1.
Nikolay Davydenko
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Nikolay Vladimirovich Davydenko is a Russian former professional tennis player. He achieved a singles ranking of World No.3 in November 2006. His biggest achievement was winning the 2009 ATP World Tour Finals, in mid-October 2014 Davydenko retired from competitions. Davydenko was granted Russian citizenship in 1999 at the age of 18, in 2007, he applied for Austrian citizenship and had also previously applied for German citizenship. He and his wife, Irina, have one child, a daughter named Ekaterina, Davydenko started playing at the age of seven with his brother, Eduard. During his junior years, he moved to Salmtal, Germany with Eduard to further improve. In 2000, he played mainly on the Futures Tour, where he captured one title and he made his ATP debut at Amsterdam, reaching the semifinal. Later in August, he won his first Challenger title in Mönchengladbach, Davydenko made his Grand Slam debut in 2001 at the Australian Open, where he made it to the second round, before losing to former world no. 1, Patrick Rafter in four sets and this performance captured the public eye for his talent and ability. Later in February, he injured his back in Dallas and was out for six weeks. After the injury, he back to win two Challenger titles in Ulm and Istanbul. He finished the season with a showing in Basel. In 2002, Davydenko continued to play on both the ATP Tour and in Challenger events and it was a steady year with quarterfinal appearances in Båstad and Vienna. During the year, he captured his fourth Challenger title in Szczecin, Davydenko made huge strides on the ATP Tour in 2003. He opened the season with his first ATP title in Adelaide, a few months later, he captured his second tour title in Estoril on clay, beating Agustín Calleri. His season was backed up with performances on clay in Barcelona and St. Pölten, reaching the quarterfinal and final. After a solid year, Davydenko finished in the top 50 for the first time in his career and his progress continued in 2004, capturing two more titles for the second consecutive year. After a slow start to season, a quarterfinal in the Monte Carlo Masters kicked off a 10–2 matches run, a week later, he won his third title in Munich
2.
David Nalbandian
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David Pablo Nalbandian is an Argentine retired professional tennis player and former world No.3. He was runner-up at the 2002 Wimbledon Championships and the winner of the Tennis Masters Cup in 2005 and he has also won two Masters 1000 events. Nalbandian is the only Argentine player in history who ever reached the semi-finals or better at all four Grand Slam tournaments, David Nalbandian was born in the small city of Unquillo in Córdoba Province, Argentina. He became a tennis player at the age of 18. As a junior, Nalbandian reached as high as No.3 in the world in December 1998, in 2001, he finished in the ATP top 50 for the first time. He finished 2002 as the No, Nalbandian did not reach another Wimbledon final in 2003, as he was knocked out in the round of 16 by Tim Henman. It was the time in less than a month that he had met Roddick in a high-stakes match. Nalbandian started strongly, taking a two sets to lead, and held a match point in the third-set tiebreak. Roddick took the point and eventually prevailed in the tiebreak, ultimately, he was unable to finish the match off and eventually lost 6–7, 3–6, 7–6, 6–1, 6–3. He finished 2003 ranked No.8 in the world, in 2004, Nalbandian achieved his best result at the French Open reaching the semifinals, losing to eventual champion Gastón Gaudio. He broke into the top 5 for the first time in his career in August, in 2005, Nalbandian advanced to the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and the U. S. Open. He also won the Tennis Masters Cup, becoming only the second Argentine tennis player in history to win the year-end tournament, having replaced Andy Roddick, he won two of his three group matches. In the semifinals, he defeated Russian Nikolay Davydenko, and in the final, Nalbandian became the first player to win the cup without previously attaining a Grand Slam or Masters Series title. He lost in the semifinals to Marcos Baghdatis in a hard-fought five-set match, despite holding a two-set-to-love advantage, in May, he won the Estoril Open Tournament in Portugal for the second time, being one of only three men to achieve this accomplishment. One month later, Nalbandian reached his second French Open semifinal and it was the only time in his career that he reached two Grand Slam semifinals in one calendar year. He played Federer and started strongly, winning the first set 6–3, at 5–2 down in the third set, Nalbandian decided to retire from the match due to stomach injury. At Wimbledon, Nalbandian was beaten in the round, where he lost to Fernando Verdasco in straight sets. At the US Open, Nalbandian was beaten in the round by Marat Safin
3.
16th arrondissement of Paris
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The 16th arrondissement of Paris is one of the 20 arrondissements of Paris, the capital city of France. It includes a concentration of museums between the Place du Trocadéro and the Place dIéna, the Bois de Boulogne, the second-largest public park in Paris, is also located in this arrondissement. The land area of this arrondissement is 16.305 km2, excluding the Bois de Boulogne, its land area is 7.846 km2. It is the largest arrondissement in Paris in terms of land area, the 16th arrondissement population peaked in 1962, when it had 227,418 inhabitants. At the last census, the population was 169,372, the 16th arrondissement contains a great deal of business activity, in 1999 it hosted 106,971 jobs. It is also the arrondissement in Paris to be divided into two separate postal codes. The southern part of the arrondissement carries a postal code of 75016, four Fortune Global 500 have their head offices in this arrondissement, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Kering, Lafarge, and Veolia. In addition Lagardère and Technip have their headquarters in this arrondissement, at one time Aérospatiale had its head office in the arrondissement. This scene was shot on Avenue dEylau in the 16th arrondissement, a notorious serial murder case, which generated an international media circus, centered in the 16th arrondissement during the Nazi occupation of France during World War II. The focal point of the case was French doctor Marcel Petiot, on 11 March 1944, Petiots neighbors complained to police of a foul stench in the area and of large amounts of smoke billowing from a chimney of the house. Fearing a chimney fire, the police summoned firemen, who entered the house, in the fire, and scattered in the basement, were human remains. Following an investigation, during which time Petiot attempted to evade capture and he was convicted of 26 counts of murder and sentenced to death. On 25 May, Petiot was beheaded, after a stay of several days due to a problem in the mechanism of the guillotine. International schools, Russian Embassy School of Paris, on the grounds of the Russian Embassy in Paris, colegio Español Fecerico García Lorca, a Spanish international primary school owned by the Spanish government The Spanish secondary school, Liceo Español Luis Buñuel, is located in Neuilly sur Seine. The two campuses of the International School of Paris Kingsworth International School The Université Paris-Dauphine is in the arrondissement, the renowned classes préparatoires establishment Intégrale, Institut denseignement supérieur privé have one of their campuses in the arrondissement. The École de langue japonaise de Paris, a supplementary Japanese education programme, is held at the École Maternelle et Primaire Saint Francois dEylau in the 16th arrondissement, the school has its offices at the Association Amicale des Ressortissants Japonais en France in the 8th arrondissement. Media related to Paris 16e arrondissement at Wikimedia Commons 16th arrondissement travel guide from Wikivoyage
4.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
5.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
6.
Seating capacity
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Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The International Fire Code, portions of which have adopted by many jurisdictions, is directed more towards the use of a facility than the construction. It specifies, For areas having fixed seating without dividing arms and it also requires that every public venue submit a detailed site plan to the local fire code official, including details of the means of egress, seating capacity, arrangement of the seating. Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the size of the venue. For sports venues, the decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors, chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area. Seating capacity of venues also plays a role in what media they are able to provide, in contracting to permit performers to use a theatre or other performing space, the seating capacity of the performance facility must be disclosed. Seating capacity may influence the kind of contract to be used, the seating capacity must also be disclosed to the copyright owner in seeking a license for the copyrighted work to be performed in that venue. Venues that may be leased for private functions such as ballrooms and auditoriums generally advertise their seating capacity, seating capacity is also an important consideration in the construction and use of sports venues such as stadiums and arenas. The seating capacity for restaurants is reported as covers, a restaurant that can seat 99 is said to have 99 covers, seating capacity differs from total capacity, which describes the total number of people who can fit in a venue or in a vehicle either sitting or standing. Use of the term public capacity indicates that a venue is allowed to more people than it can actually seat. Again, the total number of people can refer to either the physical space available or limitations set by law
7.
Stade Roland Garros
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Stade Roland Garros is a tennis venue complex located in Paris, France. It hosts the French Open, also known as Roland Garros, a Grand Slam championship tournament played annually around the end of May, the facility was constructed in 1928 to host Frances first defense of the Davis Cup. It is named for Roland Garros who was an aviator who completed the first solo flight across the Mediterranean Sea), engineer, and World War I hero. While the Roland Garros surface is characterized as red clay. Beneath the 3-inch layer of limestone is 6 inches of volcanic rock, followed by a 3-foot layer of sand. Crushed brick is pressed onto the surface with rollers, then drenched in water. The process is repeated several times until a thin, compact layer coats each court, the crushed brick is deep enough to allow footprints and ball marks, but shallow enough to avoid making the court spongy or slippery. In tournament situations workers smooth the surface before matches and between sets by dragging rectangular lengths of chain-link across it, the red brick dust is replenished as needed. The surface was a state-of-the art solution, in 1928, to the biggest problem with natural clay courts, at the time it was not unusual for clay surfaces to be unplayable for two to three days after even short periods of precipitation. Since then a multitude of other fast-dry and synthetic clay surfaces have been developed, the diversity in composition of various clay surfaces around the world explains the extraordinary variability in their playing characteristics. “All clay courts are different, ” Venus Williams has said, Court Philippe Chatrier was built in 1928 as Roland Garross centerpiece and remains its principal venue, seating 14,840 spectators. The four main grandstands are named for les Quatre Mousquetaires – Jacques Toto Brugnon, Jean Borotra, Henri Cochet. When France won the Davis Cup in 1927, due largely to the Musketeers efforts, France retained the Cup until 1933, again largely because of the Musketeers. A monument to Frances six Cup championships stands at the center of Place des Mousquetaires, as a further tribute, the trophy awarded each year to the French Open mens singles champion is known as La Coupe des Mousquetaires. Originally designated as Court A, Court Suzanne Lenglen, is the stadium with a capacity of 10,068 spectators. Its namesake, a celebrity and the first true star of womens tennis, won 31 major tournaments, including six French Open titles and six Wimbledon championships. Known as La Divine and La Grand Dame of French tennis, a bronze bas relief of Lenglen by the Italian sculptor Vito Tongiani stands over the east tunnel-entrance to the stadium. The trophy awarded each year to the French Open womens singles champion is named La Coupe Suzanne Lenglen in her honor, the court has an underground irrigation system, the first of its kind, to control moisture levels within its surface
8.
French Open
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The French Open, often referred to as Roland Garros, is a major tennis tournament held over two weeks between late May and early June at the Stade Roland Garros in Paris, France. Roland Garros is the only Grand Slam event held on clay, French spelling rules dictate that in the name of a place or event named after a person, the elements of the name are joined together with a hyphen. Therefore, the names of the stadium and the tournament are hyphenated as Roland-Garros, in 1891 the Championnat de France, which is commonly referred to in English as the French Championships, was begun. It was only open to players who were members of French clubs. The first winner was a Briton—H, the first womens singles tournament, with four entries, was held in 1897. The mixed doubles event was added in 1902 and the doubles in 1907. This French club members only tournament was played until 1924, using four different venues during that period, Île de Puteaux, in Puteaux, the Racing Club de France, played on clay. For one year,1909, it was played at the Société Athlétique de la Villa Primrose in Bordeaux, Tennis Club de Paris, at Auteuil, Paris, played on clay. Another tournament, the World Hard Court Championships, is considered the precursor to the French Open as it was open to international competitors. Winners of this tournament included world no, 1s such as Tony Wilding from New Zealand and Bill Tilden from the US. In 1924 there was no World Hard Court Championships due to tennis being played at the Paris Olympic Games, in 1925, the French Championships became open to all amateurs internationally and was designated a major championship by the ILTF. It was held at the Stade Français in Saint-Cloud in 1925 and 1927, in 1926 the Racing Club de France hosted the event in Paris, site of the previous French club members only Championship, also on clay. In 1928, the Roland Garros stadium was opened and the event has held there ever since. After the Mousquetaires or Philadelphia Four won the Davis Cup on American soil in 1927, the Stade de France had offered the tennis authorities three hectares of land with the condition that the new stadium must be named after the World War I pilot, Roland Garros. The new Stade de Roland Garros, and its Center Court hosted that Davis Cup challenge, during World War II the tournament was held from 1941 through 1945 on the same grounds but these editions are not recognized by the French governing body, Fédération Française de Tennis. From 1946 through 1947, the French Championships were held after Wimbledon, in 1968, the French Championships became the first Grand Slam tournament to go open, allowing both amateurs and professionals to compete. Since 1981, new prizes have been presented, the Prix Orange, the Prix Citron, in another novelty, since 2006 the tournament has begun on a Sunday, featuring 12 singles matches played on the three main courts. Additionally, on the eve of the opening, the traditional Benny Berthet exhibition day takes place
9.
Grand Slam (tennis)
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The Grand Slam tournaments, also called majors, are the four most important annual tennis events. They offer the most ranking points, prize money, public and media attention, the greatest strength and size of field, and greater number of best of sets for men. The Grand Slam itinerary consists of the Australian Open in mid January, the French Open in May and June, Wimbledon in June and July, each tournament is played over a period of two weeks. The Australian and United States tournaments are played on courts, the French on clay. Wimbledon is the oldest, founded in 1877, followed by the US in 1881, the French in 1891, however, of these four, only Wimbledon was a major before 1924/25, the time when all four became designated Grand Slam tournaments. In doubles, one team may accomplish a Grand Slam playing together or one player may achieve it with different partners, the term Grand Slam without qualification refers to winning the four majors in a single calendar year. Winning the gold medal at the Summer Olympic Games in addition to the four majors in a one year is known as a Golden Grand Slam or more commonly the Golden Slam. Also, winning the Year-End Championship in the period is known as a Super Slam. Together, all four Majors in all three disciplines are called a set of Grand Slam titles. No male or female player has won all events in one calendar year. The term slam for winning all of the tricks in the whist family card games is attested early in the 17th century. Grand slam for all of the tricks, in contrast to small slam or little slam for all but one and this use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930. Grand slam has been used in golf since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, before that time only three events, Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships and the World Covered Court Championships were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those majors in one year –1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years, phil Dent has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments—especially the Australian Open—was not unusual then, before counting Grand Slam titles became the norm. Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates, the tournament was won by Arthur Ashe. The first definitive Grand Slam, of the current four majors, was accomplished when Don Budge won all four mens singles Majors in 1938, to date,17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. The four Junior disciplines, boys and girls singles and doubles, Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18-year-olds likely to hold a physical advantage
10.
Roland Georges Garros
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Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros was an early French aviator and a fighter pilot during World War I. Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros was born in Saint-Denis, Réunion and he started his aviation career in 1909 flying a Demoiselle monoplane, an aircraft that only flew well with a small lightweight pilot. Licence no.147 in July 1910, on September 4,1911, he set an altitude record of 3,950 m. The following year, on September 6,1912, after Austrian aviator Philipp von Blaschke had flown to 4,360 m, the following year, Garros joined the French army at the outbreak of World War I. In the early stages of the air war in World War I the problem of mounting a machine gun on combat aircraft was considered by a number of individuals. As a reconnaissance pilot with the Escadrille MS26, Garros visited the Morane-Saulnier Works in December 1914, saulniers work on metal deflector wedges attached to propeller blades was taken forward by Garros, he eventually had a workable installation fitted to his Morane-Saulnier Type L aircraft. The Aero Club of America awarded him a medal for this invention three years later. On 18 April 1915, either Garross fuel line clogged or, by other accounts, his aircraft was downed by ground fire, Garros failed to destroy his aircraft completely before being taken prisoner, most significantly, the gun and armoured propeller remained intact. Legend has it that after examining the plane, German aircraft engineers, led by Fokker, in fact the work on Fokkers system had been going for at least six months before Garross aircraft fell into their hands. With the advent of the interrupter gear the tables were turned on the Allies, with Fokkers planes shooting down many Allied aircraft, Garros finally managed to escape from a POW camp in Germany on 14 February 1918, after several attempts, and rejoined the French army. He settled into Escadrille 26 to pilot a Spad, and claimed two victories on 2 October 1918, one of which was confirmed. On 5 October 1918, he was shot down and killed near Vouziers, Ardennes and his adversary was probably German ace Hermann Habich from Jasta 49. Garros is erroneously called the worlds first fighter ace, in fact, he shot down only four aircraft, the definition of ace is five or more victories. The honour of becoming the first ace went to another French airman, a tennis centre, which he attended religiously when he was studying in Paris, was named after him in the 1920s, the Stade de Roland Garros. The stadium accommodates the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, consequently, the tournament is officially called Les internationaux de France de Roland-Garros. According to Vũ Trọng Phụngs urban novel Dumb Luck, during times the Hanoi government named the citys main tennis stadium after Roland Garros. The international airport of La Réunion, Roland Garros Airport, is named after him. The place where he landed in Bizerte is actually called place of Roland Garros, the French car manufacturer Peugeot commissioned a Roland Garros limited edition version of its 205 model in celebration of the tennis tournament that bears his name
11.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
12.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
13.
Davis Cup
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The Davis Cup is the premier international team event in mens tennis. It is run by the International Tennis Federation and is contested annually between teams from competing countries in a knock-out format and it is described by the organisers as the World Cup of Tennis, and the winners are referred to as the World Champion team. The competition began in 1900 as a challenge between Great Britain and the United States, by 2016,135 nations entered teams into the competition. The most successful countries over the history of the tournament are the United States, the present champions are Argentina who beat Croatia to win the title for the first time in 2016. The womens equivalent of the Davis Cup is the Fed Cup, Australia, the Czech Republic, and the United States are the only countries to have held both Davis Cup and Fed Cup titles in the same year. The Hopman Cup, a competition for mixed teams, carries less prestige. The tournament was conceived in 1899 by four members of the Harvard University tennis team who wished to challenge the British to a tennis competition and they in turn commissioned a classically styled design from William B. Durgins of Concord, New Hampshire, crafted by the Englishman Rowland Rhodes, Davis went on to become a prominent politician in the United States in the 1920s, serving as US Secretary of War from 1925 to 1929 and as Governor-General of the Philippines from 1929 to 1932. The first match, between the United States and Britain, was held at the Longwood Cricket Club in Boston, the American team, of which Dwight Davis was a part, surprised the British by winning the first three matches. The following year the two countries did not compete, but the US won the match in 1902 and Britain won the four matches. By 1905 the tournament expanded to include Belgium, Austria, France, and Australasia, the tournament was initially titled the International Lawn Tennis Challenge although it soon became known as the Davis Cup, after Dwight Davis trophy. The Davis Cup competition was played as a challenge cup. All teams competed against one another for the right to face the previous champion in the final round. Beginning in 1923, the teams were split into two zones, the America Zone and the Europe Zone. The winners of the two met in the Inter-Zonal Zone to decide which national team would challenge the defending champion for the cup. In 1955 a third zone, the Eastern Zone, was added, because there were three zones, the winner of one of the three zones received a bye in the first round of the INZ challenger rounds. In 1966, the Europe Zone was split into two zones, Europe Zone A and Europe Zone B, so the winners of the four competed in the INZ challenger rounds. From 1950 to 1967, Australia dominated the competition, winning the Cup 15 times in 18 years
14.
Suzanne Lenglen
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Suzanne Rachel Flore Lenglen was a French tennis player who won 31 Championship titles between 1914 and 1926. She dominated womens tennis from 1914 until 1926 when she turned professional, a flamboyant, trendsetting athlete, she was the first female tennis celebrity and one of the first international female sport stars, named La Divine by the French press. Lenglens 241 titles,181 match winning streak and 341-7 match record are hard to imagine happening in todays tennis atmosphere, Lenglen is regarded by some to be the greatest female tennis player in history. A daughter of Charles and Anaïs Lenglen, Suzanne Lenglen was born in Paris, during her youth, she suffered from numerous health problems including chronic asthma, which also plagued her at a later age. Because his daughter was so frail and sickly, Charles Lenglen and her first try at the game was in 1910, when she played on the tennis court at the family property in Marest-sur-Matz. The young girl enjoyed the game, and her decided to train her further in the sport. His training methods included an exercise where, the story goes, he would lay down a handkerchief at various places on the court, only four years after her first tennis strokes, Lenglen played in the final of the 1914 French Championships, aged only 14. She lost to reigning champion Marguerite Broquedis in the final 5–7, 6–4 and that same year, she won the World Hard Court Championships held at Saint-Cloud, turning 15 during the tournament. This made her the youngest winner of a championship in tennis history. The match, which one of the hallmarks of tennis history, was played before 8,000 spectators, including King George V. After splitting the first two sets, Lenglen took a 4–1 lead in the set before Chambers rallied to take a 6–5 lead. Lenglen saved the first match point when her service return trickled off the wood of her racket, Lenglen survived the second match point when Chambers hit a drop shot into the net. Lenglen then went on to win the match 10–8, 4–6 and it was not only her performances on the court which were noted, however. The staid British also were in shock at the boldness of the French woman who also casually sipped brandy between sets, at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Lenglen dominated the womens singles. On her path to the medal, she gave up only four games. She then teamed up with Max Décugis to win gold medal in the mixed doubles. She was eliminated in a womens doubles semifinal and won the medal after their opponents withdrew. From 1919 through 1925, Lenglen won the Wimbledon singles championship every year with the exception of 1924, health problems due to jaundice forced her to withdraw after winning her quarterfinal match
15.
Jacques Brugnon
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Jacques Toto Brugnon was a French tennis player, one of the famous Four Musketeers from France who dominated tennis in the late 1920s and early 1930s. He was born in Paris and died in Paris and he was primarily a doubles specialist who won 10 Grand Slam doubles titles in the French, American, Australian and British championships. Additionally he won two mixed doubles titles at Roland Garros partnering Suzanne Lenglen and he was also a fine singles player but never won a Major title. He played in 20 Wimbledon Championships between 1920 and 1948 and achieved his best singles result in 1926 when he reached the semifinals, losing in a close five set match to Howard Kinsey. Between 1921 and 1934 he played 31 ties for the French Davis Cup team, mainly as a doubles player, and compiled a record of 26 wins versus 11 losses. He was part of the famous Four Musketeers team that conquered the Cup in 1927 against the USA, Brugnon was ranked World No.9 for 1927 by A. Wallis Myers of The Daily Telegraph. The Four Musketeers were inducted simultaneously into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1976
16.
Jean Borotra
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Jean Robert Borotra was a French tennis champion. He was one of the famous Four Musketeers from his country who dominated tennis in the late 1920s, Borotra was born in Domaine du Pouy, Biarritz, Aquitaine and married an English woman. Known as the Bounding Basque, he won four Grand Slam singles titles in the French, Australian, the 1924 French Championship does not count towards his grand slam total as the French was only open to French nationals, not internationals. He only failed to win the American championships, as he was defeated in the final by his countryman René Lacoste 6–4, 6–0, 6–4 and his 1924 Wimbledon victory made him the first player from outside the English-speaking world to win the tournament. His first appearance was in the French Davis Cup team of 1921 and he also made the final of the World Covered Court Championship in 1922, losing to Henri Cochet, but won the doubles and mixed doubles. The other major he did well in was the World Hard Court Championships – he won the doubles with Henri Cochet there in 1922, Borotra was ranked as high as World No.2 by A. Wallis Myers of The Daily Telegraph in 1926. Arrested by the Gestapo in November 1942, Borotra was deported to a camp in Germany. He was freed from the castle after the Battle for Castle Itter, in which he played a role by vaulting from the fortress. The Four Musketeers were inducted simultaneously into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, in 1984, Borotra received a Distinguished Service award from the United States Sports Academy in recognition of his achievements. On 17 July 1994, Borotra, founder and president of honour of the CIFP died at the age of 95, the International Fair Play Committee, which recognises achievements annually, awards a Jean Borotra World Fair Play Trophy. Jean Borotra at the International Tennis Hall of Fame Jean Borotra at the Association of Tennis Professionals Jean Borotra at the International Tennis Federation Jean Borotra at the Davis Cup
17.
Henri Cochet
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Henri Jean Cochet was a French tennis player. He was a world No.1 ranked player, and a member of the famous Four Musketeers from France who dominated tennis in the late 1920s, born in Villeurbanne, Rhône, Cochet won ten amateur Majors and one professional Major during his singles career. He was ranked World No.1 player for four years,1928 through 1931 by A. Wallis Myers. He turned professional in 1933 but, after a less than stellar pro career, the Four Musketeers were inducted simultaneously into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island in 1976. Cochet died at age 85 in Paris, Henri Cochet was born on 14 December 1901 in Villeurbanne to Gustave Cochet and Antoinette Gailleton. His father was a groundkeeper in a Lyonnese tennis club where Henri worked as a ball boy and he began playing at the age of eight along with his sister. The president of the club, an owner and French-ranked player Georges Cozon, recognized his talent. He entered his first local tournament in 1920 where he met his mentor in the final and he then moved on to win a series of matches at Aix-les-Bains mostly scratch and handicap matches. That qualified him to be featured in the 1921 French Closed Championships where he repeated his victory over Borotra, also in 1921 he won the military Championship of France. Meanwhile, his sister Aimée Cochet also became a player and later was on the main draw of the 1930 Wimbledon Championships. Immediately after he entered the amateur scene Cochet won every major tournament of the era. After his success abroad he claimed the French Closed Championships when he defeated defending champion Jean Samazeuilh in the final, afterwards he topped the French rankings. In June 1922 he debuted in the France Davis Cup team against Denmark, the next round the team only composed of him and André Gobert and fell to the Australasian team. He also found success in the minor tournaments, at the South of France Championships he lost to Russian count Mikhail Sumarokov-Elston. At the Côte dAzur Championships he repelled the Englishman Morgan for his first Riviera title, in February 1923 he retained his World Covered Court Championships title, defeating John B. Gilbert in the final in straight sets. On 1 April 1924 he met René Lacoste in the match for the Beausite trophy of Cannes. He was ranked the number one player of France alongside Lacoste, due to his business affairs and injuries he missed most of the 1925 season, while he kept his French first place shared with Borotra. The French Internationals of that year marked the first instance of an all-Four Musketeers final in the doubles of the Championships where Brugnon and Lacoste finished ahead of Cochet–Borotra
18.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
19.
Arthur Koestler
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Arthur Koestler, CBE was a Hungarian-British author and journalist. Koestler was born in Budapest and, apart from his school years, was educated in Austria. In 1931 Koestler joined the Communist Party of Germany until, disillusioned by Stalinism, in 1940 he published his novel Darkness at Noon, an anti-totalitarian work that gained him international fame. Over the next 43 years, from his residence in Britain, Koestler espoused many political causes, in 1968 he was awarded the Sonning Prize for outstanding contribution to European culture and in 1972 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. In 1976 he was diagnosed with Parkinsons disease and in 1979 with terminal leukaemia, in 1983 he and his wife killed themselves at their home in London. Koestler was born in Budapest to Henrik and Adele Koestler and his father Henrik Koestler, of Jewish Hungarian descent, had been born on 18 August 1869 in the town of Miskolc in northeastern Hungary. According to Koestlers authorized biography, Henriks father, Leopold Koestler, was a soldier in the Austro-Hungarian Army who Magyarised his name to Lipót, in 1861 he married Karolina Schon, the daughter of a prosperous timber merchant. Henrik left school at age 16 and took a job as a boy with a firm of drapers. He taught himself English, German and French, and eventually became a partner in the firm and he then set up his own business importing textiles into Hungary. Arthurs mother, Adele Koestler, was born on 25 June 1871 into a prominent Jewish family in Prague, among her ancestors was Mishel Loeb, a prominent 18th-century physician and essayist, whose son Judah became a well-known poet. Beethoven set some of his poems to music, Adeles father, Jacob Jeiteles, moved the family to Vienna, where she grew up in relative prosperity until about 1890. Faced with financial difficulties, her father abandoned his wife and daughter, Adele and her mother moved from Vienna to Budapest to stay with Adeles married sister. Henrik Koestler met Adele in 1898 and married her in 1900, Arthur, their only child, was born on 5 September 1905. The Koestlers lived in spacious, well-furnished, rented apartments in various predominantly Jewish districts of Budapest, during Arthurs early years they employed a cook/housekeeper as well as a foreign governess. His primary school started at an experimental private kindergarten founded by Laura Striker. Her daughter Eva Striker later became Koestlers lover, and they remained all his life. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 deprived Koestlers father of foreign suppliers, facing destitution, the family moved temporarily to a boarding house in Vienna. When the war ended the family returned to Budapest, as noted in Koestlers autobiography, he and his family were sympathetic to the short-lived Hungarian Bolshevik Revolution of 1919
20.
Venus Williams
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Ranked World No.11 in singles as of January 28,2017, Williams has been ranked World No.1 by the Womens Tennis Association on three occasions, for a total of 11 weeks. She first became the World No.1 on February 25,2002, on 10 June 2002, Venus and Serena became the first sisters to hold the No.1 and No.2 spots in the singles rankings, respectively. On 7 June 2010, Venus became co-No,1 in doubles with Serena after they won their 4th consecutive grand slam doubles title at Roland Garros. By virtue of that doubles ascension, Venus became one of seven women to reach No.1 in singles. On 21 June 2010, Venus and Serena again occupied the No.2 and No.1 spots in the singles rankings, astonishingly, this came almost exactly 8 years after first accomplishing this feat. At the time, Venus had just celebrated her 30th birthday and her seven Grand Slam singles titles ties her twelfth on the all-time list, more than any other active female player except sister Serena. She has also won fourteen Grand Slam doubles titles and two mixed doubles titles and her five Wimbledon singles titles ties her with two other women for eighth place on the all-time list. Williams is one of four women to have won five or more Wimbledon singles titles in the Open Era, from the 2000 Wimbledon Championships to the 2001 US Open, Williams won four of the six Grand Slam singles tournaments held. She is one of six women in the Open Era to win 200 or more main draw Grand Slam singles matches. As of the 2017 Australian Open, Williams extends her record as the leader, male or female, in Grand Slams played. Williams has won four Olympic gold medals, one in singles and she and Serena have won more Olympic gold medals than any other tennis player, male or female. Venus also holds the record for the most Olympic medals won by a male or female tennis player and she is the only tennis player to have won a medal at four separate Olympic Games. At the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Williams became only the player to win Olympic gold medals in both singles and doubles at the same Olympic Games, after Helen Wills Moody in 1924. With 49 singles titles, Williams is behind only Serena among active players on the WTA Tour and her 35-match winning streak from the 2000 Wimbledon Championships to the 2000 Generali Ladies Linz tournament final is the longest since January 1,2000. She is also one of three active WTA players to have made the finals of all four Grand Slams, along with Serena. By winning her 49th career singles title at the 2016 Taiwan Open, Williams became the 5th oldest WTA Tour titlist in the Open Era, Williams has played against her sister in 27 professional matches since 1998, and won 11. They have played against each other in nine Grand Slam singles finals, Venus has 8 runner-up finishes in grand slam singles events with Martina Hingis being the only player other than Serena to beat Venus in a major final at the 1997 US Open. Beginning with the 2002 French Open, they opposed each other in four consecutive Grand Slam singles finals, on the other side, the pair have won 14 Grand Slam doubles titles playing alongside each other and are undefeated in Grand Slam finals
21.
Philippe Chatrier
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Philippe Chatrier was a French tennis player. After his playing career ended, he became a journalist, and was involved in sports administration. He was president of the French Tennis Federation for 20 years, from 1973 to 1993, Chatrier was born in Créteil in France. He was the French junior tennis champion in 1945, after retiring, he became a journalist. He founded the magazine Tennis de France in 1953, and also sports, Chatrier married Susan Partridge, who was French tennis champion in 1953. Chatrier later married a second time, to French golfer Claudine Cros, Chatrier took part in the merger of professional and amateur tennis organisations in 1968. He was a vice-president of the French Tennis Federation from 1968 to 1973 and he became president of the French Tennis Federation in 1973, then president of International Tennis Federation in 1977. He became a member of the International Olympic Committee in 1988, Chatrier retired as president from the International Tennis Federation in 1991. He became a member of the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1992 and he retired as president of the French Tennis Federation in 1993. Chatrier died in Dinard on 22 June 2000, the main tennis court at the Stade de Roland Garros, the home of the French Open in Paris, was renamed the Court Philippe Chatrier in his honour in 2001. He had two sons from his first marriage, the elder, Jean-Philippe Chatrier, was an actor. Obituary, The Independent,24 June 2000 International Tennis Hall of Fame
22.
Summer Olympic Games
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The Summer Olympic Games or the Games of the Olympiad, first held in 1896, is an international multi-sport event that is hosted by a different city every four years. The most recent Olympics were held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the International Olympic Committee organizes the games and oversees the host citys preparations. In each Olympic event, gold medals are awarded for first place, silver medals are awarded for second place, and bronze medals are awarded for third, the Winter Olympic Games were created due to the success of the Summer Olympics. The Olympics have increased in scope from a 42-event competition with fewer than 250 male competitors from 14 nations in 1896 to 302 events with 10,768 competitors from 204 nations in 2012, eighteen countries have hosted the Summer Olympics. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympics, more than any other nation, four cities have hosted two Summer Olympics, Athens, Paris, Los Angeles, and Tokyo. Tokyo is the first city outside of the Western world to host the Summer Olympics multiple times, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics four times in Japan, South Korea, and China. The only Summer Olympics held in the Southern Hemisphere have been in Australia, the 2016 Games are the first Summer Olympics to be held in South America and the first to be held during the local winter season. Africa has yet to host a Summer Olympics, only five countries—Greece, Australia, France, Great Britain, and Switzerland—have been represented at every Summer Olympic Games. The only country to have won at least one medal at every Summer Olympic Games is Great Britain. The United States leads the medal table. Qualification rules for each of the Olympic sports are set by the International Sports Federations that governs that sports international competition, for individual sports, competitors typically qualify through attaining a certain place in a major international event or on the IFs ranking list. There is a rule that maximum three individual athletes may represent each nation per competition. Nations most often qualify teams for team sports through continental qualifying tournaments, each nation may be represented by no more than one team per competition a team is two people in some sports. The United States has hosted four Summer Olympic Games, more than any other nation, the United Kingdom hosted the 2012 Olympic Games, its third Summer Olympic Games, in its capital London, making London the first city to host the Summer Olympic Games three times. Australia, France, Germany, Greece, and Japan have all hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice. Other countries that have hosted the Summer Olympics are Belgium, Brazil, China, Canada, Finland, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, the Soviet Union, asia has hosted the Summer Olympics three times and will host again in 2020. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro hosted the first Summer Olympics in South America, three cities have hosted two Summer Olympic Games, Los Angeles, Paris, and Athens. Stockholm has hosted events at two Summer Olympic Games, having hosted the games in 1912 and the events at the 1956 Summer Olympics—which they are usually listed as jointly hosting
23.
The Championships, Wimbledon
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The Championships, Wimbledon, commonly known simply as Wimbledon, is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and is widely considered the most prestigious. It has been held at the All England Club in Wimbledon, London, Wimbledon is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, the others being the Australian Open, the French Open and the US Open. Since the Australian Open shifted to hardcourt in 1988, Wimbledon is the only major still played on grass. The tournament takes place two weeks in late June and early July, culminating with the Ladies and Gentlemens Singles Final. Five major, junior, and invitational events are each year. Wimbledon traditions include a dress code for competitors and Royal patronage. The tournament is notable for the absence of sponsor advertising around the courts. In 2009, Wimbledons Centre Court was fitted with a roof to lessen the loss of playing time due to rain. The All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club is a club founded on 23 July 1868. Its first ground was off Worple Road, Wimbledon, in 1876, lawn tennis, a game devised by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield a year or so earlier and originally given the name Sphairistikè, was added to the activities of the club. In spring 1877, the club was renamed The All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club, a new code of laws, replacing the code administered by the Marylebone Cricket Club, was drawn up for the event. Todays rules are similar except for such as the height of the net and posts. The inaugural 1877 Wimbledon Championship started on 9 July 1877 and the Gentlemens Singles was the event held. It was won by Spencer Gore, an old Harrovian rackets player, about 200 spectators paid one shilling each to watch the final. The lawns at the ground were arranged so that the court was in the middle with the others arranged around it. The name was retained when the Club moved in 1922 to the present site in Church Road, however, in 1980 four new courts were brought into commission on the north side of the ground, which meant the Centre Court was once more correctly defined. The opening of the new No.1 Court in 1997 emphasised the description, by 1882, activity at the club was almost exclusively confined to lawn tennis and that year the word croquet was dropped from the title. However, for reasons it was restored in 1899
24.
Olympic medal
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An Olympic medal is awarded to successful competitors at one of the Olympic Games. There are three classes of medal, gold, awarded to the winner, silver, awarded to the 1st runner-up, the granting of awards is laid out in detail in the Olympic protocols. Medal designs have varied considerably since the first Olympic Games in 1896, particularly in size, the medals of the Winter Olympic Games never had a common design, but regularly feature snowflakes. In addition to supporting their Olympic athletes, some countries provide sums of money and gifts to medal winners, depending on the classes. The olive wreath was the prize for the winner at the Ancient Olympic Games and it was an olive branch, of the wild-olive tree that grew at Olympia, intertwined to form a circle or a horse-shoe. According to Pausanias it was introduced by Heracles as a prize for the winner of the race to honour Zeus. When the modern Olympic Games began in 1896 medals started to be given to successful olympian competitors, however, gold medals were not awarded at the inaugural Olympics in 1896 in Athens, Greece. The winners were given a silver medal and an olive branch, while runners-up received a laurel branch. In 1900, most winners received cups or trophies instead of medals, the custom of the sequence of gold, silver, and bronze for the first three places dates from the 1904 Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri in the United States. The International Olympic Committee has retroactively assigned gold, silver and bronze medals to the three best placed athletes in each event of the 1896 and 1900 Games. If there is a tie for any of the top three places all competitors are entitled to receive the appropriate medal according to IOC rules, medals are not the only awards given to competitors, every athlete placed first to eighth receives an Olympic diploma. Also, at the main host stadium, the names of all winners are written onto a wall. Finally, as noted below, all receive a participation medal. The IOC dictates the physical properties of the medals and has the decision about the finished design.925 grade. Third place, It is mostly copper with tin and zinc. They were made by the Paris Mint, which made the medals for the 1900 Olympic Games. This started the tradition of giving the responsibility of minting the medals to the host city, for the next few Olympiads the host city also chose the medal design. Until 1912 the gold medals were made of solid gold, in 1923 the International Olympic Committee launched a competition for sculptors to design the medals for the Summer Olympic Games
25.
Antwerp
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Antwerp is a city in Belgium, the capital of Antwerp province in the region of Flanders. With a population of 510,610, it is the most populous city proper in Belgium and its metropolitan area houses around 1,200,000 people, which is second behind Brussels. Antwerp is on the River Scheldt, linked to the North Sea by the Westerschelde estuary, the Port of Antwerp is one of the biggest in the world, ranking second in Europe and within the top 20 globally. Antwerp has long been an important city in the Low Countries, the inhabitants of Antwerp are nicknamed Sinjoren, after the Spanish honorific señor or French seigneur, lord, referring to the Spanish noblemen who ruled the city in the 17th century. The city hosted the 1920 Summer Olympics, according to folklore, notably celebrated by a statue in front of the town hall, the city got its name from a legend about a giant called Antigoon who lived near the Scheldt river. He exacted a toll from passing boatmen, and for those who refused, he severed one of their hands, eventually the giant was killed by a young hero named Silvius Brabo, who cut off the giants own hand and flung it into the river. Hence the name Antwerpen, from Dutch hand werpen, akin to Old English hand and wearpan, a longstanding theory is that the name originated in the Gallo-Roman period and comes from the Latin antverpia. Antverpia would come from Ante Verpia, indicating land that forms by deposition in the curve of a river. Note that the river Scheldt, before a period between 600 and 750, followed a different track. This must have coincided roughly with the current ringway south of the city, however, many historians think it unlikely that there was a large settlement which would be named Antverpia, but more something like an outpost with a river crossing. However, John Lothrop Motley argues, and so do a lot of Dutch etymologists and historians, aan t werp is also possible. This warp is a hill or a river deposit, high enough to remain dry at high tide. Another word for werp is pol hence polders, historical Antwerp allegedly had its origins in a Gallo-Roman vicus. Excavations carried out in the oldest section near the Scheldt, 1952–1961, produced pottery shards, the earliest mention of Antwerp dates from the 4th century. In the 4th century, Antwerp was first named, having been settled by the Germanic Franks, the name was reputed to have been derived from anda and werpum. The Merovingian Antwerp was evangelized by Saint Amand in the 7th century, at the end of the 10th century, the Scheldt became the boundary of the Holy Roman Empire. Antwerp became a margraviate in 980, by the German emperor Otto I, in the 11th century Godfrey of Bouillon was for some years known as the marquis of Antwerp. In the 12th century, Norbert of Xanten established a community of his Premonstratensian canons at St. Michaels Abbey at Caloes
26.
Relief
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Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
27.
Gustavo Kuerten
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Gustavo Kuerten, nicknamed Guga, is a retired former World No.1 tennis player from Brazil. He won the French Open singles title three times, and was the Tennis Masters Cup champion in 2000, Kuerten suffered many problems with injuries which led him to miss a number of tournaments between 2002 and 2005. After a few failed attempts of comebacks, he retired from tennis in May 2008. During his career he won 20 singles and 8 doubles titles, Kuerten was born in Florianópolis in southern Brazil. He began playing tennis when he was six, a start to a life. His father, Aldo, an amateur tennis player, died of a heart attack in 1985 while umpiring a junior tennis match in Curitiba. His older brother, Raphael, is currently his business manager and he gave every trophy he won to his younger brother as a souvenir, including the three miniature replicas of the French Open mens singles trophy. His favourite football team is Brazilian Avaí Futebol Clube, as a young player, Kuerten first learned from Carlos Alves. Alves would continue to coach Kuerten for the next 8 years, when he was 14 years old, Kuerten met Larri Passos who would be his coach for the following 15 years. Passos convinced Kuerten and his family that the youth was talented enough to make an out of playing tennis. The two started traveling all over the world to participate in junior tournaments, as a junior player in South America, Guga won many of the most important tournaments in the region. He often played in an age group above his,1998 was the worst year in his career that was not related to injuries. Like many South American players, his favorite surface is clay. He won three Grand Slam titles, all of them at the French Open, played on the courts of Roland Garros. He won these titles in 1997,2000 and 2001, in every one of the three French Open victories he defeated Russias Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the quarterfinal match and defeated two top 10 players on his way to the title. Kuerten became the No.1 player in the world in 2000, Kuerten won at least one title a year between 1997 and 2004. The streak came to an end in 2005, when injuries and he was also a regular participant for Brazil in the Davis Cup. Kuerten embraced the style of play, with heavy topspin on his ground strokes
28.
Thomas Muster
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Thomas Muster is a former World No.1 tennis player from Austria. One of the worlds leading clay court players in the 1990s, he won the 1995 French Open, in addition, he won eight Masters 1000 series titles. Muster is one of three players to win Masters titles on three different surfaces. Muster first came to prominence when he reached the final of the French Open junior tournament, Muster played his first matches at the top-level in 1984, as a junior player, at the age of 16. In 1984, he played his first match for Austria in the Davis Cup and he also played at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, and in two tournaments on Austrian soil, the clay-court event in Kitzbühel and the indoor carpet event in Vienna. Muster turned professional in 1985, regularly playing in Challenger tournaments throughout the year, winning in Belo Horizonte, Muster won his first top-level tournament at the Dutch Open in Hilversum in 1986. In 1988, Muster reached six top-level tournament finals, winning four of them, in Boston, Bordeaux, Prague, Muster finished the year ranked 16th in the world. Early in 1989, he became the first Austrian to reach the semifinals of the Australian Open, shortly after that, he became the first Austrian to reach the world top 10. On the night of 31 March 1989, he defeated Yannick Noah in five sets in the semifinals of the Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida, to set up a final against Lendl. However, in the hours of 1 April 1989, just hours after his semifinal victory, he was struck by a drunk driver, severing ligaments in his left knee. Muster flew back to Vienna to undergo surgery, with the aid of a special chair designed to allow him to practice hitting balls while recovering from knee surgery, he returned to competitive tennis in September 1989. Musters comeback continued in 1990, when he won three tournaments on clay and one title on hardcourt. Muster reached the semifinals of the 1990 French Open, losing in straight sets to the eventual champion, Andrés Gómez. He also helped Austria reach the semifinals of the Davis Cup and that year, he was named the ATP Tours Comeback Player of the Year. In 1990, Muster won the Austrian Sportsman of the Year award, Muster won two more top-level tournaments in 1991, and three more in 1992, with the biggest of these titles being the 1992 Monte Carlo title, where he defeated Aaron Krickstein in the final. In 1993, Muster won seven titles, Musters win-loss record on clay in 1993 was 55–10, although he failed to win any of the four big clay-court events of the year. At both the 1992 and 1993 French Opens, Muster was defeated by the reigning French Open, Muster won three clay-court titles in 1994. In March 1994, he defeated Michael Stich of Germany in a first round Davis Cup tie in Graz, 6–4, 6–7, 4–6, 6–3, 12–10, after saving a match point when trailing at 7–8 in the fifth set
29.
Gabriela Sabatini
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Gabriela Beatriz Sabatini is an Argentine former professional tennis player. She was one of the players on the womens circuit in the late-1980s and early-1990s. She won the singles title at the US Open in 1990. Sabatini also won most of the highest level regular events on the tour, including Miami. In the late 1980s, Sabatini launched a line of fragrances after partnering with the German perfume company Muelhens and her signature scent debuted in 1989. Sabatini was born 16 May 1970 in Buenos Aires, Argentina to parents Osvaldo and her father is an executive in General Motors. Sabatini said that she deliberately lost matches in her youth to avoid reporters and she made this claim when she was 43, saying her shyness was a major problem and she thought she had to speak after winning a tournament, so she often lost in semifinals. Sabatini first came to the worlds attention as a junior. She started playing tennis at the age of 6, and won her first tournament at age 8, in 1983, age 13, she became the youngest player to win the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida. She won six major international titles, including the French Open girls singles. In 1985, aged 15 years and three weeks, Sabatini became one of the players to reach the semifinals at the French Open. She won her first top-level singles title later that year in Tokyo, in 1988, Sabatini reached her first Grand Slam singles final at the US Open. She faced Germanys Steffi Graf, who had won the three previous Grand Slam singles events that year and was looking to win a fourth, Graf won the match in three sets. Sabatini was selected to represent Argentina in the 1988 Summer Olympics held in Seoul and she also carried the countrys flag in the opening ceremony. She went on to win the medal in the womens singles competition. In the final, she again faced Graf, who was bidding to turn her Grand Slam into what the media had dubbed a Golden Slam, Sabatini teamed-up with Graf to win the womens doubles title at Wimbledon that year. She also won 1988s year-end WTA Tour Championships, Sabatinis next Grand Slam singles final came in 1990, where she again faced Graf in the final of the US Open. Sabatini beat Graf in two sets and she also beat Graf in a semifinal of the WTA Tour Championships but lost the final to Monica Seles in the events first-ever five-set final 6–4, 5–7, 3–6, 6–4, 6–2
30.
Marat Safin
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Marat Mubinovich Safin is a Russian politician and retired professional tennis player. He first achieved the Association of Tennis Professionals world No.1 singles ranking on November 20,2000 and he was also famous for his emotional outbursts and sometimes fiery temper on court. Safin is the brother of former world No.1 WTA player. They are the first and only brother–sister tandem in history who have both achieved No.1 rankings. In 2011, he became a member of the State Duma representing the United Russia party, in 2016, he became the first Russian tennis player inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Safin was born in Moscow to Tatar parents, Mubin Safin and he speaks Russian, English, and Spanish as well as his native Tatar. His parents are former players and coaches. His younger sister, Dinara, is a professional tennis player and silver medalist at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing. Marats father managed the local Spartak Tennis Club, where Safin trained in his youth alongside several tennis players, including Anna Kournikova, Elena Dementieva, at age 14, Marat moved to Valencia, Spain to gain access to advanced tennis training programs which were not available in Russia. Safin says he grew up very fast, with no muscles and that he moved to Spain because clay courts were better for the knees. In an interview with USA Today, Safin identified himself as a Muslim, stating, Im Russian, all the Muslim people are passionate, stubborn. Safin began his career in 1997, and held the No.1 world ranking for a total of 9 weeks between November 2000 and April 2001. He won his first Grand Slam title at the 2000 US Open after defeating Pete Sampras, Safin helped lead Russia to Davis Cup victories in 2002 and 2006. Despite his dislike of grass courts, he became the first Russian man to reach the semifinals of Wimbledon at the 2008 Wimbledon Championships, at the time of his retirement in November 2009, he was ranked No.61 in the world. Safin started his career in 1997. In 1998, Safin consecutively defeated Andre Agassi and defending champion Gustavo Kuerten at the French Open. He won his first ATP title at the age of 19, in Boston, and later in 1999 he reached the prestigious Paris, Bercy final, losing a closely contested 4 set match to world No.1 Andre Agassi. He barely missed finishing the year as #1, the top spot being overtaken by Gustavo Kuerten at the last match of the season, later, a succession of injuries hindered Safins progress and he missed the majority of the season in 2003 as a result
31.
Rhine
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The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
32.
Strasbourg
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Strasbourg is the capital and largest city of the Grand Est region of France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany in the region of Alsace. In 2014, the city proper had 276,170 inhabitants, Strasbourgs metropolitan area had a population of 773,347 in 2013, making it the ninth largest metro area in France and home to 13% of the Grand Est regions inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 915,000 inhabitants in 2014, Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, Strasbourgs historic city centre, the Grande Île, was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012. Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, the port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany. Before the 5th century, the city was known as Argantorati, a Celtic Gaulish name Latinized first as Argentorate, after the 5h century, the city became known by a completely different name Gallicized as Strasbourg. That name is of Germanic origin and means Town of roads, Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which forms the eastern border of the modern city. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres from. The natural courses of the two eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city. This section of the Rhine valley is an axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself. The city is some 400 kilometres east of Paris, in spite of its position far inland, Strasbourgs climate is classified as Oceanic, with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, on average, snow falls 30 days per year. The highest temperature recorded was 38.5 °C in August 2003. The lowest temperature recorded was −23.4 °C in December 1938. Nonetheless, the disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution
33.
Retractable roof
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A retractable roof is a roof system designed to roll back the roof on tracks so that the interior of the facility is open to the outdoors. Retractable roofs are sometimes referred to as operable roofs or retractable skylights, the term operable skylight, while quite similar, refers to a skylight that opens on a hinge, rather than on a track. Retractable roofs are used in residences, restaurants and bars, swim centres, as Rollamatic was founded five years earlier, the first installation of a motorized retractable roof must be between 1958 and 1963. While any shape is possible, common shapes are flat, ridge, hip-ridge, barrel, a residence might incorporate one or more 3 by 5 retractables, a bar or restaurant a retractable roof measuring 20 by 30, and a meeting hall a 50 by 100 bi-parting-over-stationary. Installations throughout the world employ a variety of different configurations and styles, the first retractable roof sports venue was the now-demolished Civic Arena in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. Olympic Stadium in Montreal, Quebec was slated to be the first outdoor retractable roof stadium at its debut for the 1976 Summer Olympic Games, however, plagued by construction problems, the roof was not installed until 1987, and was not retractable until 1988. Even then, movement of the roof was impossible in high wind conditions, a permanent, fixed roof was installed in 1998. By contrast, the Rogers Centre in Toronto, Ontario had a functional retractable roof at its debut in 1989. Architecturally speaking, retractable roofs vary greatly from stadium to stadium in shape, material, for example, Miller Park has a fan style roof, while Toyota Stadium in Japan has an accordion-like roof. Most retractable roofs are made of metal, while some, such as the roof of University of Phoenix Stadium, are made of water-resistant fabric, in North American major sports leagues, specific rules exist governing the movement of retractable roofs before and during gameplay. These rules vary between the NFL and MLB, as well as from stadium to stadium, depending on the stadium, weather or gameplay conditions, and the judgment of the officials, play may or may not continue until the roof is fully closed. If the game begins with the closed, it may be opened under some circumstances depending on the venue. If it is closed after the game begins, typically it must remain closed for the duration of the game, some modern athletic facilities are using affordable, less complex roof systems that resemble retractable roofs in appearance and effect. These roof systems, commonly referred to as open roofs, are constructed with similar materials as retractable roofs, most open roof companies offer polycarbonate or tempered glass roofs for safer sports play and durability. Hinged at the structures gutters, open roofs fully close and open by the mechanics of a rack, comparable to the benefits of retractable roofs, open roof systems offer players year-long usage, protection from inclement weather when needed, and the feeling of an outdoor environment. Open roofs are seen at smaller athletic venues such as country clubs. Both retractable roof and open roof systems are used in the construction of commercial greenhouses. CBC archives The architect explains the system for the Rogers Centre in Toronto
34.
Rafael Nadal
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Rafael Rafa Nadal Parera is a Spanish professional tennis player. He is widely regarded as the greatest clay-court player in history and his evolution into an all-court threat has established him as one of the greatest players in tennis history, with some considering Nadal to be the greatest player of all time. Nadal has won 14 Grand Slam singles titles, the 2008 Olympic gold medal in singles,28 titles in ATP World Tour Masters 1000 events and he was also a member of the winning Spain Davis Cup team in 2004,2008,2009, and 2011. In 2010, he became the player in history and youngest of four in the Open Era to achieve the Career Grand Slam at age 24. He is the male player, after Andre Agassi, to complete the singles Career Golden Slam. In 2011, Nadal was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year, the left-hander is the sixth player in the Open Era to reach more than 100 finals on the ATP World Tour. Nadal and Mats Wilander are the two male players who have won at least two Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces—hard court, grass, and clay. Nadal holds the record for most consecutive titles at one event after winning his eighth straight Monte-Carlo Masters in 2012 and he is the only player in the open era to achieve such a feat. Nadal is the male player in tennis history to win one Grand Slam. He equalled Guillermo Vilass Open Era record of 49 clay-court titles by winning the Barcelona Open in 2016, Rafael Nadal was born in Manacor, Balearic Islands, Spain. His father, Sebastián Nadal, is a businessman who owns a company and a glass and window company, Vidres Mallorca. His mother is Ana María Parera, a housewife and he has a younger sister named María Isabel. His uncle, Miguel Ángel Nadal, is a professional footballer, who played for RCD Mallorca, FC Barcelona. Nadal supports football clubs Real Madrid and RCD Mallorca, recognizing that Nadal had a natural talent for tennis, another uncle, Toni Nadal, a former professional tennis player, introduced him to tennis when he was three years old. At age eight, Nadal won an under-12 regional tennis championship at a time when he was also a football player. This may be due to the fact he is ambidextrous, playing tennis with his left hand, when Nadal was 12, he won the Spanish and European tennis titles in his age group and was playing tennis and football all the time. Nadals father made him choose between football and tennis so that his work would not deteriorate entirely. Football had to stop straight away, when he was 14, the Spanish tennis federation requested that he leave Mallorca and move to Barcelona to continue his tennis training
35.
Disneyland Paris
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It is owned and operated by Euro Disney S. C. A. A publicly traded company in which The Walt Disney Company owns a controlling stake, Disneyland Park is the original theme park of the complex, opening with the resort on 12 April 1992. A second theme park, Walt Disney Studios Park, opened in 2002, the resort is the second Disney park to open outside of the United States following the opening of the Tokyo Disney Resort in 1983. Following the success of Walt Disney World in Florida, plans to build a theme park in Europe emerged in 1972. Under the leadership of E. Cardon Walker, Tokyo Disneyland opened in 1983 in Japan with instant success, in late 1984 the heads of Disneys theme park division, Dick Nunis and Jim Cora, presented a list of approximately 1,200 possible European locations for the park. By March 1985, the number of locations for the park had been reduced to four. Both nations saw the economic advantages of a Disney theme park. Both Spanish sites were located near the Mediterranean Sea and offered a climate similar to Disneys parks in California. Disney had also shown interest in a site near Toulon in southern France, the pleasing landscape of that region, as well as its climate, made the location a top competitor for what would be called Euro Disneyland. However, shallow bedrock was encountered beneath the site, which would have rendered construction too difficult, finally, a site in the rural town of Marne-la-Vallée was chosen because of its proximity to Paris and its central location in Western Europe. This location was estimated to be no more than a drive for 68 million people. The final contract was signed by the leaders of the Walt Disney Company, construction began in August 1988, and in December 1990, an information centre named Espace Euro Disney was opened to show the public what was being constructed.3 billion. In order to provide lodging to patrons, it was decided that 5,200 Disney-owned hotel rooms would be built within the complex. In March 1988, Disney and a council of architects decided on an exclusively American theme in each hotel would depict a region of the United States. At the time of the opening in April 1992, seven hotels collectively housing 5,800 rooms had been built, an entertainment, shopping and dining complex based on Walt Disney Worlds Downtown Disney was designed by Frank Gehry. With its towers of oxidised silver and bronze-coloured stainless steel under a canopy of lights, for a projected daily attendance of 55,000, Euro Disney planned to serve an estimated 14,000 people per hour inside the Euro Disneyland park. In order to accomplish this,29 restaurants were built inside the park, menus and prices were varied with an American flavour predominant and Disneys precedent of serving alcoholic beverages was continued in the park. 2,300 patio seats were installed to satisfy Europeans expected preference of eating outdoors in good weather, in test kitchens at Walt Disney World, recipes were adapted for European tastes
36.
Gonesse
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Gonesse is a commune in the north-eastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 16.5 km from the centre of Paris, the commune lies immediately north of Le Bourget Airport, and it is six kilometres south-west of Charles de Gaulle International Airport. Since Carolingian times, cereals have been grown in Gonesse, in the period of the 12th through to the 16th centuries, the cultivation of grain was supplemented by drapery, in particular the production of the coarse woollen material of the gaunace. This caused the government to issue a statement on the harmlessness, in 1815, Marshal Grouchy arrived in Gonesse in the course of the War of the Sixth Coalition, with 40,000 troops and 120 artillery pieces. On 2 July, the Duke of Wellington made his headquarters at the commune, since June 1939, the property Frapart is used as the main establishment of the urban administration. Jean Camus, Louis Furmanek, Pierre Lorgnet, and Albert Drouhot from Gonesse belonged to the French Resistance movement during the German occupation of France from 1940 to 1944, the crash led to the deaths of all 109 people on board and four more on the ground. The Concorde crash occurred fewer than 6 km from Goussainville, the site of the crash of the supersonic Tupolev Tu-144 during the 1973 Paris Air Show, Gonesse is twinned with the town of Leonessa in Rieti / Italy, since 1981. Gonesse is served neither by the Paris Métro, RER, nor the suburban rail network, the closest station is the Villiers-le-Bel – Gonesse – Arnouville station on the Paris RER line D. This station is located in the commune of Arnouville-lès-Gonesse,2.6 km from Gonesse town centre. As of 2015 the commune had 20 municipal primary schools with a total of 3,526, pupils, including 11 pre-schools with a total of 1,389 pupils and nine elementary schools with 2,137 total pupils. Junior high schools, College Philippe Auguste Collège Robert Doisneau Collège François Truffaut There is one high school. King Philip Augustus was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165
37.
Charles de Gaulle Airport
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Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, also known as Roissy Airport, is the largest international airport in France. It is named after Charles de Gaulle, leader of the Free French Forces during the Second World War, founder of the French Fifth Republic, Charles de Gaulle Airport is located within portions of several communes 25 km to the northeast of Paris. The airport serves as the hub for Air France as well as a European hub for fellow SkyTeam alliance partner Delta Air Lines. In 2016, the airport handled 65,933,145 passengers and 472,950 aircraft movements, thus making it the worlds ninth-busiest airport and it is also the worlds tenth-busiest and it is Europes second-busiest airport in aircraft movements. In terms of traffic, the airport is the twelfth-busiest in the world. The incumbent director of the airport, Franck Goldnadel, was appointed to his position on 1 March 2011, Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport covers 32.38 square kilometres of land. Management of the airport lies solely on the authority of Paris Aéroport, which also manages Orly, Le Bourget, Marsa Alam in Egypt, the planning and construction phase of what was known then as Aéroport de Paris Nord began in 1966. On 8 March 1974 the airport, renamed Charles de Gaulle Airport, Terminal 1 was built in an avant-garde design of a ten-floors-high circular building surrounded by seven satellite buildings, each with six gates allowing sunlight to enter through apertures. The main architect was Paul Andreu, who was also in charge of the extensions during the following decades, the Frutiger typeface was commissioned for use in the airport and implemented on signs throughout the building in 1975. Initially called Roissy, it was renamed after its designer Adrian Frutiger, until 2005, every PA announcement made at Terminal 1 was preceded by a distinctive chime, nicknamed Indicatif Roissy and composed by Bernard Parmegiani in 1971. The chime can be heard in the Roman Polanski film Frantic, the chime was officially replaced by the Indicatif ADP chime. Charles de Gaulle Airport has three terminals, Terminal 1 is the oldest and situated opposite to Terminal 3, Terminal 2 is located at another side with 7 sub-terminal buildings. Terminal 2 was originally exclusively for Air France, since then it has been expanded significantly. Terminals 2A to 2F are interconnected by elevated walkways and situated next to each other, Terminal 2G is a satellite building connected by shuttle bus. Terminal 3 hosts charter and low-cost airlines, the CDGVAL light-rail shuttle connects Terminal 2 to Terminals 1/3 and their parking lots. Refer to Ground Transportation below for inter-terminal transfers and transport to central Paris, the first terminal, designed by Paul Andreu, was built in the image of an octopus. It consists of a terminal building which houses key functions such as check-in counters. Seven satellites with boarding gates are connected to the building by underground walkways
38.
Versailles, Yvelines
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According to the 2008 census, the population of the city is 88,641 inhabitants, down from a peak of 94,145 in 1975. A new town, founded by the will of King Louis XIV, it was the de facto capital of the Kingdom of France for over a century, from 1682 to 1789, before becoming the cradle of the French Revolution. After having lost its status of city, it became the préfecture of Seine-et-Oise département in 1790, then of Yvelines in 1968. Versailles is historically known for numerous treaties such as the Treaty of Paris, which ended the American Revolutionary War and this word formation is similar to Latin seminare which gave French semailles. From May 1682, when Louis XIV moved the court and government permanently to Versailles, until his death in September 1715, during the various periods when government affairs were conducted from Versailles, Paris remained the official capital of France. Versailles was made the préfecture of the Seine-et-Oise département at its inception in March 1790, Versailles was made the préfecture of the Yvelines département, the largest chunk of the former Seine-et-Oise. At the 2006 census the Yvelines had 1,395,804 inhabitants, Versailles is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese which was created in 1790. The diocese of Versailles is subordinate to the archdiocese of Paris, in 1975, Versailles was made the seat of a Court of Appeal whose jurisdiction covers the western suburbs of Paris. Since 1972, Versailles has been the seat of one of Frances 30 nationwide académies of the Ministry of National Education. Versailles is also an important node for the French army, a tradition going back to the monarchy with, for instance, the palace of Versailles is in the out-skirts of the city. Versailles is located 17.1 km west-southwest from the centre of Paris, the city of Versailles has an area of 26.18 km2, which is a quarter of the area of the city of Paris. In 1989, Versailles had a density of 3, 344/km2, whereas Paris had a density of 20. Born out of the will of a king, the city has a rational and symmetrical grid of streets, by the standards of the 18th century, Versailles was a very modern European city. Versailles was used as a model for the building of Washington, the name of Versailles appears for the first time in a medieval document dated 1038. In the end of the 11th century, the village curled around a medieval castle, the 14th century brought the Black Death and the Hundred Years War, and with it death and destruction. At the end of the Hundred Years War in the 15th century, in 1561, Martial de Loménie, secretary of state for finances under King Charles IX, became lord of Versailles. He obtained permission to four annual fairs and a weekly market on Thursdays. The population of Versailles was 500 inhabitants, Martial de Loménie was murdered during the St. Bartholomews Day massacre
39.
Brinkmanship
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Brinkmanship is the practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. It occurs in international politics, foreign policy, labour relations, and military strategy involving the threat of nuclear weapons and this maneuver of pushing a situation with the opponent to the brink succeeds by forcing the opponent to back down and make concessions. This might be achieved through diplomatic maneuvers by creating the impression that one is willing to use extreme methods rather than concede, during the Cold War, the threat of nuclear force was often used as such an escalating measure. Brinkmanship is the escalation of threats to achieve ones aims. Eventually, the threats involved might become so huge as to be unmanageable at which point both sides are likely to back down. This was the case during the Cold War, the escalation of threats of nuclear war, for brinkmanship to be effective, the sides continuously escalate their threats and actions. However, a threat is ineffective unless credible—at some point, a party may have to prove its commitment to action. The chance of things sliding out of control is used in itself as a tool of brinkmanship. Pioneering game theorist Thomas Schelling called this the threat that leaves something to chance, the British intellectual Bertrand Russell compared nuclear brinkmanship to the game of chicken. The principle between the two is the same, to immense pressure in a situation until one person or party backs down
40.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
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Arab states of the Persian Gulf
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The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are the seven Arab states which border the Persian Gulf, namely Bahrain, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. This excludes the non-Arab state of Iran, all of these nations except Iraq are part of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Soap operas are important national pastimes in the Persian Gulf Arab region and they are most popular during the time of Ramadan, when families gather to break their fast. Most of these operas are based in Kuwait. Kuwaiti soap operas are the most-watched soap operas in the Persian Gulf region, although usually performed in the Kuwaiti dialect, they have been shown with success as far away as Tunisia. Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio and television soap opera, darb El Zalag, Khalti Gmasha, and Ruqayya wa Sabika are among the most important television productions in the Gulf region. The inhabitants of Eastern Arabias coast share similar cultures and music such as fijiri, sawt. The most noticeable trait of Eastern Arabias Arabs is their orientation. Maritime-focused life in the small Arab states has resulted in a society where livelihoods have traditionally been earned in marine industries. Before the GCC was formed in 1981, the term Khaleeji was solely used to refer to the inhabitants of Eastern Arabia, historically, Khaleeji meant descendants of Ichthyophagi, the coast-dwelling fish eaters. Geographically, the Arabic-speaking is solely Eastern Arabia, some states are constitutional monarchies with elected parliaments. Bahrain and Kuwait have legislatures with members elected by the population, the Sultanate of Oman also has an advisory council that is popularly elected. Saudi Arabia remains a monarchy with limited political representation. In Qatar, a national parliament has been mooted and is written into the new constitution. Both organizations rank Kuwaits press as the most free of all Arab states of the Persian Gulf and, in fact, Qatar and Oman come in second and third respectively within the regional ranks. All of these Arab states have significant revenues from petroleum, the United Arab Emirates has been successfully diversifying the economy. 79% of UAEs total GDP comes from non-oil sectors, oil accounts for only 2% of Dubais GDP. Bahrain has the Persian Gulfs first post-oil economy because the Bahraini economy does not rely on oil, since the late 20th century, Bahrain has heavily invested in the banking and tourism sectors
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United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
listen)) is a tennis venue located in Paris, France, that hosts the French Open—also known as Roland Garros, particularly within Europe—a Grand Slam championship tournament played annually around the end of May and the beginning of June. It is named for Roland Garros, a pioneer aviator who completed the first solo flight across the Mediterranean Sea,[1] engineer (inventor of the first forward-firing aircraft machine gun),[2] and World War I hero (as a pilot, he shot down four enemy aircraft, though popularly believed to be five).[3] Garros was killed in aerial combat in 1918, the facility was constructed in 1928 to host France's first defense of the Davis Cup.
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