1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Christian denomination
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A Christian denomination is a distinct religious body within Christianity, identified by traits such as a name, organisation, leadership and doctrine. Individual bodies, however, may use alternative terms to describe themselves, groups of denominations—often sharing broadly similar beliefs, practices, and historical ties—are sometimes known as branches of Christianity or denominational families. Individual Christian groups vary widely in the degree to which they recognize one another, several groups claim to be the direct and sole authentic successor of the church founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century AD. Others, however, believe in denominationalism, where some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs. Because of this concept, some Christian bodies reject the term denomination to describe themselves, however, the Catholic Church does not view itself as a denomination, but as the original pre-denominational church. This view is rejected by other Christian denominations, Protestant denominations account for approximately 37 percent of Christians worldwide. Together, Catholicism and Protestantism comprise Western Christianity, Western Christian denominations prevail in Western, Northern, Central and Southern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas and Oceania. The Eastern Orthodox Church, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents, is the second-largest Christian organization in the world, unlike the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church is itself a communion of fully independent autocephalous churches that mutually recognize each other to the exclusion of others. The Eastern Orthodox Church, together with Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East, Eastern Christian denominations are represented mostly in Eastern Europe, North Asia, the Middle East and Northeast Africa. Christians have various doctrines about the Church and about how the church corresponds to Christian denominations. Both Catholics and Eastern Orthodox hold that their own organizations faithfully represent the One Holy catholic and Apostolic Church to the exclusion of the other, sixteenth-century Protestants separated from the Catholic Church because of theologies and practices that they considered to be in violation of their own interpretation. But some non-denominational Christians do not follow any particular branch, though regarded as Protestants. Each group uses different terminology to discuss their beliefs and this section will discuss the definitions of several terms used throughout the article, before discussing the beliefs themselves in detail in following sections. A denomination within Christianity can be defined as an autonomous branch of the Christian Church, major synonyms include religious group, sect, Church. Some traditional and evangelical Protestants draw a distinction between membership in the church and fellowship within the local church. Becoming a believer in Christ makes one a member of the universal church, a related concept is denominationalism, the belief that some or all Christian groups are legitimate churches of the same religion regardless of their distinguishing labels, beliefs, and practices. Protestant leaders differ greatly from the views of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, each church makes mutually exclusive claims for itself to be the direct continuation of the Church founded by Jesus Christ, from whom other denominations later broke away. These churches, and a few others, reject denominationalism, Christianity can be taxonomically divided into five main groups, the Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism
3.
Dedication
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Dedication is the act of consecrating an altar, temple, church, or other sacred building. It also refers to the inscription of books or other artifacts when these are addressed or presented to a particular person. This practice, which once was used to gain the patronage, in law, the word is used of the setting apart by a private owner of a road to public use. The Feast of Dedication, today Hanukkah, once also called Feast of the Maccabees, was a Jewish festival observed for eight days from the 25th of Kislev and it was instituted in the year 165 B. C. The significant happenings of the festival were the illumination of houses and synagogues, a custom taken over from the Feast of Tabernacles. J. Wellhausen suggests that the feast was connected with the winter solstice. The Feast of Dedication is also mentioned in John 10,22 where it mentions Jesus being at the Jerusalem Temple during the Feast of Dedication and further notes, the Greek term used in John is the renewals. Josephus refers to the festival in Greek simply as lights, churches under the authority of a bishop are usually dedicated by the bishop in a ceremony that used to be called that of consecration, but is now called that of dedication. For the Catholic Church, the rite of dedication is described in the Caeremoniale Episcoporum, chapters IX-X, and in the Roman Missals Ritual Masses for the Dedication of a Church and an Altar. In the Church of England, a church may only be closed for worship after a legal process. The custom of solemnly dedicating or consecrating buildings as churches or chapels set apart for Christian worship must be almost as old as Christianity itself, when we come to the earlier part of the 4th century allusions to and descriptions of the consecration of churches become plentiful. This service is probably of Jewish origin, all these point to the probability of the Christians deriving their custom from a Jewish origin. Eusebius of Caesarea speaks of the dedication of churches rebuilt after the Diocletian persecution, the use of both holy water and of unction is attributed to St. Columbanus, who died in 615. The manuscripts and printed service-books of the church contain a lengthy. The earliest known pontifical is that of Egbert, Archbishop of York, later pontificals are numerous and somewhat varied. A good idea of the character of the service can be obtained from a skeleton of it as performed in England after the Reformation according to the use of Sarum. The service is taken from an early 15th-century pontifical in the Cambridge University Library as printed by W. Makell in Monumenta ritualia ecclesiae Anglicanae, there is a preliminary office for laying a foundation-stone. On the day of consecration the bishop is to vest in a tent outside the church, then proceed to the door of the church on the outside, there he blesses holy water, twelve lighted candles being placed outside, and twelve inside the church
4.
Stanislaus Kostka
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Stanisław Kostka S. J. was a Polish novice of the Society of Jesus. In the Catholic Church he is venerated as Saint Stanislaus Kostka and he was born at Rostkowo, Przasnysz County, Poland, on 28 October 1550, died at Rome during the night of 14–15 August 1568. He entered the Society of Jesus in Rome on his 17th birthday and he was the second of seven children. His older brother Paweł survived to be present at beatification ceremony of Stanislaus in 1605, at home, the two brothers were taught with firmness, even severity, its results were their piety, modesty, temperance, and submission. On 25 July 1564, they arrived at Vienna with their tutor to attend the Jesuit college that had opened four years before. It is true, added the witness, that this had happened at home to my brother at Easter when he was seated at table with our parents and other persons. Among other practices of devotion he joined while at Vienna the Congregation of St. Barbara, so much piety, however, did not please the older brother Paul, his exasperation led him to treat the innocent Stanislaus with violence. Pauls sole reply was to swear violently at him, meantime the thought of joining the Society of Jesus had already entered his mind. It was six months, however, before he ventured to speak of this to the superiors of the Society. At Vienna they hesitated to receive him, fearing the tempest that would probably be raised by his father against the Society, Stanislaus quickly grasped the situation and formed the plan of applying to the general of the Society at Rome. The distance was five hundred leagues, which had to be made on foot, without equipment, or guide, or any other resources, the prospective dangers and humiliations of such a journey, however, did not deter him. Then he started, exchanging the dress of gentleman for that of a mendicant, by nightfall Paul and the tutor comprehended that Stanislaus had fled as he had threatened. They were seized with an anger, and as the day was ended the fugitive had gained a day over them. It is noticeable that in his testimony Paul gives no explanation of his ill-luck, Stanislaus stayed for a month at Dillingen, where the provincial of that time, the Saint Peter Canisius, put the young aspirants vocation to the test by employing him in the boarding-school. He arrived 25 October 1567 in Rome, as he was greatly exhausted by the journey, the general of the order, Saint Francis Borgia, would not permit him to enter the novitiate of Saint Andrew until several days later. During the ten remaining months of his life, according to the testimony of the master of novices, Father Giulio Fazio, he was a model, notwithstanding his very delicate constitution he did not spare himself the slightest penance. He had such a burning fever his chest that he was obliged to apply cold compresses. On the eve of the feast of Saint Lawrence, Stanislaus felt a mortal weakness made worse by a high fever and he wrote a letter to the Blessed Virgin begging her to call him to the skies there to celebrate with her the glorious anniversary of her Assumption
5.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
6.
Patrick Keely
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Patrick Charles Keely was an Irish-American architect based in Brooklyn, New York, and Providence, Rhode Island. He designed every 19th-century Catholic cathedral in New England, several other church and institutional architects began their careers in his firm. Keely was born in Thurles, County Tipperary, then a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, on August 9,1816, Keely emigrated to the United States, landing at Castle Gardens in Manhattan in 1842, and settling in Brooklyn. He arrived at a time when Catholicism in the United States was expanding from its footholds in Baltimore, New York City. Initially, he worked as a carpenter and builder since there were few trained architects practicing and most structures were erected with the assistance of the client. Common practice held that the builder, whether trained as mason or carpenter, crafted his own plans, for a number of years Keely worked at his trade without attracting attention. During this time, he met the Rev. Sylvester Malone, in 1846 Malone was sent to form a parish near the Brooklyn waterfront in the Williamsburg neighborhood. Together with Keely, he worked out a plan for a Gothic church possessing pointed arches, pinnacles, working as a carpenter, Keely produced designs from which was built the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul was considered an epoch in Catholic building in America, in Brooklyn alone there was a great wave of Catholic settlers for whom churches were urgently needed and Keely was the only one thought of to do the work. Among his work were several cathedrals in the Northeast and many of the substantial parish churches later elevated to cathedral status during the twentieth century. He designed a few churches for Protestant congregations…, Keely died in 1896 after a long illness, while still directing the completion of several churches with his son-in-law, Thomas Houghton. He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery, Brooklyn, under an inauspicious polished granite block embossed KEELY, patrick Charles Keely, Architect, A Record of His Life and Work
7.
Sacred architecture
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Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity, conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, while the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer, the Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols, Sacred and/or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit, meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years, ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns, with the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods, since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture. Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography, the diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism, viharas and stupas, an existing example is at Nalanda. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha, the earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi. In accordance with changes in practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta, the pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia
8.
Polish Cathedral style
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The Polish Cathedral architectural style is a North American genre of Catholic church architecture found throughout the Great Lakes and Middle Atlantic regions as well as in parts of New England. These monumentally grand churches are not necessarily cathedrals, defined as seats of bishops or of their dioceses, Polish Cathedral churches generally have large amounts of ornamentation in the exterior and interior, comparable only to the more famous Churrigueresque or Spanish Baroque style. The decorations used reflect the tastes of the Polish immigrants to regions in both the symbols and statuary of saints prominently displayed throughout. Additionally there is a proclivity towards ornamentation drawn from the Renaissance. These churches exhibit a mixture of traits from numerous past eras characteristic of Europe. Skerrett says Polish churches surpassed other immigrants’ churches in size and their style promoted the immigrants vision of Polish identity. Kantowicz writes in The Archdiocese of Chicago, A Journey of Faith, The preference of the Polish League for Renaissance, stanislaus Kostka in Chicago now serve African-American or Latino constituencies while others have been closed by their Archbishops as no longer economically viable. The churches are major tourist attractions in Chicago, with tours devoted exclusively to them, in May 1980 the Chicago Architecture Foundations ArchiCenter held an exhibit on these treasures titled Chicagos Polish Churches. These ornate temples were built by the working poor in these regions in the era spanning the period from the end of the American Civil War until the end of World War II. These stylistically exaggerated churches were criticized by many of Chicagos Protestant elites as ostentatious in comparison with the style in vogue for Protestant houses of worship. Catholic Church authorities such as John Lancaster Spalding, the first Bishop of Peoria, the need for identity was evident in the unique architecture of the Polish Cathedral Style. It was often associated with the order of the Congregation of the Resurrection, in addition to the architectural stylings of the Renaissance. Both in scale and scope, these edifices were attempts to contradict the marginal status in which the Polish immigrants found themselves, the construction of these churches greatly influenced the development of neighborhoods that surrounded them. Eclecticism Eclecticism in art Jozef Mazur, Polish-American painter and stained-glass artist Tadeusz Żukotyński, Polish Catholic fine art painter and mural artist Sr
9.
Groundbreaking
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Such ceremonies are often attended by dignitaries such as politicians and businessmen. The actual shovel or spade used during the actual groundbreaking is often a special ceremonial shovel meant to be saved for subsequent display, commemorative information may be subsequently engraved on the shovel. In some places, clergy may also provide blessings, particularly if the building is being constructed by a church or religious-affiliated organization. The term groundbreaking, when used as an adjective, may mean being or making something that has never been done, seen, or made before, builders rites Topping out Cornerstone Publicity stunt Ribbon cutting ceremony Media related to Ground-breaking ceremonies at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Building material
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Building material is any material which is used for construction purposes. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic. They provide the make-up of habitats and structures including homes and these trends tend to increase the initial and long term economic, ecological, energy, and social costs of building materials. The initial economic cost of building materials is the purchase price and this is often what governs decision making about what materials to use. Sometimes people take into consideration the energy savings or durability of the materials, for example, an asphalt shingle roof costs less than a metal roof to install, but the metal roof will last longer so the lifetime cost is less per year. Some materials may require more care than others, maintaining costs specific to some materials may also influence the final decision. Risks when considering lifetime cost of a material is if the building is damaged such as by fire or wind, the cost of materials should be taken into consideration to bear the risk to buy combustive materials to enlarge the lifetime. It is said that, if it must be done, it must be done well, pollution costs can be macro and micro. An example of the aspect of pollution is the off-gassing of the building materials in the building or indoor air pollution. Red List building materials are found to be harmful. Also the carbon footprint, the set of greenhouse gas emissions produced in the life of the material. A life-cycle analysis also includes the reuse, recycling, or disposal of construction waste, two concepts in building which account for the ecological economics of building materials are green building and sustainable development. Initial energy costs include the amount of energy consumed to produce, deliver, the long term energy cost is the economic, ecological, and social costs of continuing to produce and deliver energy to the building for its use, maintenance, and eventual removal. The initial embodied energy of a structure is the energy consumed to extract, manufacture, deliver, install, social costs are injury and health of the people producing and transporting the materials and potential health problems of the building occupants if there are problems with the building biology. Aspects of fair trade and labor rights are social costs of building material manufacturing. These were variously named wikiups, lean-tos, and so forth, an extension on the brush building idea is the wattle and daub process in which clay soils or dung, usually cow, are used to fill in and cover a woven brush structure. This gives the more thermal mass and strength. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest building techniques, many older timber frame buildings incorporate wattle and daub as non load bearing walls between the timber frames
11.
Polish language
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Polish is a West Slavic language spoken primarily in Poland and is the native language of the Poles. It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of the West Slavic languages, Polish is the official language of Poland, but it is also used throughout the world by Polish minorities in other countries. It is one of the languages of the European Union. Its written standard is the Polish alphabet, which has 9 additions to the letters of the basic Latin script, Polish is closely related to Kashubian, Silesian, Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian, Czech and Slovak. It is also the second most widely spoken Slavic language, after Russian, in history, Polish is known to be an important language, both diplomatically and academically in Central and Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a language in western parts of Belarus and Ukraine, west and central Lithuania, as well as the northern parts of the Czech Republic. There are 55 million Polish language speakers around the world, Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, the precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish is thought to descend from the unattested Proto-Slavic language, Poland is the most linguistically homogeneous European country, nearly 97% of Polands citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, Polish is the most widely used minority language in Lithuanias Vilnius County and is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries, in the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census were found in three states, Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services offer services available in Polish at all of their machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England, in Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population, There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II. Poles settled in the Recovered Territories in the west and north and this tendency toward a homogeneity also stems from the vertically integrated nature of the authoritarian Polish Peoples Republic. The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still speak standard Polish somewhat differently, first-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty distinguishing regional variations
12.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago
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The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago was established as a diocese in 1843 and elevated to an archdiocese in 1880. It serves the more than 2.3 million Catholics in Cook and Lake counties in Northeastern Illinois, the archdiocese is divided into six vicariates and 31 deaneries. His Eminence Blase Joseph Cupich is the Cardinal, Archbishop of Chicago, and is assisted by six episcopal vicars, the cathedral parish for the archdiocese, Holy Name Cathedral, is in the Near North Side area of the see city for the diocese, Chicago. The Archdiocese of Chicago is the see of the Province of Chicago. Its suffragan dioceses are the other Catholic dioceses in Illinois, Belleville, Joliet, Peoria, Rockford, a French Jesuit missionary, the Rev. Jacques Marquette, SJ first explored the area that is now Chicago in the mid-17th century. On December 4,1674, Father Marquette arrived at the mouth of the Chicago River where he built a cabin to recuperate from his travels and his cabin became the first European settlement in the area now known as Chicago. Marquette published his survey of the new territories and soon more French missionaries, in 1795, the Potawatomi tribe signed the Treaty of Greenville that ceded to the United States a tract of land at the mouth of the Chicago River. There in 1804, Fort Dearborn was erected and protected newly arrived Catholic pioneers, in 1822, Alexander Beaubien became the first person to be baptized in Chicago. Rosati appointed a diocesan priest, the Rev. John Mary Irenaeus Saint Cyr, Saint Cyr celebrated his first Mass in a log cabin owned by the Beaubien family on Lake Street, near Market Street, in 1833. At the cost of four hundred dollars, Father Saint Cyr purchased a plot of land at what is now the intersection of Lake and State Streets and it was dedicated in October 1833. The following year, the Bishop of Vincennes visited Chicago, where he found over 400 Catholics with only one priest to serve them. The bishop asked permission from Bishop Rosati to send Fathers Fischer, Shaefer, Saint Palais, Dupontavice, Saint Cyr was allowed to retire and was replaced by Chicagos first English-speaking priest, the Rev. James Timothy OMeara. Father OMeara moved the church built by Fr, Saint Cyr to what is now the intersection of Wabash Avenue and Madison Street. OMeara left Chicago, Saint Palais demolished the church and replaced it with a new brick structure, the First Plenary Council of Baltimore concluded that the Roman Catholic population of Chicago was growing exponentially and was in dire need of an episcopal see of its own. With the consent of Pope Gregory XVI, the Diocese of Chicago was canonically erected on November 28,1843, in 1844, William Quarter of Ireland was appointed as the first Bishop of Chicago. Upon his arrival, Quarter summoned a synod of 32 Chicago priests to begin the organization of the diocese and this allowed the bishop to pursue large-scale construction of new churches, colleges and universities to serve the needs of Chicagos Roman Catholic faithful. After four years of service as Bishop of Chicago, Bishop Quarter died on April 10,1848, the church lost nearly a million dollars in church property in the Chicago fire of 1871, leading to administrative instability for decades. The southern section of the state of Illinois split from Chicago diocese in 1853, the Quincy diocese was renamed the Diocese of Alton in 1857, and eventually became Diocese of Springfield
13.
West Town, Chicago
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West Town, located in Chicago, in the U. S. state of Illinois, northwest of the Loop, on Chicagos West Side is one of 77 officially designated Chicago community areas. Then, as now, West Town was a collection of distinct neighborhoods. Humboldt Park is also the name of the community area to West Towns west, Logan Square is to the north, Near North Side to the east, Pulaski Park is a neighborhood directly west of Goose Island and east of Wicker Park. The generally accepted boundaries of Pulaski Park are Ashland to the west, the Chicago River and Elston Avenue to the east, the Bloomingdale Line on the north, Pulaski Park derives its name from the historic park and fieldhouse that was designed by Jens Jensen between 1912 and 1914. 1,200 people were displaced, leading to the razing of a number of buildings while others were moved to locations in the neighborhood. The park and fieldhouse were listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 13,1981 and it became an official Chicago Landmark on July 29,2003. Pulaski Park is listed within Polonia Triangle as one of the 11 neighborhoods included in The Labor Trail which chronicles Chicagos history of working class life, the neighborhood is also home to two of Chicagos Polish Cathedrals, St. Stanislaus Kostka and Holy Trinity Polish Mission. Pulaski Park was the area of West Town that served as Chicago Congressman Dan Rostenkowskis base of operations, the family still owns the building opposite St. Stanislaus Kostka church at 1372 Evergreen from which he ran his operations. Although Pulaski Park has declined from its days as part of the citys Polish Downtown. This areas higher population density gave it a more working-class population than Wicker Park, as opposed to other areas of West Town, much of the original housing stock of Pulaski Park has not been torn down for new construction in recent years. Wicker Park is a Chicago neighborhood northwest of the Loop, south of Bucktown, charles and Joel Wicker purchased 80 acres of land along Milwaukee Avenue in 1870 and laid out a subdivision with a mix of lot sizes surrounding a 4-acre park. The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 spurred the first wave of development, before the turn of the twentieth century, Germans and Scandinavians tended to live in the areas north and northwestern sections. Wicker Park became the abode of Chicagos wealthy Northern European immigrants, hoyne was known as Beer Baron Row, as many of Chicagos wealthiest brewers built mansions there. The area around Division, Milwaukee, and Ashland was once known as Kostkaville, the provisional government of Poland met in Wicker Park during World War I. The near Northwest Side is home to many of the most opulent churches in the Archdiocese of Chicago, Polish immigration into the area accelerated during and after World War II when as many as 150,000 Poles are estimated to have arrived between 1939 and 1959 as Displaced Persons. Like the Ukrainians in neighboring Ukrainian Village, they clustered in established ethnic enclaves like this one that offered shops, restaurants, Division Street was referred to as Polish Broadway. Later controversies to commemorate Algren would bring these old wounds back to surface, beginning in the 1960s, Wicker Park began to change radically. Additionally Puerto Ricans and other Latinos displaced by urban renewal in Old Town, in 1960 Latinos comprised less than 1 percent of West Towns population, but by 1970 that number was up to 39 percent
14.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
15.
Poles
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The Poles are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language. The population of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of a population of 38,538,000. Polands population inhabits several historic regions, including Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Kuyavia, Warmia, Masuria, a wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe, the Americas and in Australasia. Today the largest urban concentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomeration of 2.7 million inhabitants, Poland was also for centuries a refuge for many Jews from all over Europe, a large number emigrated in the twentieth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmen were born in Poland, including Israels founder David Ben-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres, the Slavic people have been in the territory of modern Poland for over 1500 years. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century in a lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of the West Slavic nations. After 1945 the so-called autochthonous or aboriginal school of Polish prehistory received official backing in Poland, Polish people are the sixth largest national group in the European Union. Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a number of around 60 million people worldwide. There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone, there are also Polish minorities in the surrounding countries including Germany, and indigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indigenous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova, the term Polonia is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders, officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Brazil, France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century, in the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule. In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New York City, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, the highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II, the number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State, smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo. The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and it is estimated that over half a million Polish people have come to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work throughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom, Ireland. The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to a number of 120,000
16.
Basilica of St. Hyacinth
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It is a prime example of the so-called Polish Cathedral style of churches in both its opulence and grand scale. Along with such monumental religious edifices as St. Mary of the Angels, St. Hedwigs, founded in 1894 by Resurrectionsists from the citys first Polish parish, St. Stanislaus Kostka, St. Hyacinth became the center of Chicagos most well-known Polish Patch, Jackowo. The parish has been tied in with Chicagos Polish immigrants. On June 26,2003, Pope John Paul II granted the designation of minor basilica, on November 30,2003, Cardinal Francis George, O. M. I. Officially proclaimed St. Hyacinth Church a basilica of the Archdiocese of Chicago, neighboring St. Wenceslaus parish was founded in 1912 as a Polish parish to relieve overcrowding at St. Hyacinth parish. The 1999 film Stir of Echoes, was filmed at St. Hyacinth Basilica. The church was designed by the firm of Worthmann and Steinbach who built many of the magnificent Polish Cathedrals in Chicago. The church structure—a red-brick edifice in the Classical Revival style has an interior of Baroque influence. Ground breaking occurred on April 30,1917 and the cornerstone was laid on October 21,1917, completion of the building was delayed for years by financial and construction difficulties, with the first Mass celebrated in the structure not taking place until August 7,1921. Official dedication occurred on October 16,1921 with Archbishop Cardinal George W. Mundelein presiding, St. Hyacinths recognizable three-towered façade is rarely seen in American church architecture as well as the Baroque period that its style is modeled on. The church bells are a product of the McShoe Bell Foundry of Baltimore, also like at St. St. Hyacinths is also home to the masterworks of such renowned painters as Thaddeus von Zukotynski and Mary Stanisia. Beginning in the mid-1990s, and taking almost a decade, the interior was renewed thoroughly, much of the work being performed by Conrad Schmitt Studios. The Stained Glass Windows have been identified as prepared by Meyer Co. of Munich, Georgia, the Churchs organ is a mid-sized Kilgen organ with 34 ranks was likewise installed in the church in 1921. The Stations of the Cross were likely assembled in Austria in the 1830s, a number of statues are found within the basilicas interior. A bas-relief of St. Hyacinth hangs above the altar, as well as full statues of St. Peter. Figures of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Blessed Mother are found at lesser side altars along with a figure of Our Lady of Sorrows as a Pietà in the churchs eastern alcove. The large saucer dome which hangs over the crossing has a gigantic mural covering some 3,000 square feet with over 150 figures, depicting saints, clergy. A large icon of Our Lady of Częstochowa that was brought in from Poland occupies the shrine in the western transept
17.
St. Mary of the Angels (Chicago)
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Saint Mary of the Angels is an historic church of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois. Located at 1790 North Hermitage Avenue in Chicagos Bucktown neighborhood, it is an example of the Polish Cathedral style of churches. Along with St. Stanislaus Kostka, St. Hyacinth Basilica, St. Hedwig, St. Wenceslaus, from 1899 until 1990, the parish was administered by priests of the Congregation of the Resurrection. Since January 1991, it has been administered by the Priestly Society of the Holy Cross and it has been acclaimed as one of the finest specimens of Roman Renaissance architecture in the United States. The imposing brick edifice with its bell towers and magnificent dome was constructed at a cost of $400, 000-a testament to the zeal of Father Gordon. In 1948, in preparation for the parishs Golden Jubilee, John A. Mallin decorated the interior of the church with ornate designs, the W. W. Kimball pipe organ was installed in 1923 at a cost of $23,750. It contains four manuals and 57 ranks that include theater stops which make it a rarity in the Archdiocese of Chicago, the cost of overhauling the organ in 1962 amounted to $15,000. St. Mary of the Angels parish was organized in 1899 by Rev. Vincent Barzynski, CR, pastor of St. Stanislaus Kostka, the parish was founded to serve the large number of Poles who had settled in Bucktown, which was a part of Chicagos Polish Downtown. The archdiocese purchased two city blocks totaling 96 lots at the corner of Hermitage and Cortland for $60,000, one block was subdivided for residences while the other became the site of the parish. The first pastor, Rev. Francis Gordon CR laid the cornerstone of the first building at 1810 North Hermitage Avenue, now used as the school, on July 2,1899. The three story building was designed in the Renaissance style by Henry J. Schlacks and completed at the cost of $65,000. The basement housed meeting rooms, a gymnasium, and an auditorium, the main floor contained twelve classrooms and convent quarters while the second floor held the sanctuary with living quarters for the priests in the attic. The Archbishop led the ceremony and Mayor Carter Harrison Jr. was among the crowd of 20,000 witnesses. On February 15,1900, four Sisters of the Congregation of the Resurrection opened St. Mary of the Angels School with an enrollment of 425 students, in 1905, the new building at 1849 North Hermitage became the home of the novitiate for the sisters order. In 1909, Fr. Gordon began planning a new building at the corner of Hermitage. Although work commenced on September 28,1911, the cornerstone of the church was not laid until August 2,1914. Due to the delays caused by strikes, World War I. In the meantime, the present rectory at 1825 North Wood Street was completed in July 1912, finally, Archbishop George Mundelein dedicated the new St. Mary of the Angels sanctuary May 30,1920
18.
St. Hedwig's Church (Chicago)
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St. Hedwigs Church is a historic parish church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago located in Chicago, Illinois. Constructed in the grand Polish Cathedral style, it is one of the many monumental Polish churches visible from the Kennedy Expressway, the church is located at 2226 North Hoyne Avenue. Founded in 1888 by the Resurrectionist Order who administered St. Stanislaus Kostka, when the police intervened, the protesters threw red pepper into their eyes. The end result was that shots were fired and dozens were injured, the disgruntled anti-Resurrectionists broke off from the parish to form an independent church, which became All Saints Cathedral of the Polish National Catholic Church. Pope John Paul II visited the parish as Bishop of Cracow in 1977, St. Hedwigs is still administered by the Resurrectionists, though it now has a large Latino and Filipino population. The surrounding neighborhood of Bucktown has in recent years become newly prosperous, mass is now celebrated in English, Polish and Spanish. In May 2,1965, three men broke into the church and they stole $400 from the donation boxes and started a fire destroying the sacristy and side altar cause great damage. According to an article published by the Chicago Tribune, the three culprits that were caught eventually pleaded guilty and later were sentenced to prison terms. The church building was completed at a cost of $160,000 in 1901, like many of Chicagos Polish Cathedrals, its Renaissance style recalls the glory days of the Polish Commonwealth in the 15th and 16th centuries. The interior of St. Hedwigs features a series of paintings by Thaddeus von Zukotynski as well as the work of John A. Mallin done for the Parish Jubilee in 1938, the aedicula above the entry is echoed by a pedimented reredos behind the altar. Made of brick and Bedford limestone it has a capacity of 1500. Other artistic treasures in the include the stained glass windows imported from Bavaria. McNamara, Denis R. Heavenly City, The Architectural Tradition of Catholic Chicago, the Spiritual Traveler, Chicago and Illinois, A Guide to Sacred Sites and Peaceful Places. Chicago Churches and Synagogues, An Architectural Pilgrimage, the Archdiocese of Chicago, A Journey of Faith. Media related to St. Hedwigs Church at Wikimedia Commons Congregation of the Resurrections Website PGSA - St. Hedwig Church History Tadeusz Żukotyński, Catholic fine art painter and mural artist Sr
19.
Kennedy Expressway
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The highway is named for the 35th U. S. President, John F. Kennedy, and conforms to the Chicago-area convention of using the term Expressway for an Interstate Highway without tolls. The Interstate 90 portion of the Kennedy is a part of the much longer I-90, the Kennedys official endpoints are the Circle Interchange with Interstate 290 and the Dan Ryan Expressway at the east end, and the OHare Airport terminals at the west end. The Interstate 190 portion of the Kennedy is 3.07 miles long and is meant to serve airport traffic, Interstate 90 picks up the Kennedy destination and runs a further 6.29 miles, before joining with I-94 for the final 8.44 miles. With up to 327,000 vehicles traveling on some portions of the Kennedy daily, the Kennedy and its South Side extension, the Dan Ryan, are the busiest roads in Illinois. The Kennedy was originally constructed along the route of Avondale Avenue, a diagonal street. Until 1978, the Kennedy Expressway was marked as I-94 and Illinois Route 194, I-90 and I-190 replaced IL194, the express portion of the freeway was last reconstructed from 1992 through 1994, when the existing express lanes, which previously were reversed by hand, were modernized. In addition, all aspects of the express lanes system were computerized, at least once a day, however, IDOT crews still examine the express lanes for debris while the lanes are closed. In 2005, the Washington Street bridge over the expressway was reconstructed, the same was done in 2006 for the Monroe Street bridge. This left a portion of each ramp remaining on the expressway, to be removed. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided the funding for the construction between Hubbard Street and the Circle Interchange, commencing in summer 2009. The only remaining short, limited-sight, left-side suicide ramp entrance is from Lake Street to the eastbound expressway, as part of the project, eastbound traffic patterns were adjusted. For example, the changes increased the taper for the Randolph Street entrance headed eastbound from 160 to 583 feet, in the westbound direction, the exit ramp to Monroe Street was permanently removed. In 2015, the American Highway Users Alliance named the 12 miles of the Kennedy between the Circle Interchange and Edens junction the worst traffic bottleneck in the country. The Blue Line operates in the median of the Kennedy Expressway for about 10 miles from OHare International Airport to just south of Addison Street and this had been done previously in the early 1950s within the medians of the Eisenhower Expressway, and for the Dan Ryan Expressway in 1969. The decision proved to be wise, as the line is heavily traveled by commuters and travelers during the rush hour. The second distinct features of the Kennedy Expressway are its reversible express lanes where I-94 merges into I-90, the reversible lanes lie in the median of the highway from the Kennedy Expressway/Edens Expressway junction until just north of the Loop, a distance of about eight miles. These reversible lanes allow two lanes of traffic to flow towards or away from the city, depending on the time of the day, the lanes are controlled by computers and verified by humans at a separate control center. Steel mesh barriers and breakaway gates prevent traffic from entering oncoming lanes, on January 25,2014, a drunk driver broke through the safety gates and drove in the express lanes in the wrong direction, but was stopped by a snow plow, no injuries were reported
20.
Poles in Chicago
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Poles in Chicago are made up of both immigrant Poles and Americans of Polish heritage living in Chicago, Illinois. They are a part of worldwide Polonia, the term for the Polish Diaspora outside of Poland. Poles in Chicago have contributed to the economic, social and cultural well-being of Chicago from its very beginning, Poles have been a part of the history of Chicago since 1837, when Captain Joseph Napieralski, along with other veterans of the November Uprising first set foot there. As of the 2000 U. S. census, Poles in Chicago are the largest European American ethnic group in the city, making up 7. 3% of the total population. German Americans made up 7. 3% of the population, and numbered at 199,789, Irish Americans also made up 7. 3% of the population, Polish Americans now made up 6. 7% of Chicagos population, and numbered at 182,064. Polish is the third largest speaking language in Chicago behind English and Spanish, a number of Poles contributed to the history of the city together with Captain Napieralski, a veteran of Cross Mountain during the November Uprising. Along with him came other early Polish settlers such as Major Louis Chlopicki, the nephew of General Józef Chłopicki who had been the leader of the same insurrection. Not to mention certain A. Panakaske who resided in the ward in the 1830s as well as J. Zoliski who lived in the sixth ward with records of both men having cast their ballots for William B. Ogden in the 1837 mayoral race in Chicago, according to Dominic Pacyga, most of the Poles who first came to Chicago settled in five distinct parts of the city. The first of those Polish Patches, as they were referred to, was located on the Near Northwest Side. Centering on the Polish Triangle at the intersection of Milwaukee and Ashland avenues with Division street it became known as Polish Downtown. The second large settlement, developed in Pilsen on the west side near 18th street, Poles established two separate enclaves in the Stock Yard district, one in Bridgeport, the other in the Back of the Yards near 47th street and Ashland avenue. Another Polish neighborhood developed in the area around the massive Illinois Steel works in South Chicago in the area referred to as the Bush. In Polish the ending owo in e. g. Bronislawowo functions similar to English ville in Johnsville or ton in Charleston, when added to a name of a saint, it indicates a Polish sounding town or a village. This is a phenomenon, not present in educated Polish, however. As in Poland, the majority of Polish immigrants who settled in Chicago were culturally very devout Roman Catholics. Though almost all of the Polish Americans remained loyal to the Catholic Church after immigrating, Polish parishioners founded the church to assert independence from the Catholic Church in America. The split was in rebellion from the leadership, then dominated by Irish and German clergy
21.
Great Chicago Fire
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The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned from Sunday, October 8, to early Tuesday, October 10,1871. The fire killed up to 300 people, destroyed roughly 3.3 square miles of Chicago, Illinois, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless. The fire started at about 9,00 p. m. on October 8, the shed next to the barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire, but city officials never determined the exact cause of the blaze. There has, however, been much speculation over the years, the most popular tale blames Mrs. OLearys cow, who allegedly knocked over a lantern, others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern. Still other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to fires in the Midwest that day. The fires spread was aided by the use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called balloon frame. More than two thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood, with most of the houses, all of the citys sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. In 1871, the Chicago Fire Department had 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam engines to protect the entire city. The initial response by the department was quick, but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer. These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a conflagration, when firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing towards the central business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River, all along the river, however, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, and barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat, around 11,30 p. m. flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works. With the fire across the river and moving rapidly towards the heart of the city, about this time, Mayor Roswell B. Mason sent messages to nearby towns asking for help. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated, at 2,30 a. m. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed, sending the great bell crashing down. Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile away, as more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire’s spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a fire whirl. As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and these fire whirls are likely what drove flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car carrying kerosene. The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the north side
22.
Irish people
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The Irish people are a nation and ethnic group native to the island of Ireland, who share a common Irish ancestry, identity and culture. Ireland has been inhabited for about 9,000 years according to archaeological studies, for most of Irelands recorded history, the Irish have been primarily a Gaelic people. Today, Ireland is made up of the Republic of Ireland, the people of Northern Ireland hold various national identities, including Irish, Northern Irish, British, or some combination thereof. The Irish have their own customs, language, music, dance, sports, cuisine, although Irish was their main language in the past, today the huge majority of Irish people speak English as their first language. Historically, the Irish nation was made up of kin groups or clans, there have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After Irelands conversion to Christianity, Irish missionaries and scholars exerted great influence on Western Europe, the 6th-century Irish monk and missionary Columbanus is regarded as one of the fathers of Europe, followed by saints Cillian and Fergal. The scientist Robert Boyle is considered the father of chemistry, famous Irish writers include Oscar Wilde, W. B. Yeats, George Bernard Shaw, Bram Stoker and James Joyce, notable Irish explorers include Brendan the Navigator, Robert McClure, Ernest Shackleton and Tom Crean. By some accounts, the first European child born in North America had Irish descent on both sides, many presidents of the United States have had some Irish ancestry. The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish forebears, historically, emigration from Ireland has been the result of conflict, famine and economic issues. People of Irish descent are mainly in English-speaking countries, especially the United Kingdom. There are also significant numbers in Argentina, Mexico and New Zealand, the United States has the most people of Irish descent, while in Australia those of Irish descent are a higher percentage of the population than in any other country. Many Icelanders have Irish and Scottish Gaelic forebears, in its summary of their article Who were the Celts. The National Museum Wales notes It is possible that genetic studies of ancient. However, early studies have, so far, tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics, nineteenth century anthropology studied the physical characteristics of Irish people in minute detail. During the past 10,000 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores, the ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor terms they used to describe themselves have survived, as late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves. Ireland itself was known by a number of different names, including Banba, Fódla, Ériu by the islanders, Iouerne and Hiverne to the Greeks, other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti and Gael
23.
Brooklyn
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Brooklyn is the most populous borough of New York City, with a Census-estimated 2,636,735 residents in 2015. It borders the borough of Queens at the end of Long Island. Today, if New York City dissolved, Brooklyn would rank as the third-most populous city in the U. S. behind Los Angeles, the borough continues, however, to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves, Brooklyns official motto, displayed on the Borough seal and flag, is Eendraght Maeckt Maght which translates from early modern Dutch as Unity makes strength. Since 2010, Brooklyn has evolved into a hub of entrepreneurship and high technology startup firms. The history of European settlement in Brooklyn spans more than 350 years, the neighborhood of Marine Park was home to North Americas first tidal mill. It was built by the Dutch, and the foundation can be seen today, however, the area was not formally settled as a town. Many incidents and documents relating to this period are in Gabriel Furmans early compilation, what is today Brooklyn left Dutch hands after the final English conquest of New Netherland in 1664, a prelude to the Second Anglo–Dutch War. The English reorganized the six old Dutch towns on southwestern Long Island as Kings County on November 1,1683 and this tract of land was recognized as a political entity for the first time, and the municipal groundwork was laid for a later expansive idea of Brooklyn identity. On August 27,1776 was fought the Battle of Long Island, the first major engagement fought in the American Revolutionary War after independence was declared, and the largest of the entire conflict. British troops forced Continental Army troops under George Washington off the heights near the sites of Green-Wood Cemetery, Prospect Park. The fortified American positions at Brooklyn Heights consequently became untenable and were evacuated a few days later, One result of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 was the evacuation of the British from New York City, celebrated by residents into the 20th century. The New York Navy Yard operated in Wallabout Bay for the entire 19th century, the first center of urbanization sprang up in the Town of Brooklyn, directly across from Lower Manhattan, which saw the incorporation of the Village of Brooklyn in 1817. Reliable steam ferry service across the East River to Fulton Landing converted Brooklyn Heights into a town for Wall Street. Ferry Road to Jamaica Pass became Fulton Street to East New York, Town and Village were combined to form the first, kernel incarnation of the City of Brooklyn in 1834. Industrial deconcentration in mid-century was bringing shipbuilding and other manufacturing to the part of the county. Each of the two cities and six towns in Kings County remained independent municipalities, and purposely created non-aligning street grids with different naming systems and it later became the most popular and highest circulation afternoon paper in America. The publisher changed to L. Van Anden on April 19,1842, on May 14,1849 the name was shortened to The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, on September 5,1938 it was further shortened to Brooklyn Eagle
24.
Holy Trinity Polish Mission
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Holy Trinity Church is an historic church of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago located at 1118 North Noble Street. It is an example of the so-called Polish Cathedral style of churches. Holy Trinity Church is the home of the Holy Trinity Polish Mission since 1987, Holy Trinity was founded in 1872 to relieve overcrowding at St. Stanislaus Kostka, the citys first Polish parish. A twenty-year feud between the two ensued, and the parish was not recognized canonically until the Vatican sent an Apostolic Delegate to resolve the issue. The Congregation of the Holy Cross was selected to serve the parish under the leadership of Casimir Sztuczko, the parish was long identified with the Polish National Alliance since many its parishioners were the Alliances most active members. Construction of the Kennedy Expressway which cut through the heart of Chicagos Polonia began a period of decline for the parish as many residents were forced to relocate. Attorney General Robert Kennedy attended Mass here as part of the surrounding the annual Polish Constitution Day Parade in 1961. The parish came under the jurisdiction of The Resurrectionists in 1975, on September 14,2006, the parish hosted Polish Prime Minister Jaroslaw Kaczynski during a Mass celebrating his visit to Chicago. Shots of Holy Trinity Polish Mission can be seen throughout Call Northside 777 starring James Stewart, the original plans were drawn by Herman Olszewski, but were scaled-down to fit the resources of the parish. Local architect William Krieg drew the final version of the plans, the building combines a variety of styles. Two towers flank the entrance, which features a portico supported by four Corinthian columns. Corinthian pilasters and pediments adorn the openings in the portions of the towers, higher up, toward the cupolas. A baroque superstructure, constructed primarily of brick and stone, rises above the portico, but the interior segmental arches, inside the church the north and south windows are Gothic-Romanesque in style. This blend of styles is reminiscent of the churches of Poland built during the Middle Ages and, after being damaged by war or fire, were rebuilt. Often the money was exhausted before the remodeling could be completed so that the exterior was executed in one style, the architect of Holy Trinity evidently followed the pattern of things remembered, hoping to give the congregation a feeling of the old country. The turn-of-the-century church interior retains its original form and it is spacious at 125 by 200 feet ) and richly decorated. The segmental vaults are tripartite but, being of iron construction, have no supporting columns, murals of religious scenes cover the walls, including a grouping depicting the patron saints of Poland. Other windows feature small windows of Polish Saints and martyrs as well as Polish eagles, K. Markiewicz executed the interior decorations of Holy Trinity in 1914 by and the mural paintings on the vaults were completed in 1926
25.
Polish Downtown (Chicago)
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Polish Downtown was Chicago’s oldest and most prominent Polish settlement. Polish Downtown was the political, cultural and social capital of not only Poles in Chicago but Polish Americans throughout North America as well. Historian Edward R. Kantowicz gave the following boundaries for Polish Downtown, Racine Avenue to the east, Fullerton Avenue to the North, Kedzie Avenue to the West and Grand Avenue to the South. The historian Dominic Pacyga notes that this district was not exclusively Polish, and that Italians, Ukrainians, fueled by the dramatic expansion of industry as well as the citys central role as a transportation hub, immigrants, predominately from Eastern and Southern Europe flooded into Chicago. By 1890, half of all of Chicagos Poles lived in Polish Downtown, together the churches made the largest parish in the world, with a combined membership of over 60,000 in the early 1900s. Along with Holy Trinity Polish Mission, St. Stanislaus Kostka was the center of Chicagos Polish community. Much of this was due to Saint Stanislaus Kostkas first pastor, Reverend Vincent Michael Barzynski, Polish immigration into the area accelerated during and after World War II, as many as 150,000 Poles are estimated to have arrived between 1939 and 1959 as displaced persons. Poles clustered in established ethnic enclaves such as one, which offered shops, restaurants. Division Street was referred to as Polish Broadway, teeming with flophouses and gambling dens and polka clubs and workingman’s bars like the Gold Star and Phyllis’ Musical Inn. The historian Edward R. Kantowicz wrote in his essay, Polish Chicago, Survival through Solidarity, Polish Downtown, and particularly Pulaski Park served as Chicago Congressman Dan Rostenkowskis base of operations. The family still owns the building opposite St. Stanislaus Kostka church at 1372 Evergreen from which he ran his operations, Polish Downtown was also significant in the literary output of Nelson Algren who lived in the area. Polish bars that Algren frequented for his notorious gambling, such as the Bit of Poland on Milwaukee Avenue figured in such stories such as Never Come Morning and The Man With the Golden Arm. Algren, who famously compared Ashland Avenue to a bridge between Warsaw and Chicago had a complex if not troubled relationship with Chicago Polonia and his second wife Amanda Kontowicz was Polish, and would listen to old Polish love songs sung by an elderly waitress while gambling. His writing about the areas Polish American underclass, against the background of prevalent anti-immigrant xenophobia, was taken by Poles as blatant Anti-Polonism and his book Never Come Morning was banned for decades from the Chicago Public Library system because of the massive outcry against it by Chicago Polonia. Polish Downtown also figures in John Guzlowskis poetry and his book Lightning and Ashes chronicles the authors experiences growing up among the immigrants and DP living there. Polish Downtown is perhaps most noted for its opulent Polish Cathedrals, the buildings express the religious zeal and faith of the large immigrant Polish congregations. The combined membership of the exclusively Polish Roman Catholic parishes of Polish Downtown together had over 100,000 parishioners in 1918, all located within a one-mile radius. Although most of these are Roman Catholic churches, a schism that escalated into violence by parishioners of St. Hedwigs Church led to the founding of an independent Polish Catholic parish and this parish eventually joined the Polish National Catholic Church
26.
Polish Roman Catholic Union of America
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The Polish Roman Catholic Union of America is the oldest Polish American organization in the United States. The Polish Roman Catholic Union of America traces its existence to 1873, in June of that year, Father Theodor Gieryk of Detroit wrote letters to Polish-language newspapers urging the creation of a Polish-American national organization. On October 3,1873 a group of influential Polish Americans met, in 1972 the PRCUA had 887 lodges. In 1979 this had declined to 815 lodges in 27 states, before the First World War, the PRCUA often found itself at odds with the Polish National Alliance, a fraternal organization founded in 1880. The basic outward differences between the two fraternals are often remarked, the PRCUA, the earlier and more conservative of the two, tended to support the American Catholic hierarchy over lay groups such as parish councils. The younger PNA was more radical in outlook and generally championed lay leadership over the Church hierarchy, however, the most important difference was that of world view. The PRCUA viewed the Polish American community in terms of okolica, or local environment, fortunately, the two fraternals were able to reconcile their differences during the twentieth century and have coexisted amicably for decades. In 1886 the Pielgrzym was replaced by the weekly Gazeta Katolicka, the Naród Polski became a semi-monthly publication in 1946. The Naród Polski is the publication of the PRCUA. Today, the Naród Polski is published monthly and contains both Polish and English articles in each issue, an online version is also available to subscribers. At present, PRCUA has developed into a benefit society that performs religious, charitable, educational and civic work on behalf of its members. Members join PRCUA primarily by purchasing life insurance and/or annuity certificates from the organization, members participate in activities such as folk dancing and singing, language classes, crafts, and youth festivals through local lodges. PRCUA also extends residential mortgage loans to its members, in addition, PRCUA is the principal patron of the Polish Museum of America, the largest ethnic museum in America located in Chicago, Illinois. The PRCUAs Home Office is located in Chicago, IL and this historic 1913 building houses The Polish Museum of America and its Library. The organizations current Officers are, Joseph A. Drobot, Jr, jaminski - National Vice President James J. Robaczewski, FIC - National Secretary-Treasurer Polish Roman Catholic Union of America website
27.
Woodrow Wilson
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Thomas Woodrow Wilson was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th President of the United States from 1913 to 1921. Born in Staunton, Virginia, he spent his years in Augusta, Georgia and Columbia. In 1910, he was the New Jersey Democratic Partys gubernatorial candidate and was elected the 34th Governor of New Jersey, while in office, Wilson reintroduced the spoken State of the Union, which had been out of use since 1801. Leading the Congress that was now in Democratic hands, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. The Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, through passage of the Adamson Act that imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads, he averted a railroad strike and an ensuing economic crisis. Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, Wilson faced former New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes in the presidential election of 1916. By a narrow margin, he became the first Democrat since Andrew Jackson elected to two consecutive terms, Wilsons second term was dominated by American entry into World War I. In April 1917, when Germany had resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and sent the Zimmermann Telegram, the United States conducted military operations alongside the Allies, although without a formal alliance. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations, leaving military strategy to the generals, loaning billions of dollars to Britain, France, and other Allies, the United States aided their finance of the war effort. On the home front, he raised taxes, borrowing billions of dollars through the publics purchase of Liberty Bonds. In his 1915 State of the Union Address, Wilson asked Congress for what became the Espionage Act of 1917, the crackdown was intensified by his Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson staffed his government with Southern Democrats who implemented racial segregation at the Treasury, Navy and he gave department heads greater autonomy in their management. Following his return from Europe, Wilson embarked on a tour in 1919 to campaign for the treaty. The treaty was met with concern by Senate Republicans, and Wilson rejected a compromise effort led by Henry Cabot Lodge. Due to his stroke, Wilson secluded himself in the White House, disability having diminished his power, forming a strategy for re-election, Wilson deadlocked the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but his bid for a third-term nomination was overlooked. Wilson was a devoted Presbyterian and Georgist, and he infused his views of morality into his domestic and he appointed several well known radically progressive single taxers to prominent positions in his administration. His ideology of internationalism is now referred to as Wilsonian, an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy and he was the third of four children of Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilsons paternal grandparents immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland and his mother was born in Carlisle, England, the daughter of Rev. Dr. Thomas Woodrow from Paisley, Scotland, and Marion Williamson from Glasgow
28.
Belfry (architecture)
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The belfry is a structure enclosing bells for ringing as part of a building, usually as part of a bell tower or steeple. It can also refer to the tower or building, particularly in continental Europe for such a tower attached to a city hall or other civic building. A belfry encloses the bell chamber, the room in which the bells are housed, the openings may be left uncovered but are commonly filled with louvers to prevent rain and snow from entering. There may be a room below the bell chamber to house the ringers. In larger towns, watchmen in these towers were also on the lookout for fires, todays Dutch belfort combines the term bell with the term stronghold. Bats in the belfry Belfries of Belgium and France
29.
Latino
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People who identify their origin as Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish may be of any race. Hence the U. S. Census and the OMB are using the terms differently, the U. S. Census and the OMB use the terms in an interchangeable manner, where both terms are synonyms. The AP Stylebooks recommended usage of Latino in Latin America includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, however, in the recent past, the term Latinos was also applied to people from the Caribbean region, including those from former Dutch and British colonies. Latino has been used in the United States since at least 1946 and is the form of the Spanish American word latinoamericano. U. S. official use of the term Hispanic has its origins in the 1970 census, other federal and local government agencies and non-profit organizations include Brazilians and Portuguese in their definition of Hispanic. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Congressional Hispanic Conference include representatives of Spanish, the Hispanic Society of America is dedicated to the study of the arts and cultures of Spain, Portugal, and Latin America. The AP Stylebook also distinguishes between the terms Hispanic and Latino, the Stylebook limits the term Hispanic to persons from - or whose ancestors were from - a Spanish-speaking land or culture. It provides an expansive definition, however, of the term Latino. The Stylebook definition of Latino includes not only persons of Spanish-speaking ancestry, the Stylebook specifically lists Brazilian as an example of a group which can be considered Latino. In English, Latino is used interchangeably with Latin American, the use of the term Latino, despite its increasing popularity, is still highly debated among those who are called by the name. Since the adoption of the term by the U. S, journalist Rodolfo Acuña writes, When and why the Latino identity came about is a more involved story. Essentially, politicians, the media, and marketers find it convenient to deal with the different U. S. Spanish-speaking people under one umbrella, however, many people with Spanish surnames contest the term Latino. De La Torre, Encyclopedia on Hispanic American Religious Culture, Volume 1 &2, Latino Cultural Heritage Digital Archives Whats in a name. Yale University – Understanding Ethnic Labels and Puerto Rican Identity Chicano/Latino Studies University of California, Irvine Latino news for and about Latinos
30.
Holy Name Cathedral (Chicago)
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Holy Name Cathedral in Chicago, Illinois is the seat of the Archdiocese of Chicago, one of the largest Roman Catholic dioceses in the United States. The current Archbishop of Chicago is Cardinal Blase J. Cupich, Holy Name Cathedral replaced the Cathedral of Saint Mary and the Church of the Holy Name, which were destroyed by the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, and was dedicated on November 21,1875. A cornerstone inscription still bears marks from the murder of North Side Gang member Hymie Weiss, a fire in 2009 caused major damage to the roof and interior of the church. Holy Name Cathedral was built in the Gothic revival architectural style while at the same time integrating motifs symbolic of the message of the modern Church, the church building is 233 feet long,126 feet wide and can seat 2,000 people. The ceiling is 150 feet high and has a spire that reaches 210 feet into the sky, overall, the cathedral features motifs meant to instill an ambience of physically dwelling in the biblical Tree of Life. The first feature that greets worshipers are massive bronze doors designed by Albert J. Friscia that weigh 1200 pounds each, the doors introduce the overall Tree of Life theme with intricate details that serve to make the doors look like overwhelming planks of wood. The doors possess a system that allows them to be opened with the push of a finger. Beyond the doors is a vestibule encased in glass, once inside the church, the most striking feature is the suspended Resurrection Crucifix sculpted by the artist Ivo Demetz. Adorning the walls of the nave are the Stations of the Cross by artist Goffredo Verginelli depicting the Passion, Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ, the stations are cast in bronze and framed in red Rocco Alicante marble. Various bronze sculptures are featured in parts of the church. One of the largest pieces is the Ambo of the Evangelists by Eugenio de Courten, an ambo, in church liturgy, is the lectern from which readings of Holy Scripture are proclaimed. This particular ambo is used by lectors and cantors during Sunday masses and other special Church feasts, six tons of monolithic red-black Rosso Imperiale di Solberga granite forms the mensa or table top of the altar. The consecrated altar contains relics, or actual artifacts from the bodies of Saint John the Apostle, a cathedra, or bishops throne, is what makes the church a cathedral. It is from this chair that Sedes Chicagiensis, or See of Chicago, is presided over by the archbishop of Chicago, unlike most Roman Catholic cathedra, the Cathedra of the See of Chicago is plain and simple. Its back contains three panels depicting the first Christian teachers, Christ in the panel, Saint Peter to his right. Above the cathedra are the Sanctuary Panels of the Holy Name, the first panel is of Simeon contemplating the Infant Savior whom Mary presents in the Temple. The second panel depicts the Mystery of the Trinity and an angel carrying the monogram of Christ to earth, the third panel is of the Risen Christ proclaimed as Lord. The fourth panel is of the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple showing Mary and Joseph presenting the child for circumcision, the last panel is of the Priesthood of Jesus, with Christ adorned in vestments presenting the chalice to all people
31.
Renaissance Revival architecture
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The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture, in England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture and this is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. If this were not confusing enough, the new Neo-Renaissance then frequently borrowed architectural elements from the succeeding Mannerist period, mannerism and Baroque being two very opposing styles of architecture. Mannerism was exemplified by the Palazzo del Te and Baroque by the Wurzburg Residenz, as a consequence a self-consciously Neo-Renaissance manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline, the Hagues Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, the style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments, if a building were of several floors the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was more severe in its design. Like all architectural styles the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly, one of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Womens Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s, richardsons style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his Marshall Field Warehouse in Chicago, however, while the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came between was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the opera houses of the Europe, such as Gottfried Sempers Burgtheater in Vienna. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is known as the Second Empire style. By 1875 it had become the style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. In Austria, it was pioneered by such names as Rudolf Eitelberger
32.
Altar
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An altar is any structure upon which offerings such as sacrifices are made for religious purposes, and by extension the Holy table of post-reformation Anglican churches. Altars are usually found at shrines, and they can be located in temples, churches, today they are used particularly in Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, as well as in Neopaganism and Ceremonial Magic. Judaism used such a structure until the destruction of the Second Temple, many historical faiths also made use of them, including Greek and Norse religion. Altars in the Hebrew Bible were typically made of earth or unwrought stone, altars were generally erected in conspicuous places. The first altar recorded in the Hebrew Bible is that erected by Noah, altars were erected by Abraham, by Isaac, by Jacob, and by Moses. In Catholic and Orthodox Christian theology, the Eucharist is a re-presentation, hence, the table upon which the Eucharist is consecrated is called an altar. The altar plays a role in the celebration of the Eucharist, which takes place at the altar on which the bread. The altar is often on a higher elevation than the rest of the church, in Reformed and Anabaptist churches, a table, often called a Communion table, serves an analogous function. In some colloquial usage, the altar is used to denote the altar rail also. The main altar was also referred to as the high altar, in the earliest days of the Church, the Eucharist appears to have been celebrated on portable altars set up for the purpose. Some historians hold that, during the persecutions, the Eucharist was celebrated among the tombs in the Catacombs of Rome, other historians dispute this, but it is thought to be the origin of the tradition of placing relics beneath the altar. Although in the days of the Jerusalem Temple the High Priest indeed faced east when sacrificing on Yom Kippur, the ministers, celebrated the Eucharist facing east, towards the entrance. Some hold that for the part of the celebration the congregation faced the same way. After the sixth century the contrary orientation prevailed, with the entrance to the west and the altar at the east end. Then the ministers and congregation all faced east during the whole celebration, most rubrics, even in books of the seventeenth century and later, such as the Pontificale Romanum, continued to envisage the altar as free-standing. The rite of the Dedication of the Church continued to presume that the officiating Bishop could circle the altar during the consecration of the church and its altar. Despite this, with the increase in the size and importance of the reredos, most altars were built against the wall or barely separated from it. This diversity was recognized in the rubrics of the Roman Missal from the 1604 typical edition of Pope Clement VIII to the 1962 edition of Pope John XXIII, Si altare sit ad orientem, versus populum
33.
Munich
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Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
34.
Louis Comfort Tiffany
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Louis Comfort Tiffany was an American artist and designer who worked in the decorative arts and is best known for his work in stained glass. He is the American artist most associated with the Art Nouveau, Tiffany was affiliated with a prestigious collaborative of designers known as the Associated Artists, which included Lockwood de Forest, Candace Wheeler, and Samuel Colman. Tiffany designed stained glass windows and lamps, glass mosaics, blown glass, ceramics, jewelry, enamels and he was the first Design Director at his family company, Tiffany & Co. founded by his father Charles Lewis Tiffany. Louis Comfort Tiffany was born in New York City, the son of Charles Lewis Tiffany, founder of Tiffany and Company and he attended school at Pennsylvania Military Academy in West Chester, Pennsylvania, and Eagleswood Military Academy in Perth Amboy, New Jersey. His first artistic training was as a painter, studying under George Inness in Eagleswood, New Jersey and Samuel Colman in Irvington and he also studied at the National Academy of Design in New York City in 1866–67 and with salon painter Leon-Adolphe-Auguste Belly in 1868–69. Bellys landscape paintings had a influence on Tiffany. Tiffany started out as a painter, but became interested in glassmaking from about 1875, in 1879, he joined with Candace Wheeler, Samuel Colman and Lockwood de Forest to form Louis Comfort Tiffany and Associated American Artists. The business was short-lived, lasting four years. The group made designs for wallpaper, furniture, and textiles and he later opened his own glass factory in Corona, New York, determined to provide designs that improved the quality of contemporary glass. Tiffanys leadership and talent, as well as his fathers money and connections and he commissioned Tiffany, who had begun to make a name for himself in New York society for the firms interior design work, to redo the state rooms, which Arthur found charmless. The Tiffany screen and other Victorian additions were all removed in the Roosevelt renovations of 1902, a desire to concentrate on art in glass led to the breakup of the firm in 1885 when Tiffany chose to establish his own glassmaking firm that same year. The first Tiffany Glass Company was incorporated December 1,1885, in the beginning of his career, Tiffany used cheap jelly jars and bottles because they had the mineral impurities that finer glass lacked. When he was unable to convince fine glassmakers to leave the impurities in, Tiffany used opalescent glass in a variety of colors and textures to create a unique style of stained glass. Use of the glass itself to create stained glass pictures was motivated by the ideals of the Arts and Crafts movement. Tiffany, Duffner and Kimberly, along with La Farge, had learned their craft at the same glasshouses in Brooklyn in the late 1870s. In 1889 at the Paris Exposition, he is said to have been Overwhelmed by the work of Émile Gallé. He also met artist Alphonse Mucha, in 1893, his company also introduced the term Favrile in conjunction with his first production of blown glass at his new glass factory. Some early examples of his lamps were exhibited in the 1893 Worlds Fair in Chicago, at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, he won a gold medal with his stained glass windows The Four Seasons He trademarked Favrile on November 13,1894
35.
Cupola
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In architecture, a cupola /ˈkjuːpələ/ is a small, most often dome-like, structure on top of a building. Often used to provide a lookout or to light and air. The word derives, via Italian, from the lower Latin cupula small cup indicating a vault resembling an upside down cup. The cupola is a development during the Renaissance of the oculus, an ancient device found in Roman architecture, the chhatri, seen in Indian architecture, fits the definition of a cupola when it is used atop a larger structure. Cupolas often appear as small buildings in their own right and they often serve as a belfry, belvedere, or roof lantern above a main roof. In other cases they may crown a spire, tower, or turret, barns often have cupolas for ventilation. The square, dome-like segment of a North American railroad train caboose that contains the second-level or angel seats is called a cupola. Some armored fighting vehicles have cupolas, called commanders cupola, which is a dome or cylinder with armored glass to provide 360-degree vision around the vehicle
36.
Convent
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A convent is either a community of priests, religious brothers or religious sisters, or the building used by the community, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion. The term derives via Old French from Latin conventus, perfect participle of the verb convenio, meaning to convene, the original reference was to the gathering of mendicants who spent much of their time travelling. Technically, a monastery or nunnery is a community of monastics, whereas a friary or convent is a community of mendicants, and a canonry a community of canons regular. The terms abbey and priory can be applied to both monasteries and canonries, an abbey is headed by an Abbot, and a priory is a dependent house headed by a Prior. In English usage since about the 19th century the term convent almost invariably refers to a community of women, in historical usage they are often interchangeable, with convent especially likely to be used for a friary. When applied to houses in Eastern Orthodoxy and Buddhism, English refers to all houses of male religious as monasteries. Christian monasticism Enclosed religious orders Herbermann, Charles, ed. Convent, carmelite Monastery of the Sacred Hearts —- an example of a modern-day convent Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Convent
37.
Clergy house
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A clergy house is the residence, or former residence, of one or more priests or ministers of religion. Clergy houses are owned and maintained by a church, as a benefit to its clergy. The practice exists in many denominations because of the tendency of clergy to be transferred from one church to another at relatively frequent intervals, catholic clergy houses in particular may be lived in by several priests from a parish. Clergy houses frequently serve as the office of the local parish as well as a residence, they are normally located next to, or at least close to. Partly because of the general conservationism of churches, many houses are of historic interest or even importance. In the United Kingdom the 14th-century Alfriston Clergy House was the first property to be acquired by the National Trust and it was purchased in a state of near ruin in 1896 for £10, the vicarage having moved elsewhere long before. In some countries where the houses were often rather grand they have now been sold off by the churches. In England the Old Vicarage or Old Rectory is very common in villages, as a home for the upper middle-classes. Others are now offices or used for various functions, there are a number of more specific terms whose use depends on the rank of the occupant, the denomination and the locality. Above the parish level, traditionally a bishops house was called a Bishops Palace, a dean lives in a deanery, other titles may have different names for their houses. A rectory is the residence, or former residence, of an ecclesiastical rector, in North American Anglicanism a far greater proportion of parish clergy were and are titled rectors than in Britain, so the rectory is more common there. The names used for homes of the parish clergy vary considerably, and generalization is difficult, In the Anglican Communion vicarage or parsonage. Roman Catholics use priory, clergy house, parochial house, chapel house, in the Philippines, the term convent is used, a direct calque of the Spanish convento. Manse is a Scottish term, used in Scottish Presbyterianism, and general in other parts of the British Isles by Non-conformist Churches such as the Methodists and this word is also commonly used by Baptists in the United Kingdom and some Commonwealth countries. Pastorium is the term in the Southern United States, especially among Baptists. Parish house is used by many denominations Clergy housing allowance
38.
Gym
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A gym, short for gymnasium, is an open air or covered location for gymnastics, athletics, and gymnastic services. The word is derived from the ancient Greek gymnasium and they are commonly found in athletic and fitness centers, and as activity and learning spaces in educational institutions. Gym is also slang for fitness center, which is often an indoor facility, gymnasia apparatus such as bar-bells, parallel bars, jumping board, running path, tennis-balls, cricket field, fencing area, and so forth are used as exercises. In safe weather, outdoor locations are the most conducive to health, gyms were popular in ancient Greece. These gymnasia also had teachers of wisdom and philosophy, community gymnastic events were done as part of the celebrations during various village festivals. In ancient Greece there was a phrase of contempt, He can neither swim nor write, after a while, however, Olympic athletes began training in buildings just for them. Community sports never became as popular among ancient Romans as it had among the ancient Greeks, gyms were used more as a preparation for military service or spectator sports. During the Roman Empire, the art was forgotten. In the Dark Ages there were sword fighting tournaments and of chivalry, there were schools of dagger fighting and wrestling and boxing. Then in the 18th century, Salzmann, German clergyman, opened a gym in Thuringia teaching bodily exercises, clias and Volker established gyms in London, and in 1825, Doctor Beck, a German immigrant, established the first gymnasium in the United States. It was found that gym pupils lose interest in doing the same exercises, variety in exercises included skating, dancing, and swimming. Some gym activities can be done by 6 to 8 year olds while age 16 has been considered mature enough for boxing, in Ancient Greece the gymnasion was a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men. For the Greeks, physical education was considered as important as cognitive learning, most Greek gymnasia had libraries that could be utilized after relaxing in the baths. The first gymnasiums in history can be dated to over 3000 years ago in ancient Persia, they were known as zurkhaneh, the larger Roman Baths often had attached fitness facilities, the baths themselves sometimes being decorated with mosaics of local champions of sport. The first indoor gymnasium in Germany was probably the one built in Hesse in 1852 by Adolph Spiess, through worldwide colonization Great Britain expanded their interest in sports and games to many countries. In the 1800s programs were added to schools and college curricula that emphasized health, sports drawn from European and British cultures thrived as college students and upper-class clubs financed competition. As a result, towns began building playgrounds that furthered interest in sports, in the United States, the Turner movement thrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first Turners group was formed in London in 1848, the Turners built gymnasia in several cities like Cincinnati and St. Louis which had large German American populations
39.
Auditorium
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An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch performances at venues such as theatres. For movie theatres, the number of auditoriums is expressed as the number of screens, auditoria can be found in entertainment venues, community halls, and theaters, and may be used for rehearsal, presentation, performing arts productions, or as a learning space. The audience in a theatre are usually separated from the performers by the proscenium arch. The price charged for seats in each part of the auditorium usually varies according to the quality of the view of the stage. The seating areas can include some or all of the following, Stalls, orchestra or arena, balconies or galleries, one or more raised seating platforms towards the rear of the auditorium. In larger theatres, multiple levels are stacked vertically above or behind the stalls, the first level is usually called the dress circle or grand circle. The highest platform, or upper circle is known as the gods, especially in large opera houses, where the seats can be very high. Boxes, generally placed immediately to the front, side and above the level of the stage and they are often separate rooms with an open viewing area which generally seat only a handful of people. These seats are considered the most prestigious of the house. A state box or royal box is provided for dignitaries. Seating arrangement, Seating arrangements in a seating layout will either be identified as “multiple-aisle” or “continental. ”These terms are commonly found in design standards manuals, building codes. Each size is unique, with specific guidelines governing row size, row spacing, basically, a multiple-aisle arrangement will have a maximum of 14-16 chairs per row with access to an aisle-way at both ends. In a continental arrangement, all seats are located in a central section, here the maximum quantity of chairs per row can greatly exceed the limits established in a multiple-aisle arrangement. In order to compensate for the length of rows allowed, building codes will require wider row spacing, wider aisles. Although it would seem like more space is called for, a seating plan is often not any less efficient than a multiple-aisle arrangement. In fact, if it’s carefully planned, an arrangement can frequently accommodate more seating within the same space. In other countries, sports venues have luxury boxes, where access is open to anyone who can afford tickets, auditorium Building List of concert halls Music venue Noise mitigation Smoking ban Concert hall acoustics on-line exhibition
40.
Sanctuary
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A sanctuary, in its original meaning, is a sacred place, such as a shrine. By the use of such places as a haven, by extension the term has come to be used for any place of safety. This secondary use can be categorized into human sanctuary, a place for humans, such as a political sanctuary. The meaning was extended to places of holiness or safety, a religious sanctuary may be a sacred place, or a consecrated area of a church or temple around its tabernacle or altar. Examples are St. Peters Basilica in Rome and St. Albans Cathedral in England, the place, and therefore the church built there, was considered to have been sanctified by what happened there. In modern times, the Catholic Church has continued this practice by placing in the altar of each church, when it is consecrated for use, the relics box is removed when the church is taken out of use as a church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the antimension on the altar serves a similar function and it is a cloth icon of Christs body taken down from the cross, and typically has the relics of a saint sewn into it. In addition, it is signed by the bishop, and represents his authorization. In many Western traditions altar rails sometimes mark the edge of the sanctuary or chancel, in many churches the architectural term chancel covers the same area as the sanctuary, and either term may be used. In some Protestant churches, the term denotes the entire worship area while the term chancel is used to refer to the area around the altar-table. In other Oriental Orthodox traditions, a curtain is used. In most modern synagogues, the room for prayer is known as the sanctuary, to contrast it with smaller rooms dedicated to various other services. When referring to prosecution of crimes, sanctuary can mean one of the following, Church sanctuary A sacred place, such as a church, in which fugitives formerly were immune to arrest. While the practice of churches offering sanctuary is still observed in the modern era, political sanctuary Immunity to arrest afforded by a sovereign authority. People seeking political sanctuary typically do so by asking a sovereign authority for asylum, many ancient peoples recognized a religious right of asylum, protecting criminals from legal action and from exile to some extent. This principle was adopted by the early Christian church, and various rules developed for what the person had to do to qualify for protection and just how much protection it was. By Norman times, there had come to be two kinds of sanctuary, All churches had the kind, but only the churches the king licensed had the broader version. The medieval system of asylum was finally abolished entirely in England by James I in 1623, a prime example is Queen Elizabeth Woodville, consort of Edward IV of England
41.
Chaplet of the Divine Mercy
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She was a Polish religious sister of the Congregation of the Sisters of Our Lady of Mercy and canonized as a Catholic saint in 2000. Faustina stated that she received the prayer through visions and conversations with Jesus and her Vatican biography quotes some of these conversations. As a Roman Catholic devotion, the chaplet is said as a rosary-based prayer with the same set of rosary beads used for reciting the Rosary or the Chaplet of Holy Wounds. As an Anglican devotion, the Divine Mercy Society of the Anglican Church states that the chaplet can also be recited on Anglican prayer beads. The chaplet may also be said without beads, usually by counting prayers on the fingertips, on September 13,1935, while Faustina was in Vilnius, she wrote of a vision of Jesus about the chaplet in her diary. Faustina stated that Jesus asked her to pray the chaplet and instruct others to do so, according to Faustinas visions, written in her diary, the chaplets prayers for mercy are threefold, to obtain mercy, to trust in Christs mercy, and to show mercy to others. Faustina wrote that Jesus promised that all who recite this chaplet at the hour of death or in the presence of the dying will receive great mercy. She wrote that Jesus said. When they say this Chaplet in the presence of the dying, Faustina stated that Jesus also promised that anything can be obtained with this prayer if it is compatible with His will. In her diary Faustina recounted a vision on September 13,1935 in which she saw an angel sent to a city to destroy it, Faustina began to pray for Gods mercy on the city and felt the strong presence of the Holy Trinity. After she prayed the internally instructed prayers, the angel was powerless to harm the city, in subsequent visions, Faustina learned that the prayers she spoke were to be taught to all the people of the world. According to Roman Catholic tradition, the chaplet may be said at any time, the Chaplet is prayed daily at the National Shrine of The Divine Mercy in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. In the Philippines, Singapore, and Hong Kong the 3 oclock Prayer is broadcast on radio, in 2000, Pope John Paul II ordained the Sunday after Easter Divine Mercy Sunday, where Roman Catholics remember the institution of the Sacrament of Penance. The hour Jesus died by crucifixion,3,00 PM, is called the Hour of Mercy, in a novena, the chaplet is usually said each of the nine days from Good Friday to Divine Mercy Sunday. The Chaplet contains several unique prayers and this prayer is optional, and may be used to begin the Chaplet, You expired, Jesus, but the source of life gushed forth for souls, and the ocean of mercy opened up for the whole world. O Fount of Life, unfathomable Divine Mercy, envelop the whole world and this prayer, repeated 10 times in succession, forms the body of each decade of the Chaplet, For the sake of His sorrowful Passion, have mercy on us and on the whole world. This prayer, repeated three times in succession, concludes the Chaplet, Holy God, Holy Mighty One, Holy Immortal One, have mercy on us, the chaplet is prayed on ordinary rosary beads, the same type used to pray the Dominican Rosary. To conclude, The Holy God on the medallion, The optional closing prayer, still on the medallion, Any further intentions, the chaplet may be repeated over a period of nine days as part of a novena. The novena should begin on Good Friday, there is a prayer intention for specific group of people on each of the nine days
