1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
3.
Italian Football Federation
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The Italian Football Federation, also known as Federcalcio, is the governing body of football in Italy. It organises the Italian football league, Coppa Italia, Italian national football team, and it is based in Rome, and technical department in Florence, and is a founding member of UEFA and a member of FIFA. The Federation was founded in 1898 when the sport was picking up in the country and it needed a structure to take football. The first presidency was decided in the Piedmontese capital of Turin, when created, this football federation was given a different name, Federazione Italiana Football because all play terms and rules were the same as the official FA rules. In the few years before and after the introduction of the Federation, clubs all over the country from Genoa, Turin, Milan, Naples, Rome, Palermo, and others were forming. The new name approved was Federazione Italiana Giuoco del Calcio and since then this has been the name of the Italian Football Federation, the debut of the Mens National Team was on 15 May 1910, at Arena Civica, wearing a white jersey where Italy defeated France 6–2. The following year, the jersey was introduced on the occasion of the match against Hungary. This Italian Federation was an amateur federation respecting FIFA rules when it became a member in 1905, at the end of World War 1, the federation had seen impressive development and several footballers were judged to be professional players and banned according to FIFA agreements. Foreigners had to live in the country in order to get a residence visa and they had to sign the declaration not being professional players so that FIFA rules were respected because for FIGC they were appearing as amateurs receiving just refunds. It was the beginning of the professionalism in Italy, the Carta di Viareggio reduced the number of foreign players to be fielded to just one per match so that the majority of Hungarians remained jobless and got back to their country. Commissioner Bruno Zauli led the FIGC renovation process, with the establishment of three Leagues and the creation of the Technical and the Youth Sectors, between 1964 and 1980, foreign players were banned from the Italian league, primarily to revive the national team. In December 1998, the FIGC celebrated its centenary at the Stadio Olimpico in a match featuring Italy vs World XI, the FIGC was placed in administration in May 2006 as a result of the 2006 Italian football scandal and was put under the management of Guido Rossi. In May 2006, Rossi was chosen and accepted the role of President of Telecom Italia and this appointment caused angry reactions from club presidents in Italy. On September 19, Rossi resigned his position as Commissioner of FIGC, on September 21, Luca Pancalli, head of the Italian Paralympic Committee, was chosen to replace Rossi. On April 2,2007, a new President was elected, following the 2014 FIFA World Cup Abete resigned and Carlo Tavecchio was elected President of the Federation and Michele Uva as general manager. In support of the activity and with a view of maximum transparency, World Cup,4 times European Football Championship, once Olympics, once Central European International Cup, twice Official site Italy at FIFA site Italy at UEFA site Italian calcio glossary
4.
Seating capacity
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Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The International Fire Code, portions of which have adopted by many jurisdictions, is directed more towards the use of a facility than the construction. It specifies, For areas having fixed seating without dividing arms and it also requires that every public venue submit a detailed site plan to the local fire code official, including details of the means of egress, seating capacity, arrangement of the seating. Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the size of the venue. For sports venues, the decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors, chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area. Seating capacity of venues also plays a role in what media they are able to provide, in contracting to permit performers to use a theatre or other performing space, the seating capacity of the performance facility must be disclosed. Seating capacity may influence the kind of contract to be used, the seating capacity must also be disclosed to the copyright owner in seeking a license for the copyrighted work to be performed in that venue. Venues that may be leased for private functions such as ballrooms and auditoriums generally advertise their seating capacity, seating capacity is also an important consideration in the construction and use of sports venues such as stadiums and arenas. The seating capacity for restaurants is reported as covers, a restaurant that can seat 99 is said to have 99 covers, seating capacity differs from total capacity, which describes the total number of people who can fit in a venue or in a vehicle either sitting or standing. Use of the term public capacity indicates that a venue is allowed to more people than it can actually seat. Again, the total number of people can refer to either the physical space available or limitations set by law
5.
Pier Luigi Nervi
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Pier Luigi Nervi was an Italian engineer. He studied at the University of Bologna and qualified in 1913, dr. Nervi taught as a professor of engineering at Rome University from 1946-61. He is widely known as a engineer and an architect. Pier Luigi Nervi was born in Sondrio and attended the Civil Engineering School of Bologna, after graduation, Nervi joined the Society for Concrete Construction. Nervi spent several years in the Italian army during World War I from 1915–1918 and his formal education was quite similar to that experienced by todays civil engineering student in Italy. From 1961-1962 Nervi was the Norton professor at Harvard University, Nervi began practicing civil engineering after 1923, and built several airplane hangars amongst his contracts. Nervi also stressed that intuition should be used as much as mathematics in design and he borrowed from both Roman and Renaissance architecture while applying ribbing and vaulting to improve strength and eliminate columns. He combined simple geometry and prefabrication to innovate design solutions, Pier Luigi Nervi was educated and practised as a ingegnere edile – in Italy, at the time, a building engineer might also be considered an architect. After 1932, his aesthetically pleasing designs were used for major projects and this was due to the booming number of construction projects at the time which used concrete and steel in Europe and the architecture aspect took a step back to the potential of engineering. Nervi successfully made reinforced concrete the main material of the day. Nervi expounded his ideas on building in four books and many learned papers, archeological excavations suggested that he may have some responsibilities for the Flaminio stadium foundations passing through ancient Roman tombs. Most of his structures are in his native Italy. Nervis first project in the United States was the George Washington Bridge Bus Station and he designed the roof which consists of triangle pieces which were cast in place. This building is used today by over 700 buses and their passengers. Stadio Artemio Franchi, Florence Ugolino Golf House, Impruneta, Italy Torino Esposizioni, Turin, Norfolk Scope, Norfolk, VA Pier Luigi Nervi was awarded Gold Medals by the Institution of Structural Engineers, the American Institute of Architects, and the RIBA. He was also awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal of The Franklin Institute in 1957, in 1957, he was awarded the Wilhelm Exner Medal
6.
Unione Rugby Capitolina
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Unione Rugby Capitolina is an Italian rugby union club, based in Rome. The team, initially located in the Acqua Acetosa establishment, was founded in 1996, the initial intent of the team was to focus on the younger rugby players, so the seniores team commenced two years after the foundation of the team, in 1998. Unione Rugby Capitolina won two U, the team also won a U.17 national championship in 2006-2007 in an intense final played against Petrarca Padova. In 2011 the Club won the national championship, this time in the U.16 category. 1998 is the year in which the Club moves to its own establishment in Via Flaminia and inaugurates the seniores team, mainly composed of friends and newcomers. Capitolina, captained by Stefano Montalto and coached by Luca Santaroni, starts from the serie C2 and manages to obtain the promotion to serie C1. The year after another coach joins Santaroni, Marco Iscaro, in the 2005/6 season Capitolina was promoted to Italys highest rugby league, the Super 10, with a perfect winning record of 22 wins and a total of 110 points. They won the playoffs against city rivals Rugby Roma with a 20-9 victory to reach the top Italian rugby league after ten years of existence. Capitolina had been striving to deliver better results both in the league and in the various European trophies that were available. Although with limited success, key investments in infrastructure and players started to have an impact, the First XV activities were brought forward by a 4th division team composed only of Members of the Club, the former ControProgetto
7.
Italy national rugby union team
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The Italy national rugby union team represents the nation of Italy in the sport of rugby union. The team is known as the Azzurri. Italy has been playing rugby since 1929, and for decades were considered one of the best European teams outside the Five Nations Championship. Since 2000, Italy competes annually in the Six Nations Championship with England, France, Ireland, Scotland and they were the holders of the Giuseppe Garibaldi Trophy for 2013, played annually against France. Italy is ranked 14th in the world by the IRB as of 22 April 2016, Italian rugby really came to prominence in 2000 when it was added to the Five Nations, creating the Six Nations. Initially on the end of heavy defeats, the side has grown in competitiveness, recording a fourth-place finish in 2007 and 2013. Italy have also competed at every Rugby World Cup since the first tournament in 1987, the team has developed a reputation for being a consistent middle player at the tournament. Italys showings since 2003 have consistently followed a formula where they managed two wins and two losses during the pool stages, the current head coach is Conor OShea. Number eight Sergio Parisse is their current captain, the first match played by an Italian XV was in 1911 between US Milanese and Voiron of France. On 25 July of the year the Propaganda Committee was formed which in 1928 became the Federazione Italiana Rugby. In May 1929, Italy played their first international losing 9–0 against Spain in Barcelona, post-war, there was a desire to return to normal and Italian rugby union entered a new dimension thanks to the help of Allied troops in Italy. In the 1970s and 1980s rugby union made enormous progress thanks to foreign players. Even foreign coaches were and continue to be chosen for the team, like Bertrande Fourcade. In 1973, the team went on a tour of South Africa. Tours of England and Scotland followed, as well as games against Australia and New Zealand, in 1978, Italy first played Argentina at Rovigo, winning 19-6. Since the mid 1980s, the Italian national side had been pursuing the ambition of playing in an expanded Five Nations Championship, in 1986, Italy hosted an England XV squad in Rome, drawing 15-15. The Azzurri took part in the first-ever Rugby World Cup match against New Zealand on 22 May 1987, the match proved a one-sided affair with New Zealand convincing 70–6 winners against a young Italian side. John Kirwan, later to become the Italian national coach, scored one of the tournament’s greatest-ever tries for the All Blacks, Italy beat Fiji but lost to Argentina and finished third in their pool, failing to make the finals
8.
Via Flaminia
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It leaves Rome, goes up the Val Tevere, strikes into the mountains at Castello delle Formiche, ascends to Gualdo Tadino, goes over the divide at Scheggia Pass,575 m, to Cagli. From there it descends the eastern slope waterways between the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines and the Umbrian Apennines to Fano on the coast and goes north parallel to Highway A1 to Rimini. This route, convenient to ancients, is now far from it due to modern traffic between north Italy and the capital. It was constructed by Gaius Flaminius during his censorship, sources mention frequent improvements being made to it during the imperial period. Triumphal arches were erected in his honour on the bridge and at Ariminum. Vespasian constructed a new tunnel through the pass of Intercisa, in 77, in the Middle Ages it was known as the Ravenna road, as it led to the then more important city of Ravenna. As the SS3 it remains one of the highways from Rome to the Adriatic. A number of battles were therefore fought on or near the Via Flaminia, for example at Sentinum. In the early Middle Ages, the road, controlled by the Eastern Empire, was a civilizing influence, and accounted for much of what historians call the Byzantine corridor. The Via Flaminia starts at Porta del Popolo in the Aurelian Walls of Rome, Via del Corso, from there it descended to Cales, where it turned north-east following the gorges of the Burano. The narrowest pass was crossed by means of a tunnel chiseled out of solid rock and this is the modern Gola del Furlo, the ancient name of which, Intercisa, means cut through with reference to these tunnels. The modern 2‑lane road, the SS3 Flaminia, still uses Vespasians tunnel, the Flaminia emerged from the gorges of the Apennines at Forum Sempronii and reached the coast of the Adriatic at Fanum Fortunae. Thence, it ran north-west through Pisaurum to Ariminum, the total distance from Rome was 210 Roman miles by the older road and 222 by the newer. For an overview of the location of Roman bridges, see List of Roman bridges, giovanni de Butris Ponte del Diavolo at Cavallara near Bastardo Along the eastern branch, Ponte Sanguinaro in Spoleto scant remains of a bridge at Pontebari After the branches rejoin at S. A small stretch of the remains in the ruins of Carsulae where it passes through the impressive Arco di Traiano. The road was used as part of the road race cycling event for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome. In Rome it runs past and gives its name to the Stadio Flaminio sports stadium, Roman road Roman bridge Roman engineering Via del Corso Piazza del Popolo 1960 Summer Olympics official report. The Via Flaminia at LacusCurtius Omnes Viae, Via Flaminia on the Peutinger Map This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
9.
Amateur wrestling
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Amateur wrestling is the most widespread form of sport wrestling. There are two international wrestling styles performed in the Olympic Games under the supervision of United World Wrestling, Greco-Roman, Freestyle is possibly derived from the English Lancashire style. A similar style, commonly called collegiate, is practiced in colleges and universities, secondary schools, middle schools, where the style is not specified, this article refers to the international styles of competition on a mat. In February 2013, the IOC voted to remove the sport from the 2020 Summer Olympics onwards, on 8 September 2013, the IOC announced that wrestling would return to the Summer Olympics in 2020. The rapid rise in the popularity of the combat sport Mixed martial arts has increased interest in wrestling due to its effectiveness in the sport. Greco-Roman and freestyle differ in what holds are permitted, in Greco-Roman, in both Greco-Roman and freestyle, points can be scored in the following ways, Takedown, A wrestler gaining control over their opponent from a neutral position. Reversal, A wrestler gaining control over their opponent from a defensive position, exposure or the Danger Position, A wrestler exposing their opponents back to the mat, also awarded if ones back is to the mat but the wrestler is not pinned. Any wrestler stepping out of bounds while standing in the position during a match is penalized by giving their opponent a point. As in the styles, collegiate wrestling awards points for takedowns. Penalty points are awarded in collegiate wrestling according to the current rules, however, the manner in which infractions are penalized and points awarded to the offended wrestler differ in some aspects from the international styles. Collegiate wrestling also awards points for, Near Fall, This is similar to the points given in Greco-Roman. A wrestler scores points for holding their opponents shoulders or scapulae to the mat for several seconds while their opponent is not pinned. Escape, A wrestler getting from a position to a neutral position. This is no longer a way to score in freestyle or Greco-Roman, in the international styles, the format is now two three-minute periods. A wrestler wins the match when they were able to get more points than their opponent or 10 points lead in two rounds, for example, if one competitor get 10-0 lead in first the period, they will win by superiority of points. Only a fall, injury default, or disqualification terminates the match and this format replaced the old format of three two-minute periods played best two out of three. One side effect of the old format was that it was possible for the wrestler to outscore the winner. For example, periods may be scored 3–2, 0–4, 1–0, leading to a score of 4–6
10.
Weight training
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Weight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It utilizes the force of gravity in the form of weighted bars, weight training uses a variety of specialized equipment to target specific muscle groups and types of movement. Sports where strength training is central are bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, highland games, shot put, discus throw, strength training for other sports and physical activities is becoming increasingly popular. Strength training is a term that describes all exercises devoted toward increasing physical strength. Weight training is a type of training that uses weights. Endurance training is associated with aerobic exercise while flexibility training is associated with stretching exercise like yoga or pilates, weight training is often used as a synonym for strength training, but is actually a specific type within the more inclusive category. Contrary to popular belief, weight training can be beneficial for men and women. The genealogy of lifting can be traced back to the beginning of history where humanitys fascination with physical abilities can be found numerous ancient writings. Another Greek, the physician Galen, described strength training using the halteres in the 2nd century. Ancient Greek sculptures also depict lifting feats, the weights were generally stones, but later gave way to dumbbells. The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, another early device was the Indian club, which came from ancient Persia where it was called the meels. It subsequently became popular during the 19th century, and has made a comeback in the form of the clubbell. The 1960s saw the introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Weight training became popular in the 1970s, following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, and weights depends on the aims of the performing the exercise. In addition to the principles of strength training, a further consideration added by weight training is the equipment used. Types of equipment include barbells, dumbbells, pulleys and stacks in the form of weight machines, different types of weights will give different types of resistance, and often the same absolute weight can have different relative weights depending on the type of equipment used
