1.
Barts Health NHS Trust
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Barts Health NHS Trust is an NHS Trust operating in the City of London and East London. It is part of UCL Partners and it is the largest NHS Trust in the UK. Barts Health was formed on 1 April 2012 by the merger of Barts and The London NHS Trust, Newham University Hospital NHS Trust, the Trust has the largest Private Finance Initiative contract in the UK, a £1bn scheme. Innisfree Ltd, Skanska, Carillion, Synergy Health, Siemens Medical Solutions, paying back that PFI is costing the Trust £115m a year. It is one of the biggest providers of specialised services in England, there were concerns about waiting times performance, and levels of clinical harm. The Trust spent £935,500 on a management consultant, Donald Muir. At the time, Mr Morris was the highest paid NHS Trust CEO in the country, in March 2015 the trust was placed into special measures following a CQC report into Whipps Cross Hospital. In May 2015 the CQC said it was seriously understaffed, focussed too little on safety and had cancelled operations on numerous occasions because there were too few beds, rating it inadequate. The trust was one of 26 responsible for half of the growth in patients waiting more than four hours in accident. The trust reported 1200 vacancies - 1/5 of the workforce in July 2015. The trust spent £83.6 million on staff in 2014/5. In March 2016 the Trust was rated as having a poor reporting culture in the Learning from Mistakes League
2.
Henry VIII of England
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Henry VIII was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII, Henry is best known for his six marriages and, in particular, his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. Despite his resulting excommunication, Henry remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, domestically, Henry is known for his radical changes to the English Constitution, ushering in the theory of the divine right of kings to England. Besides asserting the supremacy over the Church of England, he greatly expanded royal power during his reign. Charges of treason and heresy were commonly used to quash dissent, and he achieved many of his political aims through the work of his chief ministers, some of whom were banished or executed when they fell out of his favour. Thomas Wolsey, Thomas More, Thomas Cromwell, Richard Rich and his contemporaries considered Henry in his prime to be an attractive, educated, and accomplished king, and he has been described as one of the most charismatic rulers to sit on the English throne. He was an author and composer, as he aged, Henry became severely obese and his health suffered, contributing to his death in 1547. He is frequently characterised in his life as a lustful, egotistical, harsh. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI, born 28 June 1491 at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, Henry Tudor was the third child and second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Of the young Henrys six siblings, only three – Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary – survived infancy and he was baptised by Richard Fox, the Bishop of Exeter, at a church of the Observant Franciscans close to the palace. In 1493, at the age of two, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at age three, and was inducted into the Order of the Bath soon after. The day after the ceremony he was created Duke of York, in May 1495, he was appointed to the Order of the Garter. Henry was given an education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin and French. Not much is known about his early life – save for his appointments – because he was not expected to become king, as Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father as king, differenced by a label of three points ermine. In 1502, Arthur died at the age of 15 of sweating sickness, Arthurs death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother, the 10-year-old Henry. After a little debate, Henry became the new Duke of Cornwall in October 1502, Henry VII gave the boy few tasks. Young Henry was strictly supervised and did not appear in public, as a result, the young Henry would later ascend the throne untrained in the exacting art of kingship
3.
Smithfield, London
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Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of Londons northwest in central London, England. The principal street of the area is West Smithfield, the area also contains Londons oldest surviving church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, founded in 1123 AD. Some of its original market premises fell into disuse in the late 20th century, the Corporation of Londons public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfields historical identity. In the Middle Ages, it was a grassy area known as Smooth Field. Given its ease of access to grazing and water, Smithfield established itself as Londons livestock market, remaining so for almost 1,000 years. In 1123, the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomews Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health. The Priory exercised its right to land between Aldersgate, Long Lane and modern-day Newgate Street, erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield. The Priory thereafter held the rights to hold weekly fairs. A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum, in 1855, however, Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder. A chapel and hermitage were constructed, renamed New Church Haw, but in 1371, later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary, north of the Knights of St John property. By the end of the 14th century, these houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates. On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse, eventually demolishing its buildings, by 1405, a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order, particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship. The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation, and their lands broken up, the Priory Church of St John remains, as does St Johns Gate, traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell. John Houghton, Prior of Charterhouse, went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities. This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London, on 29 May, the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance, the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve. Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra-parochial, when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, from its inception, the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick. Letters Patent were presented to the City, granting property and income to the new foundation the following month, the Priorys principal church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave. Reformed as an Anglican parish church, its boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
6.
Health system
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There is a wide variety of health systems around the world, with as many histories and organizational structures as there are nations. In some countries, health system planning is distributed among market participants, however, health care planning has been described as often evolutionary rather than revolutionary. According to WHO, healthcare systems goals are good health for the citizens, responsiveness to the expectations of the population, progress towards them depends on how systems carry out four vital functions, provision of health care services, resource generation, financing, and stewardship. Other dimensions for the evaluation of systems include quality, efficiency, acceptability. They have also described in the United States as the five Cs, Cost, Coverage, Consistency, Complexity. Also, continuity of care is a major goal. Often health system has been defined with a reductionist perspective, for reducing it to healthcare system. In many publications, for example, both expressions are used interchangeably, the World Health Organization defines health systems as follows, A health system consists of all organizations, people and actions whose primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health. This includes efforts to influence determinants of health as well as more direct health-improving activities, a health system is therefore more than the pyramid of publicly owned facilities that deliver personal health services. It includes inter-sectoral action by staff, for example, encouraging the ministry of education to promote female education. Healthcare providers are institutions or individuals providing healthcare services and they may also work outside of direct patient care such as in a government health department or other agency, medical laboratory, or health training institution. One study based on data from the OECD concluded that all types of health care finance are compatible with an efficient health system, the study also found no relationship between financing and cost control. The term health insurance is used to describe a form of insurance that pays for medical expenses. It is sometimes used broadly to include insurance covering disability or long-term nursing or custodial care needs. It may be provided through an insurance program, or from private insurance companies. It may be obtained on a basis or purchased by individual consumers. In each case premiums or taxes protect the insured from high or unexpected health care expenses, the benefit is typically administered by a government agency, a non-profit health fund or a corporation operating seeking to make a profit. Many government schemes also have co-payment schemes but exclusions are rare because of political pressure, the larger insurance schemes may also negotiate fees with providers
7.
National Health Service (England)
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The National Health Service is the publicly funded national healthcare system for England and one of the four National Health Services of the United Kingdom. It is the largest and the oldest single-payer healthcare system in the world, Some services, such as emergency treatment and treatment of infectious diseases are free for everyone, including visitors. Free healthcare at the point of use comes from the principles at the founding of the National Health Service by the Labour government in 1948. Some specific NHS services do however require a financial contribution from the patient, for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions. However, these charges are often free to vulnerable or low income groups, the NHS provides the majority of healthcare in England, including primary care, in-patient care, long-term healthcare, ophthalmology, and dentistry. The National Health Service Act 1946 came into effect on 5 July 1948, private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, it is used by about 8% of the population, generally as an add-on to NHS services. The NHS is largely funded from taxation with a small amount being contributed by National Insurance payments. The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, the Department of Health had a £110 billion budget in 2013-14, most of this being spent on the NHS. Sources do not always clear if they refer to the whole of the NHS or only to England. There is no unified British NHS, the National Health Service in Scotland and Northern Ireland were always separate, the Health and Social Care Act 2012 came into effect in April 2013, giving GP-led groups responsibility for commissioning most local NHS services. Starting in April 2013 Primary Care Trusts are being replaced by General Practitioner -led organisations called Clinical Commissioning Groups, under the new system, a new NHS Commissioning Board, called NHS England, oversees the NHS from the Department of Health. The Act has also associated with the perception of increased private provision of NHS services. NHS Trusts are responding to the Nicholson challenge which involved making £20 billion in savings across the service by 2015, Some NHS organisations are using referral management centres to help reduce inappropriate referrals in an attempt to save the NHS money. Millions of pounds have been spent for these services, 32% of which are provided by private companies, of the 211 clinical commissioning groups surveyed by the British Medical Journal in 2016,184 responded and 72 of those said they had used such schemes. Of those CCGs using these services, 14% could show savings, 12% showed no overall savings, because these services can prevent GPs from referring patients to hospitals, there are some concerns they may delay diagnosis and compromise patient safety. Dr A. J. Cronins controversial novel The Citadel, published in 1937, had fomented extensive debate about the severe inadequacies of health care. The authors innovative ideas were not only essential to the conception of the NHS, a national health service was one of the fundamental assumptions in the Beveridge Report. The Emergency Hospital Service established in 1939 gave a taste of what a National Health Service might look like, Healthcare prior to the war had been an unsatisfactory mix of private, municipal and charity schemes
8.
Hospital
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A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. Specialised hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals, a teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to medical students and nurses. The medical facility smaller than a hospital is called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments and specialist units such as cardiology, some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology, Hospitals are usually funded by the public sector, by health organisations, by health insurance companies, or by charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals. During the Middle Ages, hospitals served different functions from modern institutions, Middle Ages hospitals were almshouses for the poor, hostels for pilgrims, or hospital schools. The word hospital comes from the Latin hospes, signifying a stranger or foreigner, another noun derived from this, hospitium came to signify hospitality, that is the relation between guest and shelterer, hospitality, friendliness, and hospitable reception. By metonymy the Latin word then came to mean a guest-chamber, guests lodging, hospes is thus the root for the English words host hospitality, hospice, hostel and hotel. The German word Spital shares similar roots, the grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. Some patients go to a hospital just for diagnosis, treatment, or therapy and then leave without staying overnight, while others are admitted and stay overnight or for several days or weeks or months. Hospitals usually are distinguished from other types of facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients whilst the others. Larger cities may have several hospitals of varying sizes and facilities, some hospitals, especially in the United States and Canada, have their own ambulance service. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. In California, district hospital refers specifically to a class of healthcare facility created shortly after World War II to address a shortage of beds in many local communities. Twenty-eight of Californias rural hospitals and 20 of its critical-access hospitals are District hospitals, Californias District hospitals are formed by local municipalities, have Boards that are individually elected by their local communities, and exist to serve local needs
9.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
10.
Emergency department
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The emergency department is usually found in a hospital or other primary care center. In some countries, emergency departments have become important entry points for those without means of access to medical care. The emergency departments of most hospitals operate 24 hours a day, griswold also equipped police and fire vehicles with medical supplies and trained officers to give emergency care while en route to the hospital. Today, a hospital has its emergency department in its own section of the ground floor of the grounds. As patients can present at any time and with any complaint, triage is normally the first stage the patient passes through, and consists of a brief assessment, including a set of vital signs, and the assignment of a chief complaint. Most emergency departments have an area for this process to take place. Most patients will be assessed at triage and then passed to another area of the department, or another area of the hospital. Conversely, patients with serious conditions, such as cardiac arrest, will bypass triage altogether. The resuscitation area, commonly referred to as Trauma or Resus, is a key area in most departments, the most seriously ill or injured patients will be dealt with in this area, as it contains the equipment and staff required for dealing with immediately life-threatening illnesses and injuries. Typical resuscitation staffing involves at least one attending physician, and at least one and these personnel may be assigned to the resuscitation area for the entirety of the shift, or may be on call for resuscitation coverage. Examples of majors include chest pain, difficulty breathing, abdominal pain, Advanced diagnostic testing may be conducted at this stage, including laboratory testing of blood and/or urine, ultrasonography, CT or MRI scanning. Medications appropriate to manage the condition will also be given. Depending on underlying causes of the chief complaint, he or she may be discharged home from this area or admitted to the hospital for further treatment. Patients whose condition is not immediately life-threatening will be sent to an area suitable to deal with them, such patients may still have been found to have significant problems, including fractures, dislocations, and lacerations requiring suturing. Children can present particular challenges in treatment, many hospitals have a separate area for evaluation of psychiatric problems. These are often staffed by psychiatrists and mental health nurses and social workers, there is typically at least one room for people who are actively a risk to themselves or others. Fast decisions on life-and-death cases are critical in emergency rooms. As a result, doctors face great pressures to overtest and overtreat, other common variations include emergency ward, emergency centre or emergency unit
11.
Farringdon, London
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Farringdon is a historic area of the City of London, represented today by the Wards of Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without. Farringdon is also used informally to refer to the area around Farringdon Station in the London Borough of Islington, there are numerous places in England called Farringdon, all meaning fern covered hill. William and Nicholas de Faringdon, whose name is likely to have originated one of these places, were two related prominent citizens and Aldermen in the early 13th century. Nicholas purchased the area of the Farringdon ward of the City of London in 1279, in 1394 the ward was split into the still extant Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without. Farringdon Street was built over the River Fleet in 1737 and takes its name from either the Farringdon Wards of the City or was named in honour of Nicholas de Faringdon, the road was widened in 1829. In the City of London there are two Wards for Farringdon — Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without — a situation caused by the splitting of the original Farringdon Ward in 1394. Without and Within denote whether the Ward fell outside or within the London Wall — this was also the case for the Wards of Bridge Within, however a corridor connects the western area along Holborn to Smithfield. The area of Farringdon Within at Cheapside was transferred to Bassishaw Ward, the area around Blackfriars Lane, a map based on Stow c 1600 shows the Fagswell Brook south of Cowcross Street as the northern boundary of the City with the bar at Long Lane. Until 1993, a triangle of land south of Cowcross Street was within the City of London. Farringdon Station and its environs were previously within the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury and are now within the London Borough of Islington, planned redevelopment and expansion of Farringdon Station is expected to have a significant effect on the local area. Crossrail opened an Information Exchange in Farringdon in 2004 to aid consultation with local stakeholders, the area forms part of the City Fringe Partnership, an initiative between the City of London and other local authorities to revive parts of Inner London immediately adjacent to the City. In 2008 a plan to redevelop the area, including the demolition of part of Smithfield Market, was rejected by the Department of Communities
12.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
13.
Rahere
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Rahere, or Raher or Raherius, was an Anglo-Norman priest and monk. He was a favourite of King Henry I and is most famous for having founded the Priory of the Hospital of St Bartholomew in 1123 and he may at different times in his life have been all of these. Rahere is listed as a canon of St Pauls Cathedral in a document of 1115, on a pilgrimage to Rome, he fell ill and had a reputed vision of St Bartholomew, who directed him to establish a religious hospital. Upon his return to England, he followed this calling and founded a priory at Smithfield in London, being installed as its prior, an ornate tomb in his memory can be found inside the Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great. Raheres grant Photograph of Raheres tomb in the church of St Bartholomew-the-Great Notes on the poem Rahere Rahere at Find a Grave
14.
St Bartholomew-the-Great
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The Priory Church of St Bartholomew the Great, sometimes abbreviated to Great St Barts, is an Anglican church in West Smithfield within the City of London. The building was founded as an Augustinian priory in 1123 and it adjoins St Bartholomews Hospital of the same foundation. It was founded in 1123 by Rahere, a prebendary of St Pauls Cathedral and his fabled miraculous return to good health contributed to the priory gaining a reputation for curative powers and with sick people filling its aisles, notably on 24 August. Its nave was pulled down up to the last bay but the crossing and choir survive largely intact from the Norman and later Middle Ages, from there to its west door, the church path leads along roughly where the south aisle of the nave formerly existed. Very little trace of its buildings now survive, although parts of the cloister now house a café. The two parish churches were reunited in 2012 under one benefice, having escaped the Great Fire of London of 1666 the church fell into disrepair, becoming occupied by squatters in the 18th century. W. G. Grace, however, was one famous congregant before its restoration in the late 19th century, during Canon Edwin Savages tenure as rector the church was further restored at the cost of more than £60,000. The Lady chapel at the east end had been used for commercial purposes. The north transept was formerly used as a blacksmiths forge in order to make ends meet. The Priory Church was one of the few City churches to escape damage during the Second World War and, in 1941, was where the 11th Duke of Devonshire, the poet and heritage campaigner Sir John Betjeman kept a flat opposite the churchyard on Cloth Fair. Betjeman considered the church to have the finest surviving Norman interior in London, in 2005 a memorial service was held for Sir William Wallace, on the 700th anniversary of the Scottish heros execution, organised by the historian David R. Ross. Charitable distributions in the churchyard on Good Friday continue, the church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950. In April 2007 it became the first Anglican parish church to charge a fee to tourists not attending worship. The Rector of the parish of St Bartholomew the Great became rector of the united benefice. The boundary of the new parish incorporates precisely both former parishes, there is now a single PCC and churchwardens responsible for both buildings. The parish church is St Bartholomew the Great, while St Bartholomew the Less is a chapel of ease within the parish. The oriel window was installed inside St Bartholomew the Great in the early 16th century by Prior William Bolton, the symbol in the centre panel is a crossbow bolt passing through a tun, a rebus or pun on the name of the prior. The church served as the chapel of the Imperial Society of Knights Bachelor before the establishment of the permanent chapel in St Pauls Cathedral in 2005
15.
Henry I of England
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Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death. Henry was the son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin. On Williams death in 1087, Henrys elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, Henry purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but William and Robert deposed him in 1091. Henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert, Henry was present when William died in a hunting accident in 1100, and he seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of Williams less popular policies. Henry married Matilda of Scotland but continued to have a number of mistresses. Robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed Henrys control of England, the peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life, following Henrys victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England, Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials who ran Henrys system were new men of obscure backgrounds rather than families of high status. Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but became embroiled in a dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. He supported the Cluniac order and played a role in the selection of the senior clergy in England. Henrys only legitimate son and heir, William Adelin, drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120, Henry took a second wife, Adeliza, in the hope of having another son, but their marriage was childless. In response to this, Henry declared his daughter, Matilda, his heir, the relationship between Henry and the couple became strained, and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou. Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness, despite his plans for Matilda, the King was succeeded by his nephew, Stephen of Blois, resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy. Henry was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire. His father was William the Conqueror, who had originally been the Duke of Normandy and then, following the invasion of 1066, became the King of England, the invasion had created an Anglo-Norman elite, many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel. These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France, Henrys mother, Matilda of Flanders, was the granddaughter of Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle, King Henry I of France. Henry was the youngest of William and Matildas four sons, physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard and William Rufus, being, as historian David Carpenter describes, short, stocky and barrel-chested, with black hair
16.
Dissolution of the Monasteries
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Although the policy was originally envisaged as increasing the regular income of the Crown, much former monastic property was sold off to fund Henrys military campaigns in the 1540s. Professor George W. Bernard argues, The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. one adult man in fifty was in religious orders. Very few English houses had been founded later than the end of the 13th century, there was a Medieval proverb in England that said if the Abbot of Glastonbury married the Abbess of Shaftesbury, the heir would have more land than the King of England. The 200 houses of friars in England and Wales constituted a distinct wave of foundations almost all occurring in the 13th century. Friaries, for the most part, were concentrated in urban areas, however, the religious changes in England under Henry VIII and Edward VI were of a different nature from those taking place in Germany, Bohemia, France, Scotland and Geneva. Bernard says there was concern in the later fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries about the condition of the monasteries. Pastoral care was seen as more important and vital than the monastic focus on contemplation, prayer. English monasticism in the 1530s may have faced grave and urgent problems, Henry wanted to change this, and in November 1529 Parliament passed Acts reforming apparent abuses in the English Church. These Acts sought to demonstrate that establishing royal jurisdiction over the Church would ensure progress in religious reformation where papal authority had been insufficient, the monasteries were next in line. The stories of monastic impropriety, vice and excess that were to be collected by Thomas Cromwells visitors may have been biased and exaggerated. Levels of monastic debt were increasing, and average numbers of professed religious were falling, only a minority of houses could now support the twelve or thirteen professed religious usually regarded as the minimum necessary to maintain the full canonical hours of the Divine Office. Extensive monastic complexes dominated English towns of any size, but most were less than half full, renaissance princes throughout Europe were facing severe financial difficulties due to sharply rising expenditures, especially to pay for armies, fighting ships and fortifications. Most tended, sooner or later, to resort to plundering monastic wealth, protestant princes would justify this by claiming divine authority, Catholic princes would obtain the agreement and connivance of the Papacy. Monastic wealth, regarded everywhere as excessive and idle, offered a standing temptation for cash-strapped secular, in terms of popular esteem however, the balance tilted the other way. By the time Henry VIII turned his mind to the business of monastery reform, the first case was that of the so-called Alien Priories. As a result of the Norman Conquest some French religious orders held substantial property through their daughter monasteries in England, some of these were merely granges, agricultural estates with a single foreign monk in residence to supervise things, others were rich foundations in their own right. Such estates were a source of income for the Crown in its French wars. If the property with which a house had been endowed by its founder were to be confiscated or surrendered, then the house ceased to exist, whether its members continued in the religious life or not
17.
City of London Corporation
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In 2006 the name was changed from Corporation of London to avoid confusion with the wider London local government, the Greater London Authority. The Corporation is probably the worlds oldest continuously-elected local government authority, the corporations structure includes the Lord Mayor, the Court of Aldermen, the Court of Common Council, and the Freemen and Livery of the City. In Anglo-Saxon times, consultation between the Citys rulers and its citizens took place at the Folkmoot, administration and judicial processes were conducted at the Court of Husting and the non-legal part of the courts work evolved into the Court of Aldermen. Numerous subsequent Royal Charters over the centuries confirmed and extended the citizens rights, around 1189, the City gained the right to have its own mayor, later being advanced to the degree and style of Lord Mayor of London. The individual commissioners were nominated by the Corporation, but it was a separate body. Local government legislation often makes special provision for the City to be treated as a London borough, the Chief Executive of the administrative side of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London. The Chamberlain, the City Treasurer and Finance Officer, the City Remembrancer, who is responsible for protocol, ceremonial, security issues as well as legislative matters that may affect the Corporation and is legally qualified. The Comptroller and City Solicitor, legal officer. e, former Lord Mayors, and the junior Aldermen. The Common Serjeant, the senior judge at the Central Criminal Court Old Bailey. C) The Ward Beadles, responsible to a specific Ward from which they are elected, largely ceremonial support to their respective Aldermen, and also perform a formal role at Ward Motes. In 1801, the City had a population of about 130,000 and it has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. As it has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, therefore, the non-residential vote, abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies, the City of London Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the vote was about 24,000. Each body or organisation, whether unincorporated or incorporated, whose premises are within the City of London may appoint a number of based on the number of workers it employs. Limited liability partnerships fall into this category, though workers count as part of a workforce regardless of nationality, only certain individuals may be appointed as voters. The City of London is divided into twenty-five Wards, each of which is a division, electing one Alderman. The numbers below reflect the changes caused by the City of London Act, there are over one hundred livery companies in London
18.
Thomas Vicary
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Thomas Vicary was an early English physician, surgeon and anatomist. Vicary was born in Kent, in about 1490 and he played a leading role in the 1540 Act of Union of the two guilds, appearing in Hans Holbein the Youngers painting showing the King handing the charter to Vicary himself. Vicary obtained a right to the cadavers of four executed criminals for the Barber-Surgeons. In 1546, he was appointed the first superintendent of St Bartholomews Hospital, in 1548, he was appointed resident surgical governor of St Bartholomews Hospital, a post he held until his death. On Henrys death he continued to serve the Tudor monarchs as physician, one of the earliest works in anatomy was attributed to him, The anatomie of mans body, but it appears he republished and edited an earlier work of the Middle Ages. The Royal College of Surgeons maintains an annual lecture in his honour, the Englishemans Treasure History of anatomy This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
19.
William Harvey
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William Harvey was an English physician who made seminal contributions in anatomy and physiology. In 1973 the William Harvey Hospital was constructed in the town of Ashford, Williams father, Thomas Harvey, was a jurat of Folkestone where he served the office of mayor in 1600. Records and personal descriptions delineate him as a calm, diligent. Revered, consulted and implicitly trusted in him, made their father the treasurer of their wealth when they acquired great estates. Kept, employed, and improved their gainings to their great advantage, Thomas Harveys portrait can still be seen in the central panel of a wall of the dining-room at Rolls Park, Chigwell, in Essex. William was the eldest of nine children, seven sons and two daughters, of Thomas and his wife Joan Halke, notable family connections include Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham, who married Williams niece Elizabeth Harvey, and the diplomat Sir Daniel Harvey. Harveys initial education was carried out in Folkestone, where he learned Latin and he then entered the Kings School. Harvey stayed at the Kings School for five years, after which he matriculated at Gonville, Harvey graduated as a Bachelor of Arts from Caius in 1597. He then travelled through France and Germany to Italy, where he entered the University of Padua, during Harveys years of study there, he developed a relationship with Fabricius and read Fabriciuss De Venarum Ostiolis. Harvey graduated as a Doctor of Medicine at the age of 24 from the University of Padua on 25 April 1602, following this, Harvey established himself in London, joining the Royal College of Physicians on 5 October 1604. A few weeks after his admission, Harvey married Elizabeth Browne, and you shall take no gift or reward. This you will promise to do as you shall answer before God, Harvey earned around thirty-three pounds a year and lived in a small house in Ludgate, although two houses in West Smithfield were attached as fringe benefits to the post of Physician. At this point, the physicians function consisted of a simple but thorough analysis of patients who were brought to the once a week. The next important phase of Harveys life began with his appointment to the office of Lumleian lecturer on 4 August 1615, Harvey began his lectures in April 1616. At this time, at the age of thirty-seven, he was described as a man of lowest stature, round faced, his eyes small, round, very black and full of spirit, his hair as black as a raven and curling. The notes which he used at the time are preserved in the British Museum, to point out what is peculiar to the actual body which is being dissected. To supply only by speech what cannot be shown on your own credit, to cut up as much as may be in the sight of the audience. To enforce the right opinion by remarks drawn far and near, not to praise or dispraise other anatomists, for all did well, and there was some excuse even for those who are in error
20.
Percivall Pott
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Percivall Pott was an English surgeon, one of the founders of orthopedics, and the first scientist to demonstrate that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen. He served his apprenticeship with Edward Nourse, assistant surgeon to St Bartholomews Hospital and he became assistant surgeon to St Bartholomews in 1744 and full surgeon from 1749 till 1787. In 1756, Pott sustained a leg after a fall from his horse. It is often assumed that his injury was the one that later came to be known as Potts fracture. As he lay in the muck, he sent a servant to buy a door from a construction site, then had himself placed on the door. In 1769 Pott published Some Few Remarks upon Fractures and Dislocations, the book was translated into French and Italian, and had a far-reaching influence in Britain and France. His name was written in the annals of medicine, by first describing arthritic tuberculosis of the spine and he gave an excellent clinical description in his Remarks on that Kind of Palsy of the Lower Limbs. Among his other writings the most noteworthy are A Treatise on Ruptures, in 1775, Pott found an association between exposure to soot and a high incidence of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps. His work helped lead to the Chimney Sweepers Act 1788, Potts early investigations thus contributed to the science of epidemiology and the Chimney Sweepers Act 1788. The same chemical responsible for Potts unique cancer of chimney sweeps has since proven to be a suspect in various cancers caused by cigarette smoke. In 1765, he was elected Master of the Company of Surgeons, Percivall Potts married Sara Cruttendon in 1740. They lived together in Lincolns Inn Fields in London and would go on to have five sons, although little more is known about Percivall Potts private life, Pott is regularly described as having excellent character, and an archetypical English surgeon. It is believed that Potts standard of living was a contributor to the rise of the surgeon within social standings, amid the patient wards, Pott also honed his writing skills and believed in patient education. He would distribute pamphlets, noting his observations and thoughts on topics ranging from head injuries, hydrocele, fistula, rupture and these pamphlets were in high demand and would sell for more than one shilling and six pence. Between 1760s and the 1770s over fourteen of Potts pamphlets were in circulation, Percivall Potts dedication to his patients and standard of care garnered Pott high praise and fame. He is generally regarded as one of the two greatest surgeons of the 18th century along with his student John Hunter, in 1786, he was honored as the first Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. Shortly after, he retired in 1787 and was named a governor of St. Bartholomews Hospital, Percivall Pott has influenced medicine and modern understanding of diseases. Many diseases today are his namesake including, Pott’s Fracture, Pott’s disease of the spine, one disease which does not, yet is important to Potts legacy is Chimney Sweepers Carcinoma
21.
John Abernethy (surgeon)
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John Abernethy FRS was an English surgeon. He is popularly remembered today for having given his name to the Abernethy biscuit and he was a grandson of the Reverend John Abernethy. He was born in Coleman Street in the City of London on 3 April 1764, educated at Wolverhampton Grammar School, he was apprenticed in 1779 to Sir Charles Blicke, a surgeon at St Bartholomews Hospital, London. On Potts resignation of the office of surgeon of St Bartholomews, Sir Charles Blicke, who was assistant-surgeon, succeeded him and he held the office of assistant-surgeon for twenty-eight years, till, in 1815, he was elected principal surgeon. He had before that time been appointed lecturer in anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons, Abernethy was not a great operator, though his name is associated with the treatment of aneurysm by ligature of the external iliac artery. So great was his zeal in encouraging patients to read the book that he earned the nickname Doctor My-Book and he taught that local diseases were frequently the results of disordered states of the digestive organs, and were to be treated by purging and attention to diet. As a lecturer he was attractive, and his success in teaching was largely attributable to the persuasiveness with which he enunciated his views. The celebrity he attained in his practice was due not only to his professional skill. He was very blunt with his patients, treating them often brusquely and he resigned his position at St Bartholomews Hospital in 1827, and died at his residence at Enfield on 20 April 1831. Abernethy believed that a variety of diseases originated in a state of the digestive organs. He invented, or at least gave his name to, a biscuit called the Abernethy biscuit that he promoted from about 1829 until his death. He contributed articles to Reess Cyclopædia on Anatomy and Physiology, a collected edition of his works was published in 1830. A biography, Memoirs of John Abernethy, by George Macilwain, John Abernethy is mentioned in Edgar Allan Poes The Purloined Letter. A poem entitled John Abernethy, Esq. appears in Fishers Drawing Scrap Book,1833, signed J. F. B. ru, Наттолова энциклопедия Wood, James, London and New York, Frederick Warne. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Abernethy. Chambers, Robert & Thomson, Thomas Napier, a biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen. Portraits of John Abernethy at the National Portrait Gallery, London Texts on Wikisource, Abernethy, “John Abernethy” in Biographia Hibernica,1822, by Richard Ryan
22.
Ethel Gordon Fenwick
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Ethel Gordon Fenwick was a British nurse who played a major role in the History of Nursing in the United Kingdom. She was born Ethel Gordon Manson in the Morayshire town of Elgin in Scotland, ethels mother then married George Storer, a Member of Parliament. She was educated privately at Middlethorpe Hall, Middlethorpe, Yorkshire, at the age of 21 she commenced nurse training at the Childrens Hospital in Nottingham as a paying probationer nurse, and then at Manchester Royal Infirmary. Her expertise was soon noted and it was not long before she left for London, where she worked in hospitals in Whitechapel, and Richmond. She was instrumental in founding Florence Nightingale International Foundation, the foundation of the International Council of Nurses. She extended significantly the training period for nurses, and campaigned for the registration of nurses in the United Kingdom. This was achieved through the Nurses Registration Act 1919, and Ethel Gordon Fenwick appears as Nurse No.1 when the register opened in 1923, Ethel Fenwick acquired the Nursing Record in 1893 and became its editor in 1903. It was renamed The British Journal of Nursing and through its pages for the next 54 years her thinking and she believed that there was a need for training to a recognised standard and was instrumental in forming the British Nurses Association, now the Royal British Nurses Association. In 1999 an English Heritage blue plaque was attached to her home at 20 Upper Wimpole Street. British nursing matrons from the 19th century McGann, Susan, Fenwick, Ethel Gordon, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004, online edn, Jan 2010 accessed 7 Oct 2010 ETHEL GORDON FENWICK, S. R. N. A SHORT OUTLINE OF HER LIFE AND WORK, the Evolution Of The Trained Nurse. Battle of the Nurses, a study of eight women who influenced the development of professional nursing 1880-1930, RCN, Historical biographies - Mrs Bedford Fenwick, A Restless Genius
23.
National Health Service
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The National Health Service is the name of the public health services of England, Scotland and Wales, and is commonly used to refer to those of Northern Ireland. They were established together as one of the social reforms following the Second World War on the founding principles of being comprehensive, universal. Today, each provides a range of health services, the vast majority of which are free for people ordinarily resident in the United Kingdom. Taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a budget of £136.7 billion. For non-residents, the NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner, the NHS began on the Appointed Day of 5 July 1948. This put into practice Westminster legislation for England and Wales from 1946 and Scotland from 1947, when Clement Attlees Labour Party won the 1945 election he appointed Aneurin Bevan as Health Minister. Bevan then embarked upon what the historian of the NHS, Charles Webster. Three years after the founding of the NHS, Bevan resigned from the Labour government in opposition to the introduction of charges for the provision of dentures and glasses, the following year, Winston Churchills Conservative government introduced prescription charges. These charges were the first of many controversies over reforms to the NHS throughout its history, each of the UKs four nations have their own separate NHS, each with its own history. From its earliest days, the history of the NHS has shown its place in British society reflected and debated in film, TV, cartoons. However, some functions might be performed by one health service on behalf of another. There have been issues about cross-border payments, taken together, the four National Health Services in 2015-16 employed around 1.6 million people with a combined budget of £136.7 billion. In 2014 the total health sector workforce across the UK was 2,165,043 and this broke down into 1,789,586 in England,198,368 in Scotland,110,292 in Wales and 66,797 in Northern Ireland. The NHS is free at the time of use, for general practitioner and emergency treatment not including admission to hospital, people with the right to medical care in European Economic Area nations are also entitled to free treatment by using the European Health Insurance Card. Those from other countries with which the UK has reciprocal arrangements also qualify for free treatment, people not ordinarily resident in the UK are in general not entitled to free hospital treatment, with some exceptions such as refugees. People not ordinarily resident may be subject to an interview to establish their eligibility, patients who do not qualify for free treatment are asked to pay in advance, or to sign a written undertaking to pay, except for emergency treatment. The provision of treatment to non-UK-residents, formerly interpreted liberally, has been increasingly restricted. As of 2016 the surcharge was £200 per year, with exemptions and reductions in some cases, the systems are 98. 8% funded from general taxation and National Insurance contributions, plus small amounts from patient charges for some services
24.
Gatehouse
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A gatehouse, in architectural terminology, is a building enclosing or accompanying a gateway for a castle, manor house, fort, town or similar buildings of importance. Gatehouses made their first appearance in the early antiquity when it became necessary to protect the entrance to a castle or town. Over time, they evolved into very complicated structures with many lines of defence, strongly fortified gatehouses would normally include a drawbridge, one or more portcullises, machicolations, arrow loops and possibly even murder-holes where stones would be dropped on attackers. In some castles, the gatehouse was so strongly fortified it took on the function of a keep, examples of such gate keeps can be found at Bodiam Castle and Beaumaris Castle. In the late Middle Ages, some of these arrow loops might have converted into gun loops. Sometimes gatehouses formed part of fortifications, perhaps defending the passage of a bridge across a river or a moat. York has four important gatehouses, known as Bars, in its city walls, the French term for gatehouse is logis-porche. This could be a large, complex structure that served both as a gateway and lodging or it could have composed of a gateway through an enclosing wall. A very large gatehouse might be called a châtelet, at the end of the Middle Ages, many gatehouses in England and France were converted into beautiful, grand entrance structures to manor houses or estates. Many of them became a separate feature free-standing or attached to the manor or mansion only by an enclosing wall, by this time the gatehouse had lost its defensive purpose and had become more of a monumental structure designed to harmonise with the manor or mansion. On the continent of Europe, there are examples of surviving gatehouses in France, Austria. Bargate, in Hampshire is a gatehouse in the city centre of Southampton. Constructed in 1180 as part of the Southampton town walls Ightham Mote, Durham Castle, in Durham has an 11th-century gatehouse that is now used as accommodation for students attending University College, Durham. Layer Marney Tower, the apotheosis of the Tudor gatehouse, stokesay Castle, a 13th-century fortified manor house in Shropshire has a Jacobean half-timbered gatehouse. Stanway House, Stanway, Gloucestershire, where the gatehouse measures 44 ft. by 22 ft. and has three storeys, westwood House, Worcestershire, which has a frontage of 54 ft. with two storeys. Burton Agnes Hall, East Riding of Yorkshire, which has three storeys and is flanked by octagonal towers at the angles. Hylton Castle, Hylton, Sunderland, although it is an actual castle, château de Châteaubriant, two gatehouses, one for the lower bailey, one for the upper ward. Château de Suscinio, a large 15th-century gatehouse in the style, Morbihan
25.
James Gibbs
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James Gibbs was one of Britains most influential architects. Born in Scotland, he trained as an architect in Rome and he is an important figure whose work spanned the transition between English Baroque architecture and a Georgian architecture heavily influenced by Andrea Palladio. Among his most important works are St Martin-in-the-Fields, in London, the Palladians were largely Whigs, led by Lord Burlington and Colen Campbell, a fellow Scot who developed a rivalry with Gibbs. Gibbs professional Italian training under the Baroque master Carlo Fontana also set him apart from the Palladian school. The naming of the Gibbs surround for doors and windows, which he certainly did not invent, overall, Gibbs was an individual who formed his own style independently of current fashions. Architectural historian John Summerson describes his work as the fulfilment of Wrens architectural ideas, despite the influence of his books, Gibbs, as a stylistic outsider, had little effect on the later direction of British architecture, which saw the rise of Neoclassicism shortly after his death. He was educated at Aberdeen Grammar School and Marischal College, after the death of his parents he went in 1700 to stay with relatives in Holland. He later travelled through Europe, visiting Flanders, France, Switzerland, some time after he left for Rome travelling via France. On 12 October 1703 he registered as a student at The Scots College and he would have been studying for the Catholic priesthood but had second thoughts. By the end of 1704 he was studying architecture under Carlo Fontana, he was taught by Pietro Francesco Garroli. While in Rome Gibbs met John Perceval, 1st Earl of Egmont who attempted to persuade him to move to Ireland. He moved to London in November 1708, his return to Britain was probably due to the illness of his half-brother William. Still intending to take up the offer of work in Ireland, he had befriended by John Erskine. The Earl persuaded Gibbs to remain in London, offering him his first commission, around this time he met Edward Harley, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, who would be a powerful patron and friend and James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos. Gibbs was one of the sixty members of Godfrey Knellers Academy of Painting. On 18 December 1716 Gibbs joined the Vandykes clubb, also called the Club of St Luke for Virtuosi in London, in 1720 Gibbs was invited along with other architects to enter a competition to design a new church to replace the dilapidated church of St Martin-in-the-Fields. He won, and on 24 November 1720 he was appointed architect of the new church, horace Walpole described Gibbs as being around 1720 as the architect most in vogue. In 1720 Gibbs was approached by the Provost of Kings College, Cambridge to complete the college, the scheme consisted of three buildings, all 53 feet high, forming a courtyard 240 by 282 feet to the south of the Chapel
26.
William Hogarth
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William Hogarth FRSA was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic series of pictures called modern moral subjects. Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are referred to as Hogarthian. William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, in his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the life of the metropolis and the London fairs. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St Johns Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years, Hogarth never spoke of his fathers imprisonment. Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, by April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms, shop bills, and designing plates for booksellers. In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, Morris heard that he was an engraver, and no painter, and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, in 1757 he was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. In the bottom corner, he shows Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round. At the top is a goat, written below which is Whol Ride, Other early works include The Lottery, The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormogons, A Just View of the British Stage, some book illustrations, and the small print Masquerades and Operas. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket, in 1726 Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings for Samuel Butlers Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best book illustrations, in the following years he turned his attention to the production of small conversation pieces. One of his real low-life and real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm who he sketched two days before her execution and he might also have printed Burlington Gate, evoked by Alexander Popes Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed, however, modern authorities such as Ronald Paulson no longer attribute it to Hogarth. In 1731 Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, the collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlots Progress and appeared first as paintings before being published as engravings. The inaugural series was a success and was followed in 1735 by the sequel A Rakes Progress. The original paintings of A Harlots Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755, while A Rakes Progress is displayed in the room at Sir John Soanes Museum, London
27.
Mural
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A mural is any piece of artwork painted or applied directly on a wall, ceiling or other permanent surface. A distinguishing characteristic of painting is that the architectural elements of the given space are harmoniously incorporated into the picture. Some wall paintings are painted on canvases, which are then attached to the wall. Whether these works can be accurately called murals is a subject of controversy in the art world. Murals of sorts date to Upper Paleolithic times such as the paintings in the Chauvet Cave in Ardèche department of southern France, many ancient murals have been found within ancient Egyptian tombs, the Minoan palaces and in Pompeii. During the Middle Ages murals were executed on dry plaster. The huge collection of Kerala mural painting dating from the 14th century are examples of fresco secco, in Italy, circa 1300, the technique of painting of frescos on wet plaster was reintroduced and led to a significant increase in the quality of mural painting. In modern times, the became more well-known with the Mexican muralism art movement. There are many different styles and techniques, the best-known is probably fresco, which uses water-soluble paints with a damp lime wash, a rapid use of the resulting mixture over a large surface, and often in parts. The colors lighten as they dry, the marouflage method has also been used for millennia. Murals today are painted in a variety of ways, using oil or water-based media, the styles can vary from abstract to trompe-lœil. Initiated by the works of artists like Graham Rust or Rainer Maria Latzke in the 1980s, trompe-loeil painting has experienced a renaissance in private. The buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a layer of wet, fresh. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster, after a number of hours. After this the painting stays for a time up to centuries in fresh. Fresco-secco painting is done on dry plaster, the pigments thus require a binding medium, such as egg, glue or oil to attach the pigment to the wall. By the end of the century this had largely displaced the buon fresco method. This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of a secco work, in Greco-Roman times, mostly encaustic colors applied in a cold state were used
28.
Great Fire of London
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The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday,2 September to Wednesday,5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall and it threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles IIs Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses,87 parish churches, St Pauls Cathedral and it is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the Citys 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small, a melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane, where the fire started, shows that the temperature reached 1250 °C. The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday,2 September, by the time that large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm that defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City, order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the focused on the French and Dutch, Englands enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming, evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire, by the 1660s, London was by far the largest city in Britain, estimated at half a million inhabitants. By inartificial, Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift, the result of organic growth, London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall. It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch, Holborn, and Southwark, the City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived. The City was then, as now, the heart of the capital. The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the suburbs, or in the exclusive Westminster district. The relationship was tense between the City and the Crown. The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War and they were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son, and when the Great Fire threatened the City, they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources. Even in such an emergency, the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite, by the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor, the fire was already out of control. The City was essentially medieval in its plan, an overcrowded warren of narrow, winding. It had experienced major fires before 1666, the most recent in 1632
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The Blitz
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By September 1940—two months into the battle—faulty German intelligence suggested that the Royal Air Force was close to defeat at the hands of the Luftwaffe. The German air fleets were ordered to attack London, thereby drawing up the last remnants of RAF Fighter Command into a battle of annihilation, Adolf Hitler and commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, sanctioned the change in emphasis on 6 September 1940. From 7 September 1940, one year into the war, London was systematically bombed by the Luftwaffe for 56 out of the following 57 days, on 15 September 1940, a large daylight attack against London was repulsed with significant German losses. Thereafter, the Luftwaffe gradually decreased daylight operations in favour of nocturnal attacks, ports and industrial centres outside London were also attacked. The main Atlantic sea port of Liverpool was bombed, the North Sea port of Hull, a convenient and easily found target or secondary target for bombers unable to locate their primary targets, was subjected to raids in the Hull Blitz during the war. More than one million London houses were destroyed or damaged and more than 40,000 civilians were killed, by May 1941, the threat of an invasion of Britain had ended, and Hitlers attention turned to Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The bombing failed to demoralise the British into surrender or significantly damage the war economy, the eight months of bombing never seriously hampered British production and the war industries continued to operate and expand. The German offensives greatest effect was forcing the dispersal of aircraft production, British wartime studies concluded that cities generally took 10 to 15 days to recover when hit severely but exceptions like Birmingham took three months. The German air offensive failed for several reasons, discussions in OKL revolved around tactics rather than strategy. Poor intelligence on British industry and economic efficiency was also a factor, in the 1920s and 1930s, air power theorists Giulio Douhet and Billy Mitchell espoused the idea that air forces could win wars, without a need for land and sea fighting. It was thought there was no defence against air attack, particularly at night, enemy industry, seats of government, factories and communications could be destroyed, taking away their means to resist. It was also thought the bombing of residential centres would cause a collapse of civilian will, democracies, where the populace was allowed to show overt disapproval of the state, were thought particularly vulnerable. This thinking was prevalent in both the RAF and the United States Army Air Corps, the policy of RAF Bomber Command became an attempt to achieve victory through the destruction of civilian will, communications and industry. In the Luftwaffe, there was a view of strategic bombing. OKL did not believe that air power alone could be decisive, contrary to popular belief, evidence suggests that the Luftwaffe did not adopt an official bombing policy in which civilians became the primary target until 1942. The vital industries and transport centres that would be targeted for shutdown were valid military targets and it could be claimed civilians were not to be targeted directly, but the breakdown of production would affect their morale and will to fight. German legal scholars of the 1930s carefully worked out guidelines for what type of bombing was permissible under international law. Wever outlined five points of air strategy, To destroy the air force by bombing its bases and aircraft factories
30.
Pool of Bethesda
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The Pool of Bethesda is a pool of water in the Muslim Quarter of Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley. The fifth chapter of the Gospel of John describes such a pool in Jerusalem, near the Sheep Gate, in the 19th century, archaeologists discovered the remains of a pool fitting the description in John’s Gospel. The name of the pool is said to be derived from the Hebrew language and/or Aramaic language, Beth hesda, meaning either house of mercy or house of grace. In both Hebrew and Aramaic the word could also mean shame, disgrace. This dual meaning may have been appropriate, since the location was seen as a place of disgrace due to the presence of invalids. Delitzsch suggested that the name comes from a mishnaic Hebrew loanword from Greek, estiv/estava, the Pool of Bethesda has been an area of controversy for Christian historians and archaeologists alike. According to the Gospel of John, Bethesda was a bath with five porticos. The Johannine narrative describes the porticos as being a place in large numbers of infirm people were waiting. The biblical narrative continues by describing a Shabbat visit to the site by Jesus, during which he heals a man who has been bedridden for many years, and could not make his own way into the pool. In digs conducted in the 19th century, Conrad Schick discovered a large tank situated about 100 feet north-west of St. Annes Church and it was discovered that the Byzantine construction was built in the very heart of Hadrians construction and contained the healing pools. The reservoir became known as the Upper Pool, in the mid 1st century AD, Herod Agrippa expanded the city walls, bringing the asclepieion into the city. When Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, he placed a roadway along the dam, in the Byzantine era, the asclepieion was converted to a church. After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem, the buildings were rebuilt on a smaller scale with a new church erected nearby. This new church, named for Saint Anne and completed in 1138 AD. was built over the site of a grotto believed by the Crusaders to be the birthplace of Anne, after the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin it was transformed into a Shafii fiqh. Gradually the buildings fell into ruin, becoming a midden, the French constructed the Church of Saint Anne, at the south east corner of the site, leaving the ancient ruins untouched. Isaiah 7 Pictures of the Bethesda Jewish Encyclopedia, Bethesda Catholic Encyclopedia, Bethsaida, II
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Baroque
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The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
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Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
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Parish
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A parish is a church territorial unit constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates. Historically, a parish often covered the same area as a manor. By extension the term refers not only to the territorial unit. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district. In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a parish comprises a division of a diocese or see, parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or vicariate forane, overseen by a dean or vicar forane, or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry, in the Roman Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest, who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish. These are called assistant priests, parochial vicars, curates, or, in the United States, associate pastors, each diocese is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum for those attached to the form of the Roman Rite. Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, the Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Churchs secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury,30 and York,14. A chapelry was a subdivision of a parish in England. It had a status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church. In England civil parishes and their parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge, the word parish acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a council elected by public vote or a parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council. The parish is also the level of church administration in the Church of Scotland
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St Bartholomew-the-Less
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St Bartholomew the Less was an Anglican parish in the City of London and the church of St Bartholomews Hospital within the ancient hospital precincts. Its earliest predecessor, known as the Chapel of the Holy Cross, was founded nearby in 1123 before moving to the present site in 1184, along with most other religious foundations the hospital was dissolved by Henry VIII. It was then refounded by King Henry VIII, when the became an Anglican parish church serving those living within its precincts. Its suffix, the less, was given to distinguish it from its larger neighbour, the churchs tower and west façade date from 15th century, with two of its three bells dating from 1380 and 1420. They hang within a medieval bell frame, believed to be the oldest in the City of London. In 1793 George Dance the Younger, a Royal Academician, created a new octagonal interior within the shell of the medieval chapel, the new construction was made entirely of wood and soon became affected by dry-rot. In 1823 it was replaced under the supervision of Thomas Hardwick and he also made alterations to the detailing. The church suffered bomb damage during the Blitz of the Second World War but this was repaired. St Bartholomew the Less Churchs interior although small is light and airy and its form is that of an octagonal Gothic vault fitted into a square by the means of adding open triangular chapels at its corners. The church was designated a Grade II* listed building on 4 January 1950 and is associated with the Haberdashers Company, its neighbour in West Smithfield at Haberdashers Hall. The Rector of the parish of St Bartholomew the Great became Rector of the united benefice. The boundary of the new parish incorporates precisely both former parishes, there is now a single PCC and Churchwardens responsible for both buildings. The parish church is St Bartholomew the Great, while St Bartholomew the Less is a Chapel of Ease within the parish
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Parish church
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A parish church in Christianity is the church which acts as the religious centre of a parish. The church building reflects this status, and there is variety in the size. Many villages in Europe have churches that date back to the Middle Ages, in England, it is the basic administrative unit of episcopal churches. Nearly every part of England is in a parish, and most parishes have an Anglican parish church, in cities without a cathedral of a certain Christian denomination, the parish church may have administrative functions similar to that of a cathedral. However, the diocese will still have a cathedral, while smaller villages may only have a parish church, larger towns may have a parish church and then also smaller churches in various districts which do not have the status of parish church. Often the parish church will be the one to have a full-time minister. One sign of this is that the church is the only one to have a baptismal font. The Church of Scotland, the established Presbyterian church, also uses a system of parish churches, in Massachusetts, towns elected publicly funded parish churches from 1780 until 1834. Toward the end of the 20th century, a new resurgence in interest in parish churches emerged across the United States and this has given rise to efforts like the Slow Church Movement and The Parish Collective which focus heavily on localized involvement across work, home, and church life. Theologically, many Protestants have embraced the model as having roots in a Reformed view of eschatology. It’s a way of saying ‘I believe in the Incarnation, ’” says pastor Raymond F. Cannata, “Having an earthy eschatology is part of it. ”Roman Catholic parish church Church of England parish church Smith, C. Slow Church, Cultivating Community in the Patient Way of Jesus
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Nursing
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Nursing is a profession within the health care sector focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Nurses may be differentiated from other health care providers by their approach to patient care, training, Nurses practice in many specialisms with differing levels of prescriber authority. Many nurses provide care within the scope of physicians. However, nurses are permitted by most jurisdictions to practice independently in a variety of settings depending on training level, Nurses may help coordinate the patient care performed by other members of an interdisciplinary health care team such as therapists, medical practitioners and dietitians. Nurses provide care both interdependently, for example, with physicians, and independently as nursing professionals, Nursing historians face the challenge of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity was nursing care. In the fifth century BC, for example, the Hippocratic Collection in places describes skilled care and observation of patients by male attendants, who may have been early nurses. Hence, any one desirous of acquiring a knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it. Before the foundation of modern nursing, members of religious orders such as nuns, examples exist in Christian, Islamic and Buddhist traditions amongst others. Phoebe, mentioned in Romans 16 has been described in sources as the first visiting nurse. These traditions were influential in the development of the ethos of modern nursing, the religious roots of modern nursing remain in evidence today in many countries. One example in the United Kingdom is the use of the sister to refer to a senior nurse. During the Reformation of the 16th century, Protestant reformers shut down the monasteries and convents and those nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to get married and stay home. Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the Roman Catholic Church, were removed from their positions, the nursing profession suffered a major setback for approximately 200 years. Florence Nightingale laid the foundations of professional nursing during the Crimean War and her Notes on Nursing became popular. Agnes Jones, who established a training regime at the Brownlow Hill infirmary, Liverpool. In turn, the modern movement began in Germany in 1836. Within a half century, there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe, formal use of nurses in the modern military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the First Boer War, the Egyptian Campaign, hospital-based training came to the fore in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience
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Worshipful Company of Glaziers
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The Worshipful Company of Glaziers and Painters of Glass is one of the Livery Companies of the City of London. The Guild of Glaziers, or makers of Glass, the Companys forerunner and it received a Royal Charter of incorporation in 1638. It is no longer an association of glass craftsmen, instead existing, along with a majority of Livery Companies. The original Glaziers Hall was burnt down during the Great Fire of London in 1666, the current Hall was acquired and refurbished in 1977. It is located on the side of London Bridge and has spectacular views over the River Thames towards the City of London. The Company ranks fifty-third in the order of precedence for Livery Companies and its motto is Lucem Tuam Da Nobis Deo, Latin for O God, Give Us Your Light. The charitable activities of the Glaziers’ Company are mainly, but not exclusively, focused on stained glass, and are managed by the Glaziers Foundation, a registered Charity, No 1143700. The Foundation has four committees that were previously self-standing charities, the Glaziers Trust, the London Stained Glass Repository, the Charity for Relief in Need, the board of the trust sits four times a year to consider applications for stained glass conservation and restoration grants. To maintain the highest professional standards it is a condition of grant that remedial work is carried out by an accredited glazier or glass conservator, the trust is usually unable to fund the cost of an entire restoration project and normally provides only partial funding. The trust also supports other organisations within the glass community such as the British Society of Master Glass Painters. Both of these receive a grant to help them continue their work. The trust also supports the publication, “Vidimus”, the only online journal devoted to stained glass. Through the Foundation’s Craft and Competitions Committee the Trust funds several educational initiatives such as the Stevens Competition and this is a nationwide competition for architectural glass design and we believe it to be the only national competition of its kind. It attracts entries from artists, which are judged by a panel of prominent craftsmen. Sponsors of the competition regularly commission work from among the entries, the Award for Excellence and the Ashton Hill Awards provide opportunities for those wishing to pursue a practical career in stained glass. They provide the funds for placements in working studios where mentored and supervised work experience takes place, the Award for Excellence provides 40 weeks of placements and the Ashton Hill Awards 10 weeks. The Arthur and Helen Davis Travelling Scholarships provide opportunities for the study of glass outside the UK, recent awardees have studied in the United States, Iceland, France, Germany and the Czech Republic. Continuing Professional Development Awards are available for practitioners wishing to broaden their skills either artistically or by attaining accredited conservator status, the London Stained Glass Repository rescues and relocates good quality stained glass, principally from redundant churches
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Thomas Hardwick
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Thomas Hardwick was a British architect and a founding member of the Architects Club in 1791. Both father and son were associated with Syon from about the 1720s, the Hardwicks were one of the finest architectural families during the 19th century. Thomas Hardwick, his son Philip Hardwick, and then grandson Philip Charles Hardwick each held the post of Surveyor to St Bartholomews Hospital, London. In 1769, aged 17, he enrolled at the new Royal Academy Schools, during his first year at the Royal Academy he won the silver medal in architecture, and from 1772 to 1805 he exhibited there. In his early twenties Hardwick travelled to Europe at his own expense, visiting Paris and Lyon and he also renewed his acquaintance with fellow Academy pupil John Soane. Arguably, his most notable work is the church of St Mary, in 1813 he had begun a chapel-of-ease, designed to accommodate a considerable congregation, on the south side of the New Road in London, for the parish of St Marylebone. It was a rectangular building, with two small wings placed diagonally at the liturgical east, and was intended to have an Ionic portico surmounted by a group of figures. However, before completion, it was decided that it would make a new parish church for of St Marylebone. The interior, with two tiers of galleries supported on columns, was left unaltered. In 1823 he restored St Bartholomew-the-Less in the City of London, an octagonal vaulted interior had been constructed within the churchs medieval walls by George Dance the Younger using timber, but had succumbed to dry rot. Hardwick replicated it in permanent materials, using Bath stone for the columns. He also restored Sir Christopher Wrens St Jamess, Piccadilly, as well as churches, he also designed some civic buildings, including the Shire Hall in Dorchester, Dorset. Built in 1797, this retains the courtroom where the Tolpuddle Martyrs were sentenced to transportation to Australia for their part in the early trade union movement in 1834. Hardwick was appointed Clerk of Works at Hampton Court by King George III, following which he also work at Kew Palace and he was a founding member of the Architects Club, but never became an Associate of the Royal Academy. Hardwicks pupils included Samuel Angell, the Plymouth architect John Foulston designer of the Greek Revival style Plymouth Proprietary Library, Philip thus became the third successive generation to practice as an architect, joining his father as a partner and in 1825 taking over the firm’s London office. Another of Hardwicks pupils was the artist J. M. W, Turner, whom it is said Hardwick advised to concentrate more on painting than architecture. During the young artists training Turner made a drawing of Hardwicks design of St Mary the Virgin, Wanstead, Turner continued to be friends with the Hardwick family and at the end of his life chose Hardwicks son, Philip, as an executor. Another son, John Hardwick, was a magistrate at Great Marlborough Street magistrates court, London
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Philip Hardwick
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Philip Hardwick RA was an English architect, particularly associated with railway stations and warehouses in London and elsewhere. Hardwick is probably best known for Londons demolished Euston Arch and its twin station Birmingham Curzon Street, Hardwick was born at 9 Rathbone Place in Westminster, London. He was educated at Dr Barrows school in Soho Square and trained as an architect under his father, Thomas Hardwick, the Hardwick family name spans over 150 years in the history of British architecture. Philip Hardwick entered the Royal Academy Schools in 1808 and then studied in France, after travelling Europe, he took over from his father as Surveyor to St Bartholomews Hospital, London. This post later passed on to Philips son – Philip Charles Hardwick, in 1825 he was appointed architect to the St Katherines Dock Company, for whom he designed the dock buildings, Thomas Telford designing the docks themselves. In 1829 he became architect to the Goldsmiths Company, designing a new hall for them which was opened in 1835, in 1836 Hardwick became architect to the London and Birmingham Railway. He built a great Doric propylaeum, which known as the Euston Arch. In 1838 he built the Curzon Street Station as the railways Birmingham terminus and it is an austere cubic three-story building in the Ionic style, with a portico of four giant Ionic columns. At Babraham Hall in 1822-3, on the site of a long-demolished sixteenth-century house, Hardwick adopted a Jacobean style, brick was used again at Lincolns Inn, when, in 1843-5, Hardwick, in collaboration with his son, built a new hall and library. They used a Tudor style, the red brick varied with black brick decoration, Hardwick gained a reputation as a surveyor and was employed by the Westminster Bridge estates, the Portman London estate, Greenwich Hospital, and the estate of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury. He was also surveyor to Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, in 1831 his father in law, architect John Shaw Senior, helped elect Hardwick as a fellow of the Royal Society. Hardwick was a member of the Institute of British Architects – later the RIBA – and was a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. In 1839 he was one of the judges for the new Royal Exchange building in the City of London and he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1839, and became a Royal Academician in 1841. In 1854, he received the seventh Royal Gold Medal for architecture, Philip married Julia Shaw in 1819, at St Jamess Church, Piccadilly. Julias father, John Shaw Sr. and brother, John Shaw Jr. were both architects, the two families lived close by within the boroughs of Westminster and Holborn. Philip Hardwick had two sons, the eldest died of smallpox whilst still at Eton, the younger, Philip Charles Hardwick, was born in 1822, Philip Charles began working in the firm around 1843. Philip Hardwicks pupils included John Loughborough Pearson, Gothic revival architect of Truro Cathedral, Thomas Henry Wyatt, T. Roger Smith, Hardwick was a close friend of the artist J. M. W. Turner, who had been a pupil of his father. In 1851 Turner chose Hardwick as an executor to his will, Hardwick and much of his extended family were buried at Kensal Green Cemetery
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Philip Charles Hardwick
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Philip Charles Hardwick was an English architect. Philip Charles Hardwick was born in Westminster in London, the son of the architect Philip Hardwick and his mother was also from an eminent architectural family, the Shaws. Philip Charles Hardwicks maternal grandfather was John Shaw Senior and his uncle was John Shaw Jr. Hardwick trained under his father and he exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy between 1848 and 1854. Philip Charles worked in the City of London, where he became the architect of grandiose banking offices. He designed five City banks, including Drummonds in Trafalgar Square and he was employed outside London designing branch offices at Hull and Leeds. His best known work was the Great Hall of Londons Euston railway station, the Great Hall was demolished in 1962 to make way for construction of the current Euston Station building. Hardwick, like his grandfather Thomas Hardwick, was the Surveyor to St Bartholomews Hospital in London and he was also an adviser in the new War Office and Admiralty competition of 1884. While he had been an architect of Queen Victoria to design the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens. Arthur William Blomfield was Hardwicks pupil in 1852–55, Hardwick retired to Wimbledon and married in Bath in the early 1870s. Two of his sons went into the military and served in South Africa during the Boer War, one of them, Hardwicks daughter, Helen, married Sir Henry George Lyons, later a director of the Science Museum in London. Philip Charles Hardwick is buried alongside his father, Philip, and the Shaw family in Kensal Green Cemetery, London
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Royal Academy of Arts
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The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
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World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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Royal London Hospital
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The Royal London Hospital is a large teaching hospital in London, United Kingdom. It is part of Barts Health NHS Trust, the Royal London provides district general hospital services for the City and Tower Hamlets and specialist tertiary care services for patients from across London and elsewhere. It is also the base for Londons Air Ambulance, operating out of a rooftop helipad, there are 675 beds,110 wards and 26 operating theatres at the Royal London Hospital. The new building opened in February 2012, the Royal London was founded in September 1740 and was originally named the London Infirmary. The name changed to the London Hospital in 1748, and in 1990 to the Royal London Hospital, the first patients were treated at a house in Featherstone Street, Moorfields. On 3 November the London Infirmary opened in a house on Featherstone Street, in May 1741 the hospital moved to larger premises in Prescott Street, in that time in an exceedingly bad district. In 1742, the 2nd Duke of Richmond was persuaded by the surgeon, John Harrison. The name changed to the London Hospital around 1748, the next year, the trustees of the charity acquired a royal charter so that they could constitute themselves as a legal entity. Private medical schools had long established, but the London College was the first medical school in England. Joseph Merrick, known as the Elephant Man, was admitted to the hospital in 1886 and his mounted skeleton is currently housed at the medical school, but is not on public display. In 1990 the Queen visited the hospital and added Royal to the name, prior to this, the school of nursing was known as the Princess Alexandra College of Nursing and Midwifery. In 1995 the new Nursing School was incorporated into City University, in March 2005 planning permission was granted for a £1 billion redevelopment and expansion of the Royal London Hospital. On completion of the project, the hospital will have London’s leading trauma and emergency centre, one of Europe’s largest renal services. Barts is also undergoing redevelopment and will become a cancer and cardiac centre of excellence, the Royal London has a museum which is located in the crypt of a 19th-century church. It reopened in 2002 after extensive refurbishment and is open to the free of charge. The museum covers the history of the hospital since its foundation in 1740 and it is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. It includes works of art, surgical instruments, medical and nursing equipment, uniforms, medals, documents, there is a forensic medicine section which includes original material on Jack the Ripper, Dr Crippen and the Christie murders. There are also displays on Joseph Merrick and former Hospital nurse Edith Cavell, there is the model of a church in the hospital that was built by Joseph Merrick who spent the last few years of his life at the hospital
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Whitechapel
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Whitechapel is a district in the East End of London, England, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. Because the area is close to the London Docklands and east of the city, it has been a place for immigrants. The area was the centre of the London Jewish community in the 19th and early 20th century, in the latter half of the 20th century, Whitechapel became a significant settlement for the British Bangladeshi community, particularly on Whitechapel Road and Brick Lane. Whitechapels heart is Whitechapel High Street, extending further east as Whitechapel Road, the churchs earliest known rector was Hugh de Fulbourne in 1329. Around 1338, it became the church of Whitechapel, called, for unknown reasons. The church was destroyed through enemy action in World War II and its location, Whitechapel High Street and Whitechapel Road are now part of the A11 road, anciently the initial part of the Roman road between the City of London and Colchester, exiting the city at Aldgate. In later times, travellers to and from London on this route were accommodated at the coaching inns which lined Whitechapel High Street. By the late 16th century, the suburb of Whitechapel and the area had started becoming the other half of London. Located east of Aldgate, outside the City Walls and beyond official controls, it attracted the less fragrant activities of the city, particularly tanneries, breweries, foundries and slaughterhouses. In 1680, the Rector of Whitechapel, the Rev. Ralph Davenant, William Booth began his Christian Revival Society, preaching the gospel in a tent, erected in the Friends Burial Ground, Thomas Street, Whitechapel, in 1865. Others joined his Christian Mission, and on 7 August 1878 the Salvation Army was formed at a meeting held at 272 Whitechapel Road, a statue commemorates both his mission and his work in helping the poor. In the Victorian era the population of poor English country stock was swelled by immigrants from all over. Writing of the period 1883–1884, Yiddish theatre actor Jacob Adler wrote, The further we penetrated into this Whitechapel, never in Russia, never later in the worst slums of New York, were we to see such poverty as in the London of the 1880s. This endemic poverty drove women to prostitution. In October 1888 the Metropolitan Police estimated that there were 1,200 prostitutes of very low class resident in Whitechapel, reference is specifically made to them in Charles Booths Life and Labour of the People in London, specially to dwellings called Blackwall Buildings belonging to Blackwall Railway. Such prostitutes were numbered amongst the 11 Whitechapel murders, some of which were committed by the serial killer known as Jack the Ripper. Riis had recently documented the astoundingly bad conditions in large swaths of the city of the United States. London, a socialist, thought it worthwhile to explore conditions in the city of the nation that had invented modern capitalism
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