhood and his education at Brooklyns Boys High School from 1904 to 1909 provided him with solid grounding in drafting and other basic art techniques. While he attended school, he educated himself with frequent visits to the art museums. After his graduation, Ray was offered a scholarship to study architecture, Man Rays parents were disappointed by their sons decision to pursue art, but they agreed to rearrange the familys modest living quarters so that Rays room could be his studio. The artist remained in the home over the next four years. During this time, he worked steadily towards becoming a professional painter, Man Ray earned money as a commercial artist and was a technical illustrator at several Manhattan companies
Man Ray
–
Man Ray, photographed at
Gaite-Montparnasse exhibition in Paris by
Carl Van Vechten on June 16, 1934
Man Ray
–
Man Ray, c. 1921-22, Rencontre dans la porte tournante, published on the cover (and page 39) of
Der Sturm, Volume 13, Number 3, 5 March 1922
Man Ray
–
Man Ray, 1919, Seguidilla, airbrushed gouache, pen & ink, pencil, and colored pencil on paperboard, 55.8 x 70.6 cm,
Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC
Man Ray
–
Man Ray, 1920, Three Heads (
Joseph Stella and
Marcel Duchamp, painting bust portrait of Man Ray above Duchamp), gelatin silver print, 20.7 x 15.7 cm,
Museum of Modern Art, New York
23.
Joris-Karl Huysmans
–
Charles-Marie-Georges Huysmans was a French novelist who published his works as J. K. He is most famous for the novel À rebours and he supported himself by a 30-year career in the French civil service. Huysmans work is considered remarkable for its use of the French language, large vocabulary, descriptions, satirical wit. First considered part of Naturalism, he associated with the decadent movement with his publication of À rebours. His work expressed his pessimism, which had led him to the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer. In later years, his novels reflected his study of Catholicism, religious conversion and he discussed the iconography of Christian architecture at length in La cathédrale, set at Chartres and with its cathedral as the focus of the book. Là-bas, En route and La cathédrale are a trilogy that feature Durtal, a character whose spiritual progress is tracked. In the novel follows, LOblat, Durtal becomes an oblate in a monastery, as Huysmans himself was in the Benedictine Abbey at Ligugé, near Poitiers. La cathédrale was his most commercially successful work and its profits enabled Huysmans to retire from his civil service job and live on his royalties. Huysmans was born in Paris in 1848 and his father Godfried Huysmans was Dutch, and a lithographer by trade. His mother Malvina Badin Huysmans had been a schoolmistress, Huysmans father died when he was eight years old. After his mother remarried, Huysmans resented his stepfather, Jules Og. During childhood, Huysmans turned away from the Roman Catholic Church and he was unhappy at school but completed his coursework and earned a baccalauréat. For 32 years, Huysmans worked as a servant for the French Ministry of the Interior. The young Huysmans was called up to fight in the Franco-Prussian War and he used this experience in an early story, Sac au dos. After his retirement from the Ministry in 1898, made possible by the success of his novel, La cathédrale, Huysmans planned to leave Paris. He intended to set up a community of Catholic artists, including Charles-Marie Dulac and he had praised the young painter in La cathédrale. Dulac died a few months before Huysmans completed his arrangements for the move to Ligugé, in addition to his novels, Huysmans was known for his art criticism in LArt moderne and Certains
Joris-Karl Huysmans
–
Joris-Karl Huysmans
Joris-Karl Huysmans
–
Huysmans' grave.
24.
Roland Barthes
–
Roland Gérard Barthes was a French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. Roland Barthes was born on 12 November 1915 in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy and his father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, and his aunt and grandmother raised him in the village of Urt, when Barthes was eleven, his family moved to Paris, though his attachment to his provincial roots would remain strong throughout his life. Barthes showed great promise as a student and spent the period from 1935 to 1939 at the Sorbonne and he was plagued by ill health throughout this period, suffering from tuberculosis, which often had to be treated in the isolation of sanatoria. His repeated physical breakdowns disrupted his career, affecting his studies. They also exempted him from service during World War II. His life from 1939 to 1948 was largely spent obtaining a license in grammar and philology, publishing his first papers, taking part in a medical study and he received a diplôme détudes supérieures from the University of Paris in 1941 for his work in Greek tragedy. In 1948, he returned to academic work, gaining numerous short-term positions at institutes in France, Romania. During this time, he contributed to the leftist Parisian paper Combat, out of which grew his first full-length work, in 1952, Barthes settled at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he studied lexicology and sociology. During his seven-year period there, he began to write a series of bi-monthly essays for the magazine Les Lettres Nouvelles. Knowing little English, Barthes taught at Middlebury College in 1957 and befriended the future English translator of much of his work, Richard Howard, that summer in New York City. Barthes spent the early 1960s exploring the fields of semiology and structuralism, chairing various faculty positions around France, many of his works challenged traditional academic views of literary criticism and of renowned figures of literature. By the late 1960s, Barthes had established a reputation for himself and he traveled to the US and Japan, delivering a presentation at Johns Hopkins University. Barthes continued to contribute with Philippe Sollers to the literary magazine Tel Quel. In 1970, Barthes produced what many consider to be his most prodigious work, throughout the 1970s, Barthes continued to develop his literary criticism, he developed new ideals of textuality and novelistic neutrality. In 1971, he served as visiting professor at the University of Geneva, in 1975 he wrote an autobiography titled Roland Barthes and in 1977 he was elected to the chair of Sémiologie Littéraire at the Collège de France. In the same year, his mother, Henriette Barthes, to whom he had been devoted, died, aged 85 and they had lived together for 60 years. The loss of the woman who had raised and cared for him was a blow to Barthes
Roland Barthes
–
Roland Gérard Barthes
25.
Structuralism
–
It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface there are constant laws of abstract culture. Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, in the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism, the structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, as an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, in the 1970s, structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and ahistoricism. The term structuralism is a term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or moment. The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague, in brief, de Saussures structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue and parole and he argued that the sign was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a signifier, the perceived sound/visual image. Because different languages have different words to describe the objects or concepts. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs, as he wrote, in language, there are only differences without positive terms. Blending Freud and de Saussure, the French structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, in this foreword Althusser states the following, Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the structuralist ideology. Despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to structuralism, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the structuralist terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. Our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion and we believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the structuralist ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas that she says are common to the forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole, second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change, fourth, structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning
Structuralism
–
Sub-fields
Structuralism
–
Sociology
26.
Deconstruction
–
Deconstruction is a name commonly associated with philosopher Jacques Derridas critical outlook over the relationship between text and meaning. Derridas approach consists in conducting readings of texts with an ear to what runs counter to the unity or intended sense of a particular text. The purpose is to expose that the object of language and what upon which any text is founded is irreducibly complex, unstable, many debates in continental philosophy surrounding ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, and philosophy of language refer to Derridas observations. Deconstruction also inspired deconstructivism in architecture and remains important within art, music, Jacques Derridas 1967 work Of Grammatology introduced the majority of ideas influential within deconstruction. According to Derrida and taking inspiration from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, language as a system of signs, as a consequence meaning is never present, but rather is deferred to other signs. Derrida refers to the — in this view, mistaken — belief that there is a self-sufficient, a concept then must be understood in the context of its opposite, such as being/nothingness, normal/abnormal, speech/writing, etc. Further, Derrida contends that in a classical philosophical opposition we are not dealing with the coexistence of a vis-a-vis. One of the two terms governs the other, or has the hand, signified over signifier, intelligible over sensible, speech over writing, activity over passivity. The first task of deconstruction would be to find and overturn these oppositions inside a text or a corpus of texts, but the final objective of deconstruction is not to surpass all oppositions, because it is assumed they are structurally necessary to produce sense. They simply cannot be suspended once and for all, the hierarchy of dual oppositions always reestablishes itself. Deconstruction only points to the necessity of an analysis that can make explicit the decisions. To be effective, deconstruction needs to create new terms, not to synthesize the concepts in opposition and this explains why Derrida always proposes new terms in his deconstruction, not as a free play but as a pure necessity of analysis, to better mark the intervals. Derridas original use of the word deconstruction was a translation of Destruktion, heideggers term referred to a process of exploring the categories and concepts that tradition has imposed on a word, and the history behind them. An assertion that texts outlive their authors, and become part of a set of cultural habits equal to, if not surpassing, the importance of authorial intent. A re-valuation of certain classic western dialectics, poetry vs. philosophy, reason vs. revelation, structure vs. creativity, episteme vs. techne, etc. To this end, Derrida follows a line of modern philosophers. However, like Nietzsche, Derrida is not satisfied merely with such an interpretation of Plato. Différance is the observation that the meanings of words come from their synchrony with other words within the language, understanding language according to Derrida required an understanding of both viewpoints of linguistic analysis
Deconstruction
–
Sub-fields
27.
Intertextuality
–
Intertextuality is the shaping of a texts meaning by another text. Intertextual figures include, allusion, quotation, calque, plagiarism, translation, pastiche, Intertextuality is a literary device that creates an interrelationship between texts and generates related understanding in separate works. These references are made to influence the reader and add layers of depth to a text, based on the prior knowledge. Intertextuality is a literary discourse strategy utilised by writers in novels, poetry, theatre, examples of intertextuality are an authors borrowing and transformation of a prior text, and a readers referencing of one text in reading another. Intertextuality does not require citing or referencing punctuation and is mistaken for plagiarism. Intertextuality can be produced in texts using a variety of functions including allusion, quotation, however, intertextuality is not always intentional and can be utilised inadvertently. Intertextuality and intertextual relationships can be separated into three types, obligatory, optional and accidental and these variations depend on two key factors, the intention of the writer, and the significance of the reference. The distinctions between types and those differences between categories are not absolute and exclusive but instead, are manipulated in a way that allows them to co-exist within the same text. Obligatory intertextuality is when the writer deliberately invokes a comparison or association between two texts, without this pre-understanding or success to grasp the link, the readers understanding of the text is regarded as inadequate. Obligatory intertextuality relies on the reading or understanding of a prior hypotext, to understand the specific context and characterisation within Tom Stoppards Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead, one must first be familiar with Shakespeares Hamlet. This understanding of the hypotext Hamlet, gives deeper meaning to the pretext as many of the themes from Rosencrantz. Optional intertextuality has a vital impact on the significance of the hypertext. It is a possible, but not essential, intertextual relationship that if recognized, optional Intertextuality means it is possible to find a connection to multiple texts of a single phrase, or no connection at all. The intent of the writer when using optional intertextuality, is to pay homage to the original writers, however, the reading of this hypotext is not necessary to the understanding of the hypertext. The use of optional intertextuality may be something as simple as parallel characters or plotlines, rowlings Harry Potter series shares many similarities with J. R. R. Tolkiens Lord of the Rings trilogy. They both apply the use of an aging wizard mentor and a key friendship group is formed to assist the protagonist on their arduous quest to defeat a powerful wizard and to destroy a powerful being. Accidental intertextuality is when readers often connect a text with another text, cultural practice or a personal experience, the writer has no intention of making an intertextual reference and it is completely upon the readers own prior knowledge that these connections are made. Often when reading a book or viewing a film a memory will be triggered in the viewers mind
Intertextuality
–
James Joyce 's 1922 novel
Ulysses bears an intertextual relationship to
Homer 's
Odyssey.
28.
Jacques Derrida
–
Jacques Derrida was a French philosopher, born in Algeria. Derrida is best known for developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he discussed in numerous texts and he is one of the major figures associated with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. During his career Derrida published more than 40 books, together with hundreds of essays and he also influenced architecture, music, art, and art criticism. Particularly in his writings, Derrida addressed ethical and political themes in his work. Some critics consider Speech and Phenomena to be his most important work, others cite Of Grammatology, Writing and Difference, and Margins of Philosophy. These writings influenced various activists and political movements and he became a well-known and influential public figure, while his approach to philosophy and the notorious difficulty of his work made him controversial. Derrida was the third of five children and his elder brother Paul Moïse died at less than three months old, the year before Derrida was born, leading him to suspect throughout his life his role as a replacement for his deceased brother. Derrida spent his youth in Algiers and in El-Biar, on the first day of the school year in 1942, French administrators in Algeria — implementing anti-Semitic quotas set by the Vichy government — expelled Derrida from his lycée. He secretly skipped school for a rather than attend the Jewish lycée formed by displaced teachers and students. In this adolescent period, Derrida found in the works of philosophers and writers an instrument of revolt against family and his reading also included Camus and Sartre. In the late 1940s, he attended the Lycée Bugeaud and the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, on his first day at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1952, Derrida met Louis Althusser, with whom he became friends. After visiting the Husserl Archive in Leuven, Belgium, he completed his masters degree in philosophy on Edmund Husserl and he then passed the highly competitive agrégation exam in 1956. Derrida received a grant for studies at Harvard University, and he spent the 1956–57 academic year reading Joyces Ulysses at the Widener Library, in June 1957, he married the psychoanalyst Marguerite Aucouturier in Boston. During the Algerian War of Independence of 1954–1962, Derrida asked to teach children in lieu of military service, teaching French. Following the war, from 1960 to 1964, Derrida taught philosophy at the Sorbonne and his wife, Marguerite, gave birth to their first child, Pierre, in 1963. In 1964, on the recommendation of Louis Althusser and Jean Hyppolite, Derrida got a permanent teaching position at the ENS, in 1965 Derrida began an association with the Tel Quel group of literary and philosophical theorists, which lasted for seven years. Derridas subsequent distance from the Tel Quel group, after 1971, has attributed to his reservations about their embrace of Maoism. At the same colloquium Derrida would meet Jacques Lacan and Paul de Man, a second son, Jean, was born in 1967
Jacques Derrida
–
Jacques Derrida
29.
Julia Kristeva
–
Julia Kristeva is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who has lived in France since the mid-1960s. She is now a professor at the University Paris Diderot, Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural studies and feminism after publishing her first book, Semeiotikè, in 1969. She is prominent in structuralist and poststructuralist thought, Kristeva is also the founder and head of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee. Born in Sliven, Bulgaria to Christian parents, Kristeva is the daughter of a church accountant, Kristeva and her sister attended a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns. Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria, Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and while a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to move to France in December 1965, when she was 24. She continued her education at several French universities, studying under Lucien Goldmann and Roland Barthes, on August 2,1967, Kristeva married the novelist Philippe Sollers, né Philippe Joyaux. Kristeva taught at Columbia University in the early 1970s, and remains a Visiting Professor and she has also published under the married name Julia Joyaux. After joining the Tel Quel group founded by Sollers, Kristeva focused on the politics of language and she trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979. In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism, for example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Lacan. However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense, instead, in this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis. She travelled to China in the 1970s and later wrote About Chinese Women and it is an emotional field, tied to the instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words. It is closely tied to the feminine, and represents the state of the pre-Mirror Stage infant. Upon entering the Mirror Stage, the child learns to distinguish between self and other, and enters the realm of shared meaning, known as the symbolic. This process of separation is known as abjection, whereby the child must reject and move away from the mother in order to enter into the world of language, culture, meaning, and the social. This realm of language is called the symbolic and is contrasted with the semiotic in that it is associated with the masculine, the law, Kristeva departs from Lacan in the idea that even after entering the symbolic, the subject continues to oscillate between the semiotic and the symbolic. Therefore, rather than arriving at an identity, the subject is permanently in process. Because female children continue to identify to some degree with the mother figure and this continued identification with the mother may result in what Kristeva refers to in Black Sun as melancholia, given that female children simultaneously reject and identify with the mother figure. After abjecting the mother, subjects retain an unconscious fascination with the semiotic, desiring to reunite with the mother, slasher films thus provide a way for audience members to safely reenact the process of abjection by vicariously expelling and destroying the mother figure
Julia Kristeva
–
Julia Kristeva in Paris, 2008
Julia Kristeva
30.
Maurice Blanchot
–
Maurice Blanchot was a French writer, philosopher, and literary theorist. His work had a influence on post-structuralist philosophers such as Jacques Derrida. Little was known until recently much of Blanchots life. Blanchot was born in the village of Quain on 22 September 1907, Blanchot studied philosophy at the University of Strasbourg, where he became a close friend of the Lithuanian-born French Jewish phenomenologist, Emmanuel Levinas. He then embarked on a career as a political journalist in Paris, from 1932 to 1940 he was editor of the mainstream, conservative daily the Journal des débats. In December 1940, he met Georges Bataille, who had written strong anti-fascist articles in the thirties, Blanchot worked in Paris during the Nazi occupation. He refused the editorship of the collaborationist Nouvelle Revue Française, for which, as part of an elaborate ploy, in June 1944, Blanchot was almost executed by a Nazi firing squad. After the war Blanchot began working only as a novelist and literary critic, in 1947, Blanchot left Paris for the secluded village of Èze in the south of France, where he spent the next decade of his life. Like Sartre and other French intellectuals of the era, Blanchot avoided the academy as a means of livelihood, importantly, from 1953 to 1968, he published regularly in Nouvelle Revue Française. At the same time, he began a lifestyle of relative isolation, often not seeing close friends for years, part of the reason for his self-imposed isolation was the fact that, for most of his life, Blanchot suffered from poor health. Blanchots political activities after the war shifted to the left, the manifesto was crucial to the intellectual response to the war. In May 1968, Blanchot once again emerged from personal obscurity and it was his sole public appearance after the war. Yet for fifty years he remained a consistent champion of modern literature, during the later years of his life, he repeatedly wrote against the intellectual attraction to fascism, and notably against Heideggers post-war silence over the Holocaust. Blanchot wrote more than thirty works of fiction, literary criticism, in 1983, Blanchot published La Communauté inavouable. This work inspired The Inoperative Community, Jean-Luc Nancys attempt to approach community in a non-religious, non-utilitarian and he died on 20 February 2003 in Le Mesnil-Saint-Denis, Yvelines, France. Blanchots work is not a coherent, all-encompassing theory, since it is a founded on paradox. The thread running through all his writing is the constant engagement with the question of literature, for Blanchot, literature begins at the moment when literature becomes a question. In the everyday use of language, words are the vehicles of ideas, the word flower means flower that refers to flowers in the world
Maurice Blanchot
–
Maurice Blanchot
31.
Jacques Lacan
–
Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses
Jacques Lacan
–
Jacques Lacan
32.
Gallimard
–
Éditions Gallimard is one of the leading French publishers of books. The Guardian has described it as having the best backlist in the world, in 2003 it and its subsidiaries published 1,418 titles. It was founded on 31 May 1911 in Paris by Gaston Gallimard as Les Éditions de la Nouvelle Revue Française and it is currently led by Antoine Gallimard. From its 31 May 1911 founding until June 1919, published one hundred titles including La Jeune Parque by Paul Valéry. The publisher published the volume of In Search of Lost Time, In the Shadow of Young Girls in Flower. During the occupation of France in World War II, Gaston Gallimard was hosted in Carcassonne by poet Joë Bousquet and he returned to Paris on October 1940 to enter discussions with the Nazi German authorities, who wished to control his publishing company. It was agreed that Gaston Gallimard would still control his company if he collaborated with the authorities, Éditions Gallimard had success with its distribution of the Harry Potter series in France, the publisher sold 26 million books across seven volumes. Gallimard acquired Groupe Flammarion from RCS MediaGroup in 2012, in 2010 the company had a turnover of 230 € million, and over 1,000 employees. Éditions Denoël Les Éditions du Mercure de France Nouveaux Loisirs Groupe Flammarion Futuropolis Gallimard Jeunesse Éditions P. O. L
Gallimard
–
Éditions Gallimard
33.
D. J. Waldie
–
D. J. Waldie is an American essayist, memoirist, translator, and editor who also is the former Deputy City Manager of Lakewood, California. Although best known for his memoir Holy Land, A Suburban Memoir, Waldie also is regarded as an observer of Los Angeles history, politics. Nobody sees L. A. with more eloquence than D. J, Waldie, noted Susan Brenneman, Los Angeles Times Deputy Op-Ed Editor, in May 2014. Jade Chang, author of The Wangs vs, the World, said of Holy Land in 2016, “Waldies meditation on suburbia finds the beauty in wonky detail and weaves a wholly unconventional narrative. Id put this book up against the best of Baudrillard and Banham. ”Waldies Holy Land, A Suburban Memoir is his account of growing up in the 1950s in Lakewood, then Californias largest planned suburb. Lakewood was the first of its kind on the west coast and is regarded as a parallel to Levittown, New York, Waldie breaks the text into 316 sections, some no longer than a sentence or two. Some deal with the experiences, both in first and third person narration. These memories concentrate on his Catholic upbringing and the deaths of his parents, Waldie focuses particularly on the three developers who built Lakewood in the early 1950s, devoting long passages to the intricacies of the development process. Other passages consider how suburban places have been viewed by their critics, Holy Land, A Suburban Memoir ultimately becomes a memoir of both a person and a place. Holy Land received generally positive reviews on its publication in 1996, although critics were unimpressed by Waldies fragmentary style. Novelist and memorist Joan Didion described Holy Land as “Infinitely moving and powerful, just dead-on right, and absolutely original. ”Dr. Kevin Starr, historian and author of the series Americans, Holy Land ranks with the best of them. With spare fact, Waldie has managed to present the rise of suburban Southern California in its full complexity, novelist and essayist Geoff Dyer, interviewed by the New York Times Book Review in 2016, was more critical. Number of people recommended D. J. Waldie’s Holy Land, A Suburban Memoir, he said, Holy Land was called one of the 25 most significant books on Southern California architecture and urbanism by Christopher Hawthorne, architecture critic of the Los Angeles Times, in 2012. “Holy Land captivated me when it first came out, It’s no easier to describe now than it was before it became a classic of American autobiography. Waldie’s range is staggering – from intimate, touchingly respectful revelations of family life and spiritual reality to a history of land development. Waldie has written nothing less than the spiritual autobiography of the midcentury American suburban dream and it proves to be a subject worthy of tragedy and of his remarkable elegy, ” wrote Patricia Hampl, novelist, memoirist, and poet in 2008 in Commonweal. “The aesthetic appeal of D. J. Waldie’s Holy Land, what sets off this little book from so many other narratives about the American post-war history of suburbanization is the complexity of its literary shape. … Holy Land presents a series of fragmented observations formally modeled upon the pattern that structures the author’s built environment
D. J. Waldie
–
D. J. Waldie
34.
University of California, Irvine
–
The University of California, Irvine, is a public research university located in Irvine, California, United States, and one of the 10 campuses in the University of California system. UC Irvine offers 80 undergraduate degrees and 98 graduate and professional degrees, UC Irvine became a member of the Association of American Universities in 1996, and is the youngest university to hold membership. UC Irvine set up the first Earth System Science Department in the United States, UCI was one of three new UC campuses established in the 1960s to accommodate growing enrollments across the UC system. A site in Orange County was identified in 1959, and in the year the Irvine Company sold the University of California 1,000 acres of land for one dollar to establish the new campus. President Lyndon B. Johnson dedicated the campus in 1964, the UC Irvine Anteaters compete in 18 mens and womens sports in the NCAA Division I as members of the Big West Conference and the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation. The Anteaters have won 28 national championships in nine different team sports,64 Anteaters have won national championships. One of the new campuses was to be in the Los Angeles area, the location selected was Irvine Ranch, an area of agricultural land bisecting Orange County from north to south. Unlike most other University of California campuses, UCI was not named for the city it was built in, at the time of the universitys founding, the name Irvine is a reference to James Irvine, a landowner who administered the 94, 000-acre Irvine Ranch. In 1960, The Irvine Company sold 1,000 acres of the Irvine Ranch to the University of California for one dollar, the University purchased an additional 510 acres in 1964 for housing and commercial developments. Much of the land that was not purchased by UCI is now held under The Irvine Company, during this time, the University also hired William Pereira and Associates as the Master Planner of the Irvine Ranch area. Pereira intended for the UC Irvine campus to complement the community. Soon after UC Irvine opened in 1965, the City of Irvine became incorporated and established in 1971 and 1975, respectively. The College of Arts, Letters, and Science was composed of twenty majors in five Divisions, Biological Sciences, Fine Arts, Humanities, Physical Sciences, and Social Sciences. However, many of UCIs buildings were still under construction and landscaping was still in progress, with the campus only at 75% completion. By June 25,1966, UCI held its first Commencement with fourteen students, in 1965 the California College of Medicine became part of UC Irvine. In 1976, plans to establish a hospital were set aside, with the university instead purchasing the Orange County Medical Center around 12 miles from UC Irvine. As the second largest employer in Orange County, UCI contributes an annual impact of $5 billion. There are 87 undergraduate degree programs,59 masters and 46 Ph. D. programs, in June 2014, President Barack Obama gave the commencement speech for UC Irvine’s graduating class
University of California, Irvine
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One of two identical UCI signs that face the main campus' western entrance.
University of California, Irvine
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Seal of the University of California, Irvine
University of California, Irvine
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President
Lyndon B. Johnson at the university's groundbreaking ceremony in June 1964
University of California, Irvine
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A UC Irvine alumna shows President Obama how to do the "Rip 'em Eaters" hand sign.
35.
Marcel Broodthaers
–
Marcel Broodthaers was a Belgian poet, filmmaker and artist with a highly literate and often witty approach to creating art works. Broodthaers was born in Brussels, Belgium, where he was associated with the Groupe Surréaliste-revolutionnaire from 1945 and dabbled in journalism, film, and poetry. After spending 20 years in poverty as a poet, at the end of 1963 he decided to become an artist. He performed the act of embedding fifty unsold copies of his book of poems Pense-Bête in plaster. That same year,1964, for his first exhibition, he wrote a preface for the exhibition catalogue, I, too, wondered whether I could not sell something. For some time I had been no good at anything, finally the idea of inventing something insincere crossed my mind and I set to work straightaway. At the end of three months I showed what I had produced to Philippe Edouard Toussaint, the owner of the Galerie St Laurent, but it is art he said and I will willingly exhibit all of it. If I sell something, he takes 30% and it seems these are the usual conditions, some galleries take 75%. Broodthaers made his first film in 1957, and from 1967 he produced over 50 short films in documentary, narrative, Broodthaers later worked principally with assemblies of found objects and collage, often containing written texts. In his Visual Tower, Broodthaers made a circular tower of wood. He filled each story with uniform glass jars, and in every jar he placed an image taken from an illustrated magazine. From 1968 to 1975 Broodthaers produced large-scale environmental pieces that reworked the very notion of the museum and this installation was followed by a further eleven manifestations of the museum, including at the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf for an exhibition in 1970 and at documenta 5 in Kassel in 1972. In 1970 Broodthaers conceived of the Financial Section, which encompassed an attempt to sell the museum on account of bankruptcy, the sale was announced on the cover of the Art Cologne fair catalogue in 1971, but no buyers were found. As part of the Financial Section, the artist also produced an edition of gold ingots stamped with the museums emblem, an eagle. The ingots were sold to raise money for the museum, at a price calculated by doubling the value of gold. In 1975 Broodthaers presented the exhibition L’Angelus de Daumier at the Centre National d’Art Contemporain in Paris, from late 1969, Broodthaers lived mainly in Düsseldorf, Berlin, and finally London. He died of a disease in Cologne, Germany on his 52nd birthday. He is buried at Ixelles Cemetery in Brussels under a tombstone of his own design, in 1980, the exhibition Marcel Broodthaers was mounted by the Tate Gallery, London
Marcel Broodthaers
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Broodthaers' tomb,
Ixelles Cemetery
36.
Quentin Meillassoux
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Quentin Meillassoux is a French philosopher. He teaches at the Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, and is the son of the anthropologist Claude Meillassoux, Meillassoux is a former student of the philosophers Bernard Bourgeois and Alain Badiou. The book was translated into English by philosopher Ray Brassier, Meillassoux is associated with the speculative realism movement. In Meillassouxs view, this is a dishonest maneuver that allows philosophy to sidestep the problem of how to describe the world as it really is prior to all human access and he terms this pre-human reality the ancestral realm. This leads Meillassoux to proclaim that it is necessary that the laws of nature be contingent. The world is a kind of hyper-chaos in which the principle of sufficient reason is abandoned even while the principle of non-contradiction must be retained, for these reasons, Meillassoux rejects Kants so-called Copernican Revolution in philosophy. Since Kant makes the world dependent on the conditions by which humans observe it, several of Meillassouxs articles have appeared in English via the British philosophical journal Collapse, helping to spark interest in his work in the Anglophone world. His unpublished dissertation Linexistence divine is forthcoming in book form, in September 2011, Meillassouxs book on Stéphane Mallarmé was published in France under the title Le nombre et la sirène. Un déchiffrage du Coup de dés de Mallarmé, in this second book, he offers a detailed reading of Mallarmés famous poem Un Coup de Dés Jamais N’Abolira Le Hasard, in which he finds a numerical code at work in the text. Meillassoux clarified and revised some of the views exposed in After Finitude during his lectures at the Free University of Berlin in 2012, books After Finitude, An Essay On The Necessity Of Contingency, trans. Ray Brassier The Number and the Siren, A Decipherment of Mallarmes Coup De Des Science Fiction and Extro-Science Fiction, alyosha Edlebi Articles Potentiality and Virtuality, in Collapse, vol. Subtraction and Contraction, Deleuze, Immanence and Matter and Memory, in Collapse, regard philosophique sur Pierre Perrault, foreword by Jean-Daniel Lafond, Montréal, Éditions Nota bene, coll. Philosophie continentale,2016,210 p. Harman, Graham, Quentin Meillassoux, Philosophy in the Making. Difficult Atheism, Post-Theological Thinking in Alain Badiou, Jean-Luc Nancy, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, paperback, March 2013, hardback,2011. Meillassoux, Après la finitude, Essai sur la nécessité de la contingence, Paris, Seuil,2006 « Deuil à venir, dieu à venir », Critique, janvier-février 2006, « Potentialité et virtualité », Failles 2, Printemps 2006
Quentin Meillassoux
37.
Jeff Clark (designer)
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Jeff Clark is an American poet and book designer. Clark grew up in southern California and he studied at UC Davis and completed a Master of Fine Arts in poetry at the Iowa Writers Workshop. At Davis, Clark drummed for the band Buick, whose album Sweatertongue was released by Lather Records in 1992 and he also drummed for the Popealopes, and is featured on their album Slowest Eye, released by Italys Helter Skelter Records. In 1995, he graduated from the Iowa workshop and moved to San Francisco and he also worked for Wilsted & Taylor, a book design studio in Oakland, California. Clarks first book, The Little Door Slides Back, was a 1996 winner of the National Poetry Series award and it was published by Sun and Moon Press in 1997, and reprinted in 2004 by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. John Yau, writing in Boston Review, said that Clark evoked a fragile, interior world largely lit by the moon, cheap paperbacks, and noir movies, Farrar Straus Giroux also published Clarks second collection, Music and Suicide, which received the 2004 James Laughlin Award. But if this erotic ambition is one aspect of Clarks untimeliness. In 2000, German artist Cosima von Bonin created an installation entitled The Little Door Slides Back for the Kunstverein Braunschweig, also in 2000, Z Press published Sun On 6, which was printed by Leslie Miller at The Grenfell Press. In addition to Clarks poem, it contains Jasper Johns first linocut, in June 2006, Clark and Geoffrey G. OBrien released 2A, an experimental collaboration in poetry. In 2009, Turtle Point Press published Ruins, a limited edition book that Clark wrote, illustrated, Clarks book design studio, Quemadura, is based in Ypsilanti, Michigan. He also designs the covers for Two Lines, the journal from the Center for the Art of Translation. Publishers Weekly piece on Jeff Clark Quemadura Buick at last. fm Popealopes at last. fm Third and final issue of Faucheuse Ruins at Turtle Point Press
Jeff Clark (designer)
–
Jeff Clark, from an ambrotype by Filipe da Veiga Ventura Alves and Rute de Carvalho Magalhães, 2012
38.
French literature
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This article is a general introduction to French literature. For detailed information on French literature in specific periods, see the separate historical articles in the template to the right. Literature written in French language, by citizens of nations such as Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, Morocco. As of 2006, French writers have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, France itself ranks first in the list of Nobel Prizes in literature by country. French literature has been for French people an object of pride for centuries. The French language is a dialect derived from Latin and heavily influenced principally by Celtic. Today, French schools emphasize the study of novels, theater, the literary arts are heavily sponsored by the state and literary prizes are major news. The Académie française and the Institut de France are important linguistic and artistic institutions in France, Literature matters deeply to the people of France and plays an important role in their sense of identity. As of 2006, French literary people have been awarded more Nobel Prizes in Literature than novelists, poets and essayists of any other country, a writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honorable form. For most of the 20th century, French authors had more Literature Nobel Prizes than those of any other nation. M. G, le Clézio 2014 – Patrick Modiano Grand Prix de Littérature Policière – created in 1948, for crime and detective fiction. Grand Prix du roman de lAcadémie française – created 1918, Prix Décembre – created in 1989. Prix Femina – created 1904, decided each year by an exclusively female jury, Prix Goncourt – created 1903, given to the author of the best and most imaginative prose work of the year. Prix Goncourt des Lycéens – created in 1987, Prix Littéraire Valery Larbaud – created in 1957. Prix Médicis – created 1958, awarded to an author whose fame does not yet match their talent, Prix Renaudot – created in 1926. Prix Tour-Apollo Award – 1972–1990, given to the best science fiction published in French during the preceding year. Prix des Deux Magots – created in 1933, a short history of French literature Burgwinkle, William, Nicholas Hammond, and Emma Wilson, eds. The Cambridge history of French literature Cobb, Richard, Promenades, an appreciation of modern French literature Harvey, Paul. The Oxford companion to French literature Denis Hollier, ed, a New History of French Literature, Harvard University Press,1989,1150 pp. France, Peter
French literature
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Samuel Beckett Walk, Paris (France). Nobel Prize 1969.
French literature
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Seminar with Claude Simon, Cerisy (France). Nobel Prize 1985.
39.
Medieval French literature
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Medieval French literature is, for the purpose of this article, literature written in Oïl languages during the period from the eleventh century to the end of the fifteenth century. For historical background, see History of France, France in the Middle Ages or Middle Ages, for other national literary traditions, see Medieval literature. The language in southern France is known as langue doc or the Occitan language family, also known under the name of one of iys dialects, the Western peninsula of Brittany spoke Breton, a Celtic language. Catalan was spoken in the South, and Germanic languages and Franco-Provençal were spoken in the East, the various dialects of Old French developed into what are recognised as regional languages today. Languages which developed from dialects of Old French include Bourguignon, Champenois, Franc-Comtois, Francien, Gallo, Lorrain, Norman, Anglo-Norman, Picard, Poitevin, Saintongeais and Walloon. From 1340 to the beginning of the century, a generalized French language became clearly distinguished from the other competing Oïl languages. This is referred to as Middle French, the vast majority of literary production in Old French is in verse, the development of prose as a literary form was a late phenomenon. The French language does not have a significant stress accent or long and this means that the French metric line is not determined by the number of beats, but by the number of syllables. The most common lengths are the ten-syllable line, the eight-syllable line. Verses could be combined in a variety of ways, blocks of assonanced lines are called laisses, the choice of verse form was generally dictated by the genre. The Old French epics are written in ten-syllable assonanced laisses. The earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, the first literary works written in Old French were saints lives. The Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the half of the ninth century, is generally accepted as the first such text. It is a poem that recounts the martyrdom of a young girl. The best known of the early Old French saints lives is the Vie de Saint Alexis, the life of Saint Alexis, a translation/rewriting of a Latin legend. Saint Alexis fled from his familys home in Rome on his wedding night and dwelled as a hermit in Syria until a mystical voice began telling people of his holiness. In order to avoid the earthly honor that came with such fame, he left Syria and was back to Rome. He was only identified later when the pope read his name in a letter held in the saints hand
Medieval French literature
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Miniature from a manuscript of the Roman de la Rose (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Douce 195), folio 1r, portrait of Guillaume de Lorris.
40.
17th-century French literature
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In reality, 17th-century French literature encompasses far more than just the classicist masterpieces of Jean Racine and Madame de La Fayette. In Renaissance France, literature was largely the product of encyclopaedic humanism, a new conception of nobility, modelled on the Italian Renaissance courts and their concept of the perfect courtier, was beginning to evolve through French literature. In the mid-17th century, there were an estimated 2,200 authors in France, under Cardinal Richelieu, patronage of the arts and literary academies increasingly came under the control of the monarchy. Henry IVs court was considered by contemporaries a rude one, lacking the Italianate sophistication of the court of the Valois kings, the court also lacked a queen, who traditionally served as a focus of a nations authors and poets. Henrys literary tastes were largely limited to the chivalric novel Amadis of Gaul, in the 1620s, the most famous salon was held at the Hôtel de Rambouillet by Madame de Rambouillet, a rival gathering was organized by Madeleine de Scudéry. The word salon first appeared in French in 1664 from the Italian word sala, before 1664, literary gatherings were often called by the name of the room in which they occurred -- cabinet, réduit, alcôve, and ruelle. For instance, the term derives from literary gatherings held in the bedroom. Nobles, lying on their beds, would receive close friends, ruelle refers to the space between a bed and the wall in a bedroom, it became a name for these gatherings, often under the wing of educated women in the first half of the 17th century. In the context of French scholastica, academies were scholarly societies which monitored, fostered, academies first appeared in France during the Renaissance, when Jean-Antoine de Baïf created one devoted to poetry and music, inspired by the academy of Italian Marsilio Ficino. The first half of the 17th century was marked by a growth in private academies. Academies were generally more formal and more focused on criticism and analysis than salons, however, certain salons were closer to the academic spirit. In the mid-17th century, academies gradually came under government control and sponsorship, the first private academy to fall under governmental control was LAcadémie française, which remains the most prestigious governmental academy in France. Founded in 1634 by Cardinal Richelieu, LAcadémie française focuses on the French language, in certain instances, the values of 17th-century nobility played a major part in the literature of the era. Most notable of these values are the aristocratic obsession with glory, the spectacle of power, prestige and luxury found in 17th-century literature may be distasteful or even offensive. The château of Versailles, court ballets, noble portraits, triumphal arches – all of these were representations of glory, the notion of glory was not vanity or boastfulness or hubris, but rather a moral imperative for the aristocracy. Nobles were required to be generous, magnanimous and to great deeds disinterestedly. Ones status in the world demanded appropriate externalisation, nobles indebted themselves to build prestigious urban mansions and to buy clothes, paintings, silverware, dishes and other furnishings befitting their rank. They were also required to show generosity by hosting sumptuous parties, conversely, social parvenus who took on the external trappings of the noble classes were severely criticised, sometimes by legal action
17th-century French literature
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Louis XIV, King of France and Navarre by
Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)
41.
18th-century French literature
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In common with a similar movement in England at the same time, the writers of 18th century France were critical, skeptical and innovative. Their lasting contributions were the ideas of liberty, toleration, humanitarianism, equality, and progress, the 18th century saw the gradual weakening of the absolute monarchy constructed by Louis XIV. France was forced to recognize the power of England and Prussia. The Monarchy finally ended with King Louis XVI, who was unable to understand or control the forces of the French Revolution. The new class began to challenge the cultural and social monopoly of the aristocracy, French cities began to have their own theaters, coffee houses and salons, the Rise of the Third Estate culminated in their political victory in the French Revolution. Faith in science and progress was the force behind the first French Encyclopedia of Denis Diderot. The Protestants achieved legal status in France in 1787, the exchange of ideas with other countries also increased. British ideas were important, particularly such ideas as constitutional monarchy and romanticism. Toward the end of the century, a sober style appeared, aimed at illustrating scenery, work. These writers, and others such as the Abbé Sieyès, one of the authors of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. They came from the upper class or Third Estate, sought a society founded upon talent and merit. Their ideas were influenced by those of John Locke in England. They introduced the values of liberty and equality which became the ideals of the French Republic founded at the end of the century and they defended the freedom of conscience and challenged the role of religious institutions in society. For them, tolerance was a value of society. When the Convention placed the ashes of Voltaire in the Pantheon in Paris, while the philosophes had widely different approaches, they all had as a common objective, both for mankind and for individuals, the ideal of happiness. Some, like Rousseau, dreamed of the happiness of the savage, rapidly disappearing, others, like Voltaire. The philosophes were optimists, and they saw their mission clearly, they did not simply observe, the comedies of Marivaux and of Beaumarchais also played a part in this debate about and diffusion of great ideas. The relaxing of morals under the French Regency brought the return in 1716 of the Comédie-Italienne and his major works include Les Fausses Confidences, le Jeu de lamour et du hasard, and lÎle des esclaves
18th-century French literature
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Voltaire
18th-century French literature
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Rousseau
18th-century French literature
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Louis XV
18th-century French literature
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Marie Antoinette
42.
19th-century French literature
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19th-century French literature concerns the developments in French literature during a dynamic period in French history that saw the rise of Democracy and the fitful end of Monarchy and Empire. French literature enjoyed enormous prestige and success in the 19th century. The first part of the century was dominated by Romanticism, until around the mid-century Realism emerged, in the last half of the century, naturalism, parnassian poetry, and symbolism, among other styles, were often competing tendencies at the same time. Some writers did form into literary groups defined by a name, in other cases, these expressions were merely pejorative terms given by critics to certain writers or have been used by modern literary historians to group writers of divergent projects or methods. Nevertheless, these labels can be useful in describing broad historical developments in the arts and their influence was felt in theatre, poetry, prose fiction. Foreign influences played a big part in this, especially those of Shakespeare, Sir Walter Scott, Byron, Goethe, Le mal du siècle, a sense of loss, disillusion, and aporia, typified by melancholy and lassitude. Romanticism in England and Germany largely predate French romanticism, although there was a kind of pre-romanticism in the works of Senancour and Jean-Jacques Rousseau at the end of the 18th century. French Romanticism took definite form in the works of François-René de Chateaubriand and Benjamin Constant and it found early expression also in the sentimental poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine. The major battles of romanticism in France was in the theater, the dramatic unities of time and place were abolished, tragic and comic elements appeared together and metrical freedom was won. Marked by the plays of Friedrich Schiller, the romantics often chose subjects from historic periods, victor Hugo was the outstanding genius of the Romantic School and its recognized leader. He was prolific alike in poetry, drama, and fiction, all three also wrote novels and short stories, and Musset won a belated success with his plays. Alexandre Dumas, père wrote The Three Musketeers and other novels in an historical setting. Prosper Mérimée and Charles Nodier were masters of shorter fiction, Romanticism is associated with a number of literary salons and groups, the Arsenal, the Cénacle, the salon of Louis Charles Delescluze, the salon of Antoine Deschamps, the salon of Madame de Staël. Romanticism in France defied political affiliation, one finds both liberal, conservative and socialist strains, the expression Realism, when applied to literature of the 19th century, implies the attempt to depict contemporary life and society. The growth of realism is linked to the development of science, history, honoré de Balzac is the most prominent representative of 19th century realism in fiction. His La Comédie humaine, a vast collection of nearly 100 novels, was the most ambitious scheme ever devised by a writer of fiction—nothing less than a contemporary history of his countrymen. Realism also appears in the works of Alexandre Dumas, fils, similar tendencies appeared in the theatrical melodramas of the period and, in an even more lurid and gruesome light, in the Grand Guignol at the end of the century. In addition to melodramas, popular and bourgeois theater in the mid-century turned to realism in the well-made bourgeois farces of Eugène Marin Labiche, from the 1860s on, critics increasingly speak of literary Naturalism
19th-century French literature
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This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2011)
43.
Edgar Allan Poe
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Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and he is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the countrys earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a difficult life. Poe was born in Boston, the child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year, thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but Poe was with them well into young adulthood, tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money, Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at time that his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with the anonymous collection of poems Tamerlane and Other Poems. With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement, however, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the several years working for literary journals and periodicals. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, in Richmond in 1836, he married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845, Poe published his poem The Raven to instant success and his wife died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. For years, he had been planning to produce his own journal The Penn, Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, a number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre. He was born Edgar Poe in Boston on January 19,1809 and he had an elder brother William Henry Leonard Poe, and a younger sister Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather David Poe Sr. had emigrated from Cavan, Ireland to America around the year 1750, Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeares King Lear, a play that the couple were performing in 1809
Edgar Allan Poe
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This plaque in
Boston marks the approximate location where Edgar Poe was born.
Edgar Allan Poe
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1849 "Annie"
daguerreotype of Poe
Edgar Allan Poe
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Poe was first stationed at Boston's
Fort Independence while in the army.
Edgar Allan Poe
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In 1835, Poe, then 26, married his 13-year-old cousin,
Virginia Clemm. They were married for eleven years until her early death, which may have inspired some of his writing.
44.
The Raven
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The Raven is a narrative poem by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. First published in January 1845, the poem is noted for its musicality, stylized language. It tells of a talking ravens mysterious visit to a distraught lover, the lover, often identified as being a student, is lamenting the loss of his love, Lenore. Sitting on a bust of Pallas, the raven seems to further instigate his distress with its constant repetition of the word Nevermore, the poem makes use of a number of folk, mythological, religious, and classical references. The poem was inspired in part by a raven in the novel Barnaby Rudge. Poe borrows the complex rhythm and meter of Elizabeth Barretts poem Lady Geraldines Courtship, the Raven was first attributed to Poe in print in the New York Evening Mirror on January 29,1845. Its publication made Poe widely popular in his lifetime, although it did not bring him financial success. The poem was reprinted, parodied, and illustrated. Critical opinion is divided as to the literary status. The Raven follows an unnamed narrator on a night in December who sits reading forgotten lore by a dying fire as a way to forget the death of his beloved Lenore. A tapping at chamber door reveals nothing, but excites his soul to burning, the tapping is repeated, slightly louder, and he realizes it is coming from his window. When he goes to investigate, a raven flutters into his chamber, paying no attention to the man, the raven perches on a bust of Pallas above the door. Amused by the ravens comically serious disposition, the man asks that the bird tell him its name, the ravens only answer is Nevermore. The narrator is surprised that the raven can talk, though at this point it has nothing further. The narrator remarks to himself that his friend the raven will soon fly out of his life, as if answering, the raven responds again with Nevermore. The narrator reasons that the learned the word Nevermore from some unhappy master. Even so, the narrator pulls his chair directly in front of the raven and he thinks for a moment in silence, and his mind wanders back to his lost Lenore. He thinks the air grows denser and feels the presence of angels, the bird again replies in the negative, suggesting that he can never be free of his memories
The Raven
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"The Raven" depicts a mysterious raven's midnight visit to a mourning narrator, as illustrated by
John Tenniel (1858).
The Raven
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"Not the least obeisance made he", as illustrated by
Gustave Doré (1884)
The Raven
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The raven perches on a bust of
Pallas Athena, a symbol of wisdom meant to imply the narrator is a scholar. Illustration by
Édouard Manet for
Stéphane Mallarmé 's translation, Le Corbeau (1875).
The Raven
–
The Raven and Other Poems,
Wiley and Putnam, New York, 1845.
45.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
46.
Alain Badiou
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Badiou has written about the concepts of being, truth, event and the subject in a way that, he claims, is neither postmodern nor simply a repetition of modernity. Badiou has been involved in a number of organisations. Badiou argues for resurrecting the idea of communism, Badiou is the son of mathematician and member of the Resistance in France during World War II Raymond Badiou. He was a student at the Lycée Louis-Le-Grand and then the École Normale Supérieure, in 1960, he wrote his diplôme détudes supérieures on Spinoza for Georges Canguilhem. Badiou was politically active early on, and was one of the founding members of the Unified Socialist Party. The PSU was particularly active in the struggle for the decolonization of Algeria and he wrote his first novel, Almagestes, in 1964. In 1967 he joined a group organized by Louis Althusser, became increasingly influenced by Jacques Lacan. By then he already had a grounding in mathematics and logic. The student uprisings of May 1968 reinforced Badious commitment to the far Left, to quote Badiou himself, the UCFml is the Maoist organization established in late 1969 by Natacha Michel, Sylvain Lazarus, myself and a fair number of young people. During this time, Badiou joined the faculty of the newly founded University of Paris VIII/Vincennes-Saint Denis which was a bastion of counter-cultural thought, nonetheless, Badiou has never renounced Althusser or Lacan, and sympathetic references to Marxism and psychoanalysis are not uncommon in his more recent works. He took up his current position at the ENS in 1999 and he is also associated with a number of other institutions, such as the Collège International de Philosophie. He was a member of LOrganisation Politique which, as mentioned above and this organization disbanded in 2007, according to the French Wikipedia article. In 2002, he was a co-founder of the Centre International dEtude de la Philosophie Française Contemporaine, alongside Yves Duroux, Badiou has also enjoyed success as a dramatist with plays such as Ahmed le Subtil. In the last decade, a number of Badious works have been translated into English, such as Ethics, Deleuze, Manifesto for Philosophy, Metapolitics. Short pieces by Badiou have likewise appeared in American and English periodicals, such as Lacanian Ink, New Left Review, Radical Philosophy, Cosmos and History and Parrhesia. Unusually for a contemporary European philosopher his work is increasingly being taken up by militants in countries like India, in 2005–6 Badiou got into a fierce controversy within the confines of Parisian intellectual life. It started in 2005 with the publication of his Circonstances 3 and this book generated a strong response with Badiou being labelled Anti-Semitic. The wrangling became a cause célèbre with articles going back and forth in the French newspaper Le Monde, linguist and Lacanian philosopher Jean-Claude Milner, a past president of Collège international de philosophie, has accused Badiou of Anti-Semitism
Alain Badiou
–
Alain Badiou, 2012
Alain Badiou
–
Drawing from 18 November 2006 "Truth procedure in politics" lecture
47.
Charlotte Mandell
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Charlotte Mandell is an American literary translator. Charlotte Mandell was born in Hartford, Connecticut in 1968, the child of two academics and she was educated at Boston Latin High School, Université de Paris III, and Bard College, where she studied French literature and film theory. She is married to the poet Robert Kelly, maurice Blanchot, The Work of Fire. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,1995, antoine de Baecque, The Body Politic, Corporeal Metaphor in Revolutionary France, 1770-1800. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,1997, palo Alto, Stanford University Press,2001. Antoine de Baecque, Glory and Terror, Seven Deaths under the French Revolution, maurice Blanchot, The Book to Come. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,2003, jean Genet, Fragments of the Artwork. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,2003, abdelwahab Meddeb, The Malady of Islam. Bernard-Henri Lévy, War, Evil, and the End of History, jacques Rancière, The Flesh of Words. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,2004, sima Vaisman, A Jewish Doctor in Auschwitz. Bernard-Henri Lévy, American Vertigo, Traveling America in the Footsteps of Tocqueville, New York, Fordham University Press,2007. Maurice Blanchot, A Voice from Elsewhere, albany, State University of New York Press,2007. Benoît Duteurtre, The Little Girl and the Cigarette, pierre Bayard, Sherlock Holmes Was Wrong, Reopening the Case of the Hound of the Baskervilles. Jean Paulhan, On Poetry and Politics, champaign, University of Illinois Press,2008. Peter Szendy, Listen, A History of Our Ears, New York, Fordham University Press,2008. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press,2008, honoré de Balzac, The Girl with the Golden Eyes. Abdelwahab Meddeb, Tombeau of Ibn Arabi and White Traverses, with an afterword by Jean-Luc Nancy, New York, Fordham University Press,2009. Jean-Luc Nancy, The Fall of Sleep, New York, Fordham University Press,2009
Charlotte Mandell
–
Charlotte Mandell, photo by Robert Kelly
48.
Malcolm Bowie
–
Malcolm McNaughtan Bowie FBA was a British academic, and Master of Christs College, Cambridge from 2002 to 2006. An acclaimed scholar of French literature, Bowie wrote several books on Marcel Proust, born in Aldeburgh, Suffolk, Bowie attended Woodbridge School, and then studied at the University of Edinburgh where he gained an MA in 1965. He was awarded a DPhil at the University of Sussex in 1970 and his research fields were French literature, psychoanalysis and the relationship between literature and the arts. He taught at the University of East Anglia, Clare College, Cambridge and Queen Mary College, Bowie was elected to the Christs Mastership in 2002, after spending ten years as Marshal Foch Professor of French Literature and Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Before going on to the Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages, University of Oxford, he held the Professorship of French Language, while in London he was the Founding Director of the Institute of Romance Studies, the School of Advanced Study, University of London. In December 2006, he vacated the Mastership because of ill health and his Proust Among The Stars won the 2001 Truman Capote Award for Literary Criticism. Clive Scott, Professor Malcolm Bowie, The Independent 5 Feb 2007, michael Sheringham, Professor Malcolm Bowie, The Guardian 14 Feb 2007 The Times 6 Feb 2007 Professor Malcolm Bowie The Daily Telegraph 5 Feb 2007 Professor Malcolm Bowie
Malcolm Bowie
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Malcolm Bowie
49.
Fredric Jameson
–
Fredric Jameson is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist. He is best known for his analysis of cultural trends. He once described postmodernism as the spatialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism, Jamesons best-known books include Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism, The Political Unconscious, and Marxism and Form. Jameson is currently Knut Schmidt-Nielsen Professor of Comparative Literature and Romance Studies, in 2012, the Modern Language Association gave Jameson its sixth Award for Lifetime Scholarly Achievement. Jameson was born in Cleveland, Ohio and he returned to America the following year to pursue a doctoral degree at Yale University, where he studied under Erich Auerbach. Auerbach would prove to be an influence on Jamesons thought. This was already apparent in the doctoral dissertation, published in 1961 as Sartre. Auerbachs concerns were rooted in the German philological tradition, his works on the history of style analyzed literary form within social history, Jameson would follow in these steps, examining the articulation of poetry, history, philology, and philosophy in the works of Jean-Paul Sartre. Jamesons work focused on the relation between the style of Sartres writings and the political and ethical positions of his existentialist philosophy, the occasional Marxian aspects of Sartres work were glossed over in this book, Jameson would return to them in the following decade. Jamesons dissertation, though it drew on a tradition of European cultural analysis. It nevertheless earned Jameson a position at Harvard University, where he taught during the first half of the 1960s and his interest in Sartre led Jameson to intense study of Marxist literary theory. This position represented a break with more orthodox Marxism-Leninism, which held a view of historical materialism. In some ways Jameson has been concerned, along with other Marxist cultural critics such as Terry Eagleton, to articulate Marxisms relevance in respect to current philosophical and literary trends. In 1969, Jameson co-founded the Marxist Literary Group with a number of his students at the University of California. History came to play a central role in Jamesons interpretation of both the reading and writing of literary texts. The Political Unconscious takes as its not the literary text itself. It emerges as a manifesto for new activity concerning literary narrative, the books argument emphasized history as the ultimate horizon of literary and cultural analysis. It borrowed notions from the structuralist tradition and from Raymond Williamss work in cultural studies, Jamesons readings exploited both the explicit formal and thematic choices of the writer and the unconscious framework guiding these
Fredric Jameson
–
Fredric Jameson
Fredric Jameson
–
The first edition cover of Jameson's Postmodernism and Cultural Theories, tr. Tang Xiaobing (1987,
Shaanxi Normal University Press).
listen); 18 March 1842 – 9 September 1898), whose real name was Étienne Mallarmé, was a French poet and critic. He was a major French symbolist poet, and his work anticipated and inspired several revolutionary artistic schools of the early 20th century, such as Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, and Surrealism..jpg)
(in French)
