1.
137th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)
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The 137th Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the British Army that saw active service during World War II. The brigade was raised in the summer of 1939 when the Territorial Army was doubled in size in order to meet the threat of Nazi Germany, the brigade was formed as a 2nd Line duplicate of the 147th Infantry Brigade and was assigned to the 46th Infantry Division. With the division, the brigade was sent overseas to join the British Expeditionary Force in France in April 1940 for training, in May, the brigade fought against the German Army in the Battle of France until being evacuated at Dunkirk with the rest of the BEF. After spending the two years in the United Kingdom on home defence against a German invasion, in July 1942 it was decided to convert the 137th Brigade into an armoured formation. The brigades infantry battalions were transferred to the Royal Armoured Corps. 2/5th Battalion, West Yorkshire Regiment 2/6th Battalion, Duke of Wellingtons Regiment 2/7th Battalion, Duke of Wellingtons Regiment 137th Infantry Brigade Anti-Tank Company
2.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
3.
Army Reserve (United Kingdom)
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The Army Reserve is the active-duty volunteer reserve force and integrated element of the British Army. Most Volunteer infantry units had unique identities, but lost these in the reorganisation, only one infantry unit, the London Regiment, has maintained a separate identity. Reservists in the past also served as constables or bailiffs, even holding positions of civic duty as overseer of their parish, the more modern Yeomen of the 18th century were cavalry-based units, which were often used to suppress riots. Several units that are now part of the Army Reserve bear the title militia, after the Second World War, for example, the Army Reserve - or Territorial Army as it was known then - was not demobilised until 1947. All Army Reserve personnel have their jobs protected to a limited extent by law should they be compulsorily mobilised. There is, however, no protection against discrimination in employment for membership of the Army Reserve in the normal course of events. As part of the process, remaining units of militia were converted to the Special Reserve. The TF was formed on 1 April 1908 and contained fourteen infantry divisions and it had an overall strength of approximately 269,000. The individual units that made up each division or brigade were administered by County Associations, the other members of the association consisted of military members, representative members and co-opted members. Associations took over any property vested in the volunteers or yeomanry under their administration, each regiment or battalion had a Regular Army officer attached as full-time adjutant. In August 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, territorial units were given the option of serving in France and, by 25 August, in excess of seventy battalions had volunteered. This question over the availability of territorial divisions for service was one of Lord Kitcheners motivations for raising the New Army separately. The first fully Territorial division to join the fighting on the Western Front was the 46th Division in March 1915, with divisions later serving in Gallipoli and elsewhere. As the war progressed, and casualties mounted, the character of territorial units was diluted by the inclusion of conscript. Following the Armistice all units of the Territorial Force were gradually disbanded, New recruiting started in early 1920, and the Territorial Force was reconstituted on 7 February 1920. On 1 October 1920, the Territorial Force was renamed the Territorial Army, the 1st Line divisions were reconstituted in that year. However, the composition of the divisions was altered, with a reduction in the number of infantry battalions required, there was also a reduced need for cavalry, and of the 55 yeomanry regiments, only the 14 most senior retained their horses. The remaining yeomanry were converted to artillery or armoured car units or disbanded, the amalgamation of 40 pairs of infantry battalions was announced in October 1921
4.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
5.
Brigade
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A brigade is a major tactical military formation that is typically composed of three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment, two or more brigades may constitute a division. Brigades formed into divisions are usually infantry or armored, in addition to combat units, they may include combat support units or sub-units, such as artillery and engineers, and logistic units or sub-units. Historically, such brigades have sometimes been called brigade-groups, on operations, a brigade may comprise both organic elements and attached elements, including some temporarily attached for a specific task. Brigades may also be specialized and comprise battalions of a branch, for example cavalry, mechanized, armored, artillery, air defence, aviation, engineers. Some brigades are classified as independent or separate and operate independently from the division structure. The typical NATO standard brigade consists of approximately 3,200 to 5,500 troops, however, in Switzerland and Austria, the numbers could go as high as 11,000 troops. The Soviet Union, its forerunners and successors, mostly use regiment instead of brigade, a brigades commander is commonly a major general, brigadier general, brigadier or colonel. In some armies, the commander is rated as a General Officer, the brigade commander has a self-contained headquarters and staff. Some brigades may also have a deputy commander, the headquarters has a nucleus of staff officers and support that can vary in size depending on the type of brigade. On operations, additional specialist elements may be attached, the headquarters will usually have its own communications unit. In some gendarmerie forces, brigades are the organizational unit. The brigade as a military unit came about starting in the 15th century when the British army, as such a field army became larger, the number of subordinate commanders became unmanageable for the officer in general command of said army, usually a major general, to effectively command. In order to streamline command relationships, as well as effect some modicum of control, especially in regard to combined arms operations. The terms origin is found in two French roots, which together, meant roughly those who fight, the so-called brigada was a well-mixed unit, comprising infantry, cavalry and normally also artillery, designated for a special task. The size of such brigada ranged from a company of up to two regiments. The brigada was the forerunner of the battalion task force, battle group. The brigade was improved as a unit by the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus
6.
46th (North Midland) Division
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The 46th Division was an infantry division of the British Army, part of the Territorial Force, that saw service in World War I. At the outbreak of the war, the 46th Division was commanded by Major-General Hon. E. J, originally called the North Midland Division, it was redesignated as the 46th Division in May 1915. The Staffordshire Brigade was composed of battalions of the South Staffordshire Regiment, artillery, engineer, medical and other support services for the division either came from the Volunteers of these counties, or were newly raised in the TF. The North Midland Division was sent to France in February 1915, on 12 May 1915 the division was numbered 46th Division and the brigades were also numbered. During the Battle of Loos the 46th Division was decimated in an attack on the Hohenzollern Redoubt on 13 October 1915 and it was reformed as the Territorial Army in the 1920s as was the 46th Division. However, the 46th Division was disbanded in 1936, the headquarters being converted into 2nd Anti-Aircraft Division, most of the remainder of 46th Divisions units were sent to other divisions, mainly the 49th and the 55th Infantry Divisions. A new 46th Infantry Division was formed in October 1939, a month after the outbreak of World War II, a 59th Infantry Division was also raised as a 2nd Line duplicate of the 55th Division, and contained many units that served with 46th Division. Borrett, May 1931 – December 1932 Major-General Maurice G. Taylor, December 1932 – April 1934 Major-General Sir Hereward Wake, Bt. April 1934 –1937 List of British divisions in World War I Maj A. F. Lt-Col H. F. Alan MacDonald, the 46th Division at Gommecourt, 1st July 1916, West Wickham, Iona Books,2008, ISBN 978-0-9558119-0-6. Breaking the Hindenburg Line, the story of the 46th Division, /Uckfield, Naval & Military Press,2002, ISBN 978-1-843422-66-2. The British Army in the Great War British Military History 46 Infantry Division
7.
Actions of the Hohenzollern Redoubt
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The Actions of the Hohenzollern Redoubt took place from 13–19 October 1915, at the Hohenzollern Redoubt near Auchy-les-Mines in France, on the Western Front in World War I. In the aftermath of the Battle of Loos, the 9th Division captured the strongpoint, the British attack on 13 October failed and resulted in 3,643 casualties, mostly in the first few minutes. In the British Official History, J. E. Edmonds wrote that The fighting had not improved the situation in any way and had brought nothing. Crown Prince Rupprecht the Sixth Army commander and some Western Front generals had objected to this policy, an unprecedented preliminary bombardment of the German defences would be possible and make attacks by the greater number of Allied infantry decisive. Simultaneous offensives would be mounted from Champagne and Artois towards Namur, the British First Army was to attack between Grenay and La Bassée canal on a 6-mile front, with six divisions and three in reserve. The Cavalry Corps and Indian Cavalry Corps were to be ready to exploit a German collapse. The Franco-British armies were to attack towards Tournai, Valenciennes and Le Quesnoy, field artillery available to the British divisions covered a 1-mile front, with 19 heavy guns in support, while the Tenth Army divisional frontages were. 75-mile wide with 35 heavy guns. The smaller number of British guns was matched by a lack of ammunition, the offensives were to begin with a continuous and methodical bombardment for 96 hours, in which counter-battery fire was as important as trench destruction. A four-hour intense bombardment was to be fired, before the attacks in Artois. Previous attacks in Artois had been obstructed by the villages and industrial premises in the region. The Franco-British heavy artillery was to be used to destroy German fortified houses and villages, such tactics were expected to break through both German defensive positions and enable the cavalry to rush forward and widen the breakthroughs, before advancing on distant objectives in Belgium. The artillery of the 9th Division was arranged in two groups and a reserve. The three brigade field companies of the Royal Engineers and the battalion were placed in reserve. Two 9. 2-inch howitzers were dug in near a wood at Beuvry with arrangements made for ground and air observation of their fire and Russian saps were dug towards the redoubt. On the night before the attack the saps were opened and the ends joined, the divisional objectives were the buildings and dump of Fosse 8 and the Hohenzollern Redoubt. The Dump was a flat-topped spoil-heap 20 feet high with a view and had been made the principal German observation post in the area. When captured The Dump would give the British observation over Haisnes, on the right the 26th Brigade with two battalions, was to overrun the Hohenzollern Redoubt and Fosse 8 in the first rush. The 27th Brigade in reserve, was then to advance through Douvrin to the Haute Deûle Canal, with the 7th Division on the right flank, the Crassiers had been tunnelled or hollowed out by both sides, to provide observation-posts and machine-gun nests
8.
Battle of the Somme
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The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was a battle of the First World War fought by the armies of the British and French empires against the German Empire. It took place between 1 July and 18 November 1916 on both sides of the reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies and was the largest battle of the First World War on the Western Front, more than one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the bloodiest battles in human history. The French and British had committed themselves to an offensive on the Somme during Allied discussions at Chantilly, Oise, in December 1915. Initial plans called for the French army to undertake the main part of the Somme offensive, the first day on the Somme was, in terms of casualties, also the worst day in the history of the British army, which suffered 57,470 casualties. These occurred mainly on the front between the Albert–Bapaume road and Gommecourt, where the attack was defeated and few British troops reached the German front line, the battle is notable for the importance of air power and the first use of the tank. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km into German-occupied territory, the Anglo-French armies failed to capture Péronne and halted 5 km from Bapaume, where the German armies maintained their positions over the winter. Debate continues over the necessity, significance and effect of the battle, David Frum opined that a century later, the Somme remains the most harrowing place-name in the history of the British Empire. Allied war strategy for 1916 was decided at the Chantilly Conference from 6–8 December 1915, in December 1915, General Sir Douglas Haig replaced Field Marshal Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of the BEF. Haig favoured a British offensive in Flanders close to BEF supply routes, to drive the Germans from the Belgian coast, Haig was not formally subordinate to Marshal Joseph Joffre but the British played a lesser role on the Western Front and complied with French strategy. A week later the Germans began an offensive against the French at Verdun, by 31 May, the ambitious Franco-British plan for a decisive victory, had been reduced to a limited offensive to relieve pressure on the French at Verdun with a battle of attrition on the Somme. The Chief of the German General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, intended to end the war by splitting the Anglo-French Entente in 1916, Falkenhayn chose to attack towards Verdun to take the Meuse heights and make Verdun untenable. The British would then have to begin a hasty relief offensive, Falkenhayn expected the relief offensive to fall south of Arras against the Sixth Army and be destroyed. If such Franco-British defeats were not enough, Germany would attack the remnants of armies and end the western alliance for good. Eloi, south of Ypres and reduced the German counter-offensive strategy north of the Somme, to one of passive, the Battle of Verdun began a week after Joffre and Haig agreed to mount an offensive on the Somme. The battle changed the nature of the offensive on the Somme, as French divisions were diverted to Verdun, German overestimation of the cost of Verdun to the French contributed to the concentration of German infantry and guns on the north bank of the Somme. The German offensive at Verdun was suspended in July, and troops, guns, the Brusilov Offensive, absorbed the extra forces that had been requested on 2 June by Fritz von Below, commanding the German Second Army, for a spoiling attack on the Somme. During the offensive the Russians inflicted c. 1,500,000 losses including c. 407,000 prisoners, three divisions were ordered from France to the Eastern Front on 9 June and the spoiling attack on the Somme was abandoned
9.
Battle of St Quentin Canal
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American forces were ordered to attack on 27 September, to finish clearing German forces from outposts in front of the line. However, due to a shortage of American officers, the attack was unsuccessful, as a consequence 200 Australian Officers were then assigned to the US troops to provide both experience and leadership. The British high command had realised that any success against the formidable defences of the Hindenburg Line could only be achieved with the use of tanks. The US divisions launched the attack, with the Australian 3rd. The 30th Infantry Division broke through the Hindenburg Line on 29 September 1918 at Bellicourt winning the praise of General Pershing, the 30th Division did especially well. It broke through the Hindenburg Line on its front and took Bellicourt and part of Nauroy by noon of the 29th. The British 46th Division crossed the St Quentin Canal, capturing 4,200 German prisoners, while the attack succeeded in widening the breach in the Beaurevoir Line, it was unable to seize the high ground further on. However, by 2 October, the attack had resulted in a 17 km breach in the Hindenburg Line, by any measure, and especially by World War I standards, it was a stunning and swift victory. Crows Nest, New South Wales, Allen & Unwin, military History Encyclopedia on the Web – Battle of Cambrai-St. Bean, Volume VI – The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Allied Offensive,1918
10.
Hundred Days Offensive
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The offensive essentially pushed the Germans out of France, forcing them to retreat beyond the Hindenburg Line, and was followed by an armistice. The term Hundred Days Offensive does not refer to a battle or unified strategy. The Spring Offensive of the German Army on the Western Front had begun on 21 March 1918 with Operation Michael and had petered out by July, the Germans had advanced to the river Marne but failed to achieve a decisive breakthrough. When Operation Marne-Rheims ended in July, the Allied supreme commander Ferdinand Foch ordered a counter-offensive which became known as the Second Battle of the Marne, the Germans, recognising their untenable position, withdrew from the Marne towards the north. For this victory, Foch was granted the title Marshal of France, Foch considered the time had arrived for the Allies to return to the offensive. The American Expeditionary Force, was present in France in large numbers, pershing was keen to use his army in an independent role. The Somme was chosen as a site for the offensive for several reasons. As in 1916, it marked the boundary between the BEF and the French armies, in this case defined by the Amiens–Roye road, also the Picardy countryside provided a good surface for tanks, which was not the case in Flanders. Finally, the German defences, manned by the German 2nd Army, were relatively weak, the Battle of Amiens opened on 8 August 1918, with an attack by more than 10 Allied divisions—Australian, Canadian, British and French forces—with more than 500 tanks. Through careful preparation, the Allies achieved surprise, the attack, led by the British Fourth Army, broke through the German lines and tanks attacked German rear positions, sowing panic and confusion. By the end of the day, a gap 15 mi wide had been created in the German line south of the Somme, the Allies had taken 17,000 prisoners and 330 guns. Total German losses were estimated to be 30,000 men, while the Allies had suffered about 6,500 killed, wounded, the collapse in German morale led Erich Ludendorff to dub it the Black Day of the German Army. The advance continued for three days but without the spectacular results of 8 August, since the rapid advance outran the supporting artillery. During those three days, the Allies had managed to gain 12 mi but most of that had occurred on the first day, as a result of the Germans adding reinforcements. On 10 August, the Germans began to pull out of the salient that they had managed to occupy during Operation Michael in March, haig refused and prepared to launch a fresh offensive by the Third Army at Albert, which opened on 21 August. The offensive was a success, pushing the German 2nd Army back over a 34 mi front, Albert was captured on 22 August. The attack was widened on the south, by the French Tenth Army starting the Second Battle of Noyon on 17 August, capturing the town of Noyon on 29 August. On 26 August, to the north of the initial attack, with the front line broken, a number of battles took place as the Allies forced the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line
11.
Brigadier (United Kingdom)
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Brigadier-general was formerly a rank or appointment in the British Army and Royal Marines, and briefly in the Royal Air Force. It first appeared in the army in the reign of James II, the appointment was abolished in both the Army and the Marines in 1921, being replaced in the Army by the appointments of colonel-commandant and colonel on the staff. Colonel-commandant was in turn replaced by the appointment of brigadier in both the Army and the Marines in 1928, from the formation of the Royal Air Force on 1 April 1918 until 31 July 1919, it used the appointment of brigadier-general. This was superseded by the rank of air commodore on the following day, the equivalent naval appointment was commodore. Brigadier is the highest field officer rank, whereas brigadier-general was the lowest general officer rank, however, the two ranks are considered equal
12.
John Vaughan Campbell
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His father, second son of the 2nd Earl Cawdor and an army captain, was killed in the Zulu War in 1879. He was educated at Eton College and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and he served through the Second Boer War, in which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and twice mentioned in despatches. He rallied his men and led them against the enemy machine-guns, capturing the guns, later in the day he again rallied the survivors of his battalion and led them through very heavy hostile fire. His personal gallantry and initiative at a critical moment enabled the division to press on. Later in 1916, he achieved the rank of brigadier general, in 1919 he was appointed Aide-de-Camp to King George V, a post held until he retired from the army in 1933, and was subsequently a member of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms until his death. He died, aged sixty-seven, at his last home in Woodchester near Stroud, on 21 May 1944 and his Victoria Cross is displayed at The Guards Regimental Headquarters in Wellington Barracks, London
13.
Volunteer Force
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The Volunteer Force was a citizen army of part-time rifle, artillery and engineer corps, created as a popular movement throughout the British Empire in 1859. Originally highly autonomous, the units of volunteers became increasingly integrated with the British Army after the Childers Reforms in 1881, most of the regiments of the present Territorial Army Infantry, Artillery, Engineers and Signals units are directly descended from Volunteer Force units. During the Crimean War, the War Office had been forced to send militia, the situation had been complicated by the fact that both auxiliary forces were under the control of the Home Office until 1855. Tensions rose between the United Kingdom and France following the Orsini affair, an attempt on Emperor Napoleon III on 14 January 1858. It emerged that the assassin, Felice Orsini had travelled to England to have the bombs used in the attack manufactured in Birmingham. On 29 April 1859 war broke out between France and the Austrian Empire, and there were fears that Britain might be caught up in a wider European conflict. Volunteer corps were to be raised under the provisions of the Volunteer Act 1804, alfred Tennyson captured the spirit of the time by publishing his poem Riflemen Form in The Times on 9 May 1859. As a basis for the units, many communities had rifle clubs for the enjoyment of the sport of shooting, Corps were only to be formed on the recommendation of the county’s lord-lieutenant. The force was liable to be called out “in case of invasion, or of appearance of an enemy in force on the coast, or in case of rebellion arising in either of these emergencies. ”While under arms volunteers were subject to military law and were entitled to be billeted. Members were not permitted to quit the force during actual military service, members were to be returned as “effective” if they had attended eight days drill and exercise in four months, or 24 days within a year. The members of the corps were to provide their own arms and equipment, Volunteers were also permitted to choose the design of their uniforms, subject to the lord-lieutenant’s approval. Although volunteers were to pay for their own firearms, they were to be provided under the superintendence of the War Office, the number of officers and private men in each county and corps was to be settled by the war office, based on the lord-lieutenant’s recommendation. Originally corps were to consist of approximately 100 all ranks under the command of a captain, the purpose of the rifle corps was to harass the invading enemy’s flanks, while artillery corps were to man coastal guns and forts. Although not mentioned in the letter, engineer corps were also formed. Stretcher-bearers attached to the rifle corps subsequently formed volunteer medical detachments affiliated to the Army Medical Corps, in a handful of counties, units of light horse or mounted rifles were formed. Two volunteer units whose services had been accepted by Queen Victoria during the early 1850s became the two senior rifle corps of the new force and these were the 1st Rifle Volunteer Corps who became the 1st Devonshire Rifle Volunteers and the Victoria Rifles who became the 1st Middlesex Rifle Volunteers. An order of precedence was established for other counties, depending upon the date of establishment of the first corps in the county. The most senior artillery corps was the 1st Northumberland formed at Tynemouth on August 2,1859, some also compared the initiative, small unit tactics and marksmanship principles of rifle regiments of the Napoleonic Wars compared with the linear tactics of the standing army
14.
British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
15.
Western Front (World War I)
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The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
16.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
17.
Hohenzollern Redoubt
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The Hohenzollern Redoubt was a defensive strongpoint of the German 6th Army on the Western Front during World War I, at Auchy-les-Mines near Loos-en-Gohelle in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region of France. Named after the House of Hohenzollern, the redoubt was fought over by German, crown Prince Rupprecht the Sixth Army commander and some Western Front generals had objected to this policy, as an invitation to German troops to retreat rather than fight. The Crassiers had been tunnelled or hollowed out by both sides, to provide observation-posts and machine-gun nests, the Dump was 20-foot high, with an excellent view in all directions. New fortifications were built as quickly as possible, after the Franco-British offensives in May, at Dump and Fosse trenches, on a slight rise 400 yards in front of the original front line, a new defensive work wired for all-round defence was built and named the Hohenzollernwerk. The face of the redoubt was 300 yards long and curved, with extensions to join with Big Willie Trench to the south, British planners judged the Hohenzollern Redoubt to be the strongest defensive-work on the whole of the front. Starting during the Battle of Loos, British units carried out an attack on the Hohenzollern Redoubt which lasted from 13 –19 October 1915. The British 9th Division captured the redoubt and then lost it to a German counter-attack, the final British assault on 13 October failed and resulted in 3,643 casualties, mostly in the first few minutes. The official history of the war suggested that The fighting on the 13th–14th October had not improved the situation in any way and had brought nothing. Over the winter months, the British 170th Tunnelling Company dug several galleries under the German lines at the Hohenzollern Redoubt, which had changed hands several times since September 1915. In February 1916, mining was being conducted at the Quarries and near Fosse 8, in March 1916, the west side was held by the British and the east side was still occupied by the Germans, with the front near a new German trench known as the Chord. The Germans had a view of the British positions from a slag heap named Fosse 8. On 2 March, four mines were detonated, followed by a British advance towards the German lines, the 12th Division intended to capture the crater field, gain observation from crater lips over the German defences back to Fosse 8 and end the threat of German mine attacks. German counter-attacks drove the British back by 6 March, on 18 March, the Germans surprised the British with five mines. The 37th Brigade was eventually relieved by the 35th Brigade, and by the time that the fighting died down. Following the British attacks of 2–18 March, the German units at the Hohenzollern Redoubt were considerably reinforced, on 19 March 1916, the British exploded another mine at the redoubt and the Germans sprung two mines in the Quarries on 24 March. British mines were blown on 26 and 27 March,5,13,20,21 and 22 April 1916, German mines were exploded on 31 March, on 2,8,11,12 and 23 April 1916. Each explosion was followed by attacks and consolidation of the mine lips. The British 12th Division was eventually relieved on 26 April 1916 and missed the German gas attacks at Hulluch which began the next day, engagements continued until the summer, when the British and Commonwealth forces moved their focus south, in preparation of the Battle of the Somme
18.
South Staffordshire Regiment
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The South Staffordshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army in existence for only 68 years. The regiment was created in 1881 under the Childers Reforms by the amalgamation of the 38th Regiment of Foot, the regiment saw service in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II. Militia and Rifle Volunteers of south Staffordshire were also incorporated in the new regiment, 2nd Battalion, the 80th Regiment of Foot, raised in 1793 by Lord William Henry Paget from members of the Staffordshire Militia. The 1st Battalion was sent to Egypt in 1882 as part of the British invasion of the country, on landing in Alexandria, it carried its colours through the city - this was the last occasion on which a British Army unit carried colours on active service. In 1885, the battalion travelled up the River Nile to Sudan in an attempt to lift the Siege of Khartoum. The battalion was involved in the defeat of Arab forces at Kirbekan. The 1st Battalion then entered a period of garrison duty in Gibraltar, Egypt. They arrived home from Gibraltar in early February 1900, with the outbreak of the Second Boer War the previous year, the regiment was ordered to South Africa, arriving as part of the 8th Division in 1900. The battalion was involved in minor skirmishes with the Boers. In 1904, the 1st South Staffords returned to the United Kingdom, being stationed in Ireland and England until 1911, while in Gibraltar, new colours were presented to the battalion by King George V on 31 January 1912. The battalion returned to South Africa in 1913, the 2nd Battalion was stationed in British India in 1881, soon moving to Tralee in Ireland, where it was involved in actions against Irish nationalists. It returned to England in 1883 and it was then posted to The Curragh from 1889 to 1891, before travelling to Egypt, via Aldershot, in 1893. The battalion subsequently served in southern India and Burma until 1907, the battalion returned to England in 1911. The 3rd, Militia battalion, was embodied in May 1900 and they were again embodied in May 1901, and the following month 500 men embarked for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War. The battalion returned in July 1902, the 4th, Militia battalion, was embodied in December 1899, and 650 men embarked in February 1900 for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War. They returned in August 1901, when they disembodied, the 1st Battalion landed at Zeebrugge as part of the 22nd Brigade in 7th Division in October 1914 for service on the Western Front and then moved to Italy in November 1917. The 2nd Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 6th Brigade in the 2nd Division in August 1914 also for service on the Western Front. The 4th Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 7th Brigade in the 25th Division in October 1917 also for service on the Western Front
19.
North Staffordshire Regiment
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The North Staffordshire Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army, which was in existence between 1881 and 1959. The 64th Regiment of Foot was created on 21 April 1758 from the 2nd Battalion of the 11th Regiment of Foot, in 1881, under the Childers Reforms, the 64th Regiment of Foot was merged with the 98th Regiment of Foot to form the Prince of Waless. In 1921 the regimental title was altered to the North Staffordshire Regiment, formed at a time when the British Empire was reaching its peak, the regiment served all over the Empire, in times of both peace and war, and in many theatres of war outside the Empire. It fought with distinction in World War I and World War II and these other wars included the Second Sudanese War, the Second Boer War, the Anglo-Irish War and the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Today the traditions of the North Staffordshire Regiment are continued by the Mercian Regiment, the Prince of Waless Regiment was formed under the Childers Reforms on 1 July 1881, by the amalgamation of the 64th Regiment of Foot and 98th Regiment of Foot. These two regular regiments became, respectively, the 1st and 2nd battalions of the new regiment, the 64th Regiment of Foot was originally raised in 1756 as the 2nd Battalion of the 11th Foot, and was renumbered the 64th in 1758. It had a history of overseas service with much less time spent in Europe. It had served in the West Indies during the Seven Years War, America during the American War of Independence, South America, subsequent long periods were spent in Ireland and the West Indies before action was seen in India during the Indian Mutiny. At the time of the forming of the amalgamation with the 98th Foot and it was based in Afghanistan when the amalgamation occurred. The 2nd and 5th Staffordshire Rifle Volunteer Corps were designated the 1st and 2nd Volunteer battalions, North Staffordshire Regiment, together with the Volunteer battalions of the South Staffordshire Regiment, they formed the Staffordshire Volunteer Infantry Brigade in 1888. This brigade was intended to assemble at Wolverhampton in time of war, the 1st Battalion was stationed in Ireland at the time of the amalgamation. It moved to England in 1883, and the year to the West Indies, based mainly in Barbados. It moved to Natal in 1887, to Mauritius in 1890, to Malta in 1893, from there the 1st Battalion took part in operations in the Second Sudanese War under Lord Kitchener. During the campaign, the 1st Battalion were based initially at Wadi Halfa, in September the battalion took part in the action against the Dervish Army at Hafir, which was decisive in ending the campaign. As a result, the North Staffordshire Regiment received the unique Hafir battle honour, the 2nd Battalion was stationed in India in 1881 when the North Staffordshire Regiment was formed, and remained there until 1886. During this time period, it took part in an expedition to the Zhob Valley in 1884, in 1886, it returned to England via Aden, and then deployed to Ireland in 1893. In 1899, 2nd Battalion mobilised and moved to South Africa, forming part of 15th Brigade in the 7th Division, the majority of the battalion saw little action throughout the conflict, being mostly occupied in garrison duties in Johannesburg in 1900. In 1901, the battalion was part of a column under Brigadier-General Dartnell in the Eastern Transvaal which carried out a scorched earth campaign
20.
Wolverhampton
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Wolverhampton is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 249,470, the demonym for people from the city is Wulfrunian. Historically part of Staffordshire, the city is named after Wulfrun, prior to the Norman Conquest, the areas name appears only as variants of Heantune or Hamtun, the prefix Wulfrun or similar appearing in 1070 and thereafter. Alternatively, the city may have earned its name from Wulfereēantūn after the Mercian King. The variation Wolveren Hampton is seen in records, e. g. in 1381. The city grew initially as a market town specialising in the woollen trade, in the Industrial Revolution, it became a major centre for coal mining, steel production, lock making and the manufacture of cars and motorcycles. The economy of the city is based on engineering, including a large aerospace industry. A local tradition states that King Wulfhere of Mercia founded an abbey of St Mary at Wolverhampton in 659, the Mercians and West Saxons claimed a decisive victory and the field of Woden is recognised by numerous place names in Wednesfield. In 985, King Ethelred the Unready granted lands at a place referred to as Heantun to Lady Wulfrun by royal charter and this became the site for the current St. Peters Church. A statue of Lady Wulfrun, sculpted by Sir Charles Wheeler, Wolverhampton is recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086 as being in the Hundred of Seisdon and the county of Staffordshire. The lords of the manor are listed as the canons of St Mary, with the tenant-in-chief being Samson, Wolverhampton at this date is a large settlement of fifty households. In 1179, there is mention of a market held in the town and this charter for a weekly market held on a Wednesday was eventually granted on 4 February 1258 by Henry III. From the 16th century onwards, Wolverhampton became home to a number of industries including lock and key making and iron. Wolverhampton suffered two Great Fires, the first in April 1590, and the second in September 1696, both fires started in todays Salop Street. The first fire lasted for five days and left nearly 700 people homeless and this second fire led to the purchase of the first fire engine within the city in September 1703. There is also evidence that Wolverhampton may have been the location of the first working Newcomen Steam Engine in 1712. In Victorian times, Wolverhampton grew to be a town mainly due to the huge amount of industry that occurred as a result of the abundance of coal. The remains of this wealth can be seen in houses such as Wightwick Manor and The Mount
21.
Aide-de-camp
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An aide-de-camp is a personal assistant or secretary to a person of high rank, usually a senior military, police or government officer, a member of a royal family, or a head of state. This is not to be confused with an adjutant, who is the administrator of a military unit. The first aide-de-camp is typically the foremost personal aide, in some countries, the aide-de-camp is considered to be a title of honour, and participates at ceremonial functions. The badge of office for an aide-de-camp is usually the aiguillette, whether it is worn on the left or the right shoulder is dictated by protocol. A controversy was raised in 2006, when president Néstor Kirchner decided to promote his army aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel Graham to colonel, upon taking office, former president Cristina Kirchner decided to have, for the first time, female officers as her aides-de-camp. In each of the forces, the chief of staff and other senior officers have their own adjutants, normally of the rank of major or lieutenant colonel. An aiguillette is worn on the shoulder by aides-de-camp and adjutants as a symbol of their position. In Belgium the title of Honorary Aide-de-camp to the King can be granted by the court for services rendered. Notable people include Major General Baron Édouard Empain, Count Charles John dOultremont, generals being field marshals, have four, lieutenant generals two, major generals one”. In British colonies and modern-day British overseas territories, the aide-de-camp is appointed to serve the governor, in 1973, the Governor of Bermuda, Sir Richard Sharples, and his aide-de-camp, Captain Hugh Sayers, were murdered on the grounds of Government House. On the last day of British rule in Hong Kong on 30 June 1997 and he then gave the Vice Regal Salute before proceeding, with the Pattens, to leave Government House for the last time. Prince Charles is a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II, Honorary aides-de-camp to the Governor-General or state governors are entitled to the post-nominal ADC during their appointment. Officers of and above the ranks of admiral, major general. Within the navy, an aide-de-camp is called a flag lieutenant, aides-de-camp in Canada are appointed to the Queen and some members of the royal family, the governor general, lieutenant governors, and to certain other appointments. All aides-de-camp also wear the cypher or badge of the principal to whom they are appointed, aides-de-camp to the governor general wear the governor generals badge and aides-de-camp to a lieutenant governor wear the lieutenant governors badge. They are appointed officers of the Canadian Forces. In certain instances, civilians may be appointed, non-uniformed civilians do not wear the aiguillette, but do wear their lieutenant governors badge as a symbol of their appointment. Aides-de-camp to royal and vice-regal personages wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, aides-de-camp to all others wear their aiguillette on the left shoulder
22.
Lichfield
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Lichfield /ˈlɪtʃfiːld/ is a cathedral city and civil parish in Staffordshire, England. One of eight parishes with city status in England, Lichfield is situated roughly 16 mi north of Birmingham. At the time of the 2011 Census the population was estimated at 32,219, notable for its three-spired medieval cathedral, Lichfield was the birthplace of Samuel Johnson, the writer of the first authoritative Dictionary of the English Language. The citys recorded history began when Chad of Mercia arrived to establish his Bishopric in 669 CE, in 2009, the Staffordshire Hoard, the largest hoard of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork, was found 5.9 km southwest of Lichfield. Lichfields heyday was in the 18th century when it developed into a thriving coaching city, today, the city still retains its old importance as an ecclesiastical centre, and its industrial and commercial development has been limited. The centre of the city retains an unspoilt charm with over 230 listed buildings in its streets, fine Georgian architecture. Lichfield is also home to sports presenter, Matt Bradbury. The origin of the modern name Lichfield is twofold and this passed into Old English as Lyccid, cf. Old Welsh, Luitcoyt, to which was appended Old English, feld open country. This word Lyccidfeld is the origin of the word Lichfield, popular etymology has it that a thousand Christians were martyred in Lichfield around 300 AD during the reign of Diocletian and that the name Lichfield actually means field of the dead. There is no evidence to support this legend, the earliest evidence of settlement has been the discovery of Mesolithic flints on the high ground of the cemetery at St Michael on Greenhill, which may indicate an early flint industry. Traces of Neolithic settlement have been discovered on the side of the sandstone ridge occupied by Lichfield Cathedral. 2.2 mi southwest of Lichfield, near the point where Icknield Street crosses Watling Street was the site of Etocetum, established in AD50 as a Roman military fortress, it had become a civilian settlement with a bath house and a mansio by the 2nd century. Letocetum fell into decline by the 4th century and the Romans had left by the 5th century, there have been scattered Romano-British finds in Lichfield and it is possible that a burial discovered beneath the cathedral in 1751 was Romano-British. There is no evidence of what happened to Letocetum after the Romans left, a Cair Luit Coyd listed by Nennius among the 28 cities of Britain in his Historia Brittonum, although these were largely historic remembrances of early Sub-Roman Britain. The early history of Lichfield is obscure, the first authentic record of Lichfield occurs in Bedes history, where it is called Licidfelth and mentioned as the place where St Chad fixed the episcopal see of the Mercians in 669. The first Christian king of Mercia, Wulfhere, donated land at Lichfield for St Chad to build a monastery. It was because of this that the centre of Mercia became settled as the Diocese of Lichfield. The burial in the cathedral of the kings of Mercia, Wulfhere in 674 and Ceolred in 716, in 786 King Offa made the city an archbishopric with authority over all the bishops from the Humber to the River Thames, his appointee was Archbishop Hygeberht
23.
North Midland Divisional Engineers
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The North Midland Divisional Engineers was a Territorial Force unit of the British Royal Engineers created in 1908 by conversion of a volunteer infantry battalion from Staffordshire. During World War II its component units saw action in the Battle of France, in Greece, Tunisia, Italy, Normandy, the origin of the unit lay in the 1st Staffordshire Rifle Volunteer Corps, one of many such RVCs raised after an invasion scare in 1859. It was organised at Handsworth on 15 August 1859, Sir Francis Scott, 3rd Baronet, was one of the original officers. In the 1880s the battalion formed an infantry company. Additional companies were formed later, I Company at Smethwick and K Company at West Bromwich, later reorganisation saw the disbandment of G Company and consolidation at Handsworth, Brierley Hill, West Bromwich, Smethwick and Sutton Coldfield. From 1888, the battalion, along with the other South Staffordshire and North Staffordshire Regiment Volunteer Battalions, harrison, whose coal mining employees formed the bulk of the personnel. Harrison was appointed Commanding Royal Engineer of the North Midland Division on 25 May 1912, the newly formed Divisional Telegraph Company, RE, was based at the Drill Hall at Routh Street in Stoke-on-Trent. The order to mobilise was received on 4 August 1914, shortly afterwards, the men were invited to volunteer for overseas service, and the majority having accepted this liability, the North Midland Division concentrated at Luton. In November it moved to the area round Bishops Stortford where it completed its war training, later the 1/3rd and 3/1st Field Companies were formed. The 2nd Line units joined the 2nd North Midland Division, the company joined the division assembling at Winchester on 26 December 1914, and landed with it in France on 19 January 1915. It went into the line soon afterwards, but had returned to its parent division before the 28th was involved in any serious fighting, the division was officially designated 46th Division on 12 May 1915. 46th Divisions first offensive operation was the Battle of the Hohenzollern Redoubt and this was an attempt to restart the failed Battle of Loos, and the division was moved down from Ypres on 1 October for the purpose. The Germans had recaptured the Hohenzollern trench system on 3 October, the infantry went in at 14. The assault was a disaster, most of the leading waves being cut down by machine gun, in December 1915 the division was ordered to Egypt, and most of it arrived there by 13 January. A week later the move was countermanded and the troops re-embarked for France, the only result of this move was an outbreak of infectious disease that weakened units and men for months to come. For the Battle of the Somme, 46th Division was tasked with making an attack on the north flank of the Gommecourt Salient. It was moved into the area in early May 1916, as before, each assaulting brigade was assigned a full field company in support, 1/2nd and 2/1st to 137th Bde and 139th Brigade respectively. The 2/1st Fd Co allocated one party of sappers to 1/6th Bn Sherwood Foresters, the latter were to construct strongpoints in the captured German defences, while the party with 1/6th Bn was to stay in the German front line trench doing whatever work was required
24.
Handsworth, West Midlands
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Handsworth is now an inner city, urban area of northwest Birmingham in the West Midlands. Handsworth lies just outside the Birmingham City Centre, the name Handsworth originates from its Saxon owner Hondes and the Old English word weorthing, meaning farm or estate. Historically in the county of Staffordshire, it remained a village from the 13th century to the 18th century. Accommodation was built for workers, the village quickly grew. In that year, work began to build St James Church, later St Michaels Church was built as a daughter church to St James. In the census of 1881, the town was recorded as having approx, by the census of 1911, this had more than doubled to 68,610. Handsworth has two grammar schools – Handsworth Grammar School and King Edward VI Handsworth School, St Andrews Church is a listed building in Oxhill Road which also held Sunday school classes in a small building on the corner of Oxhill Road and Church Lane. The 1901 Red Lion public house was grade II* listed in 1985, Handsworth parish was transferred from Staffordshire to Warwickshire, and became part of Birmingham, in 1911. The redbrick building with the clocktower in the photograph was originally the offices of the council on Soho Road. During World War II, West Indians had arrived as part of the war effort. In the post-war period, a rebuilding programme required much unskilled labour and Birminghams industrial base expanded, during this time, there was direct recruitment for workers from the Caribbean and the area became a centre for Birminghams Afro-Caribbean community. A tram depot was erected near Birmingham Road, next to the border with West Bromwich, during the 1880s, although it has since been demolished, a replica of the depot was created later in the 20th century at the Black Country Living Museum in Dudley. The West Indian population in Birmingham numbered over 17,000 by the 1961 census count, by the early 1960s, there was much racial tension in the country and a great deal of this was being felt in Handsworth. Matthew Boultons Soho Manufactory was set up on the edge of Handsworth. It operated from 1766-1848 and was demolished in 1863, boulton commissioned Samuel Wyatt to design his nearby house Soho House, which is now a museum. In 1790, Heathfield Hall, also designed by Wyatt, was built for Boultons business partner, Watt died in the house in 1819, and was buried at nearby St Marys Church. In the 1880s engineer George Tangye bought the hall and lived there until his death in 1920, from 1927 the hall was demolished and the lands redeveloped. What was the Heathfield Estate is now the land that comprises West Drive, watts workshop from the house was dismantled and rebuilt in the Science Museum, London
25.
Walsall
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Walsall is an industrial town in the West Midlands of England. It is located 8 miles north-west of the City of Birmingham and 6 miles east of the City of Wolverhampton, historically a part of Staffordshire, Walsall is a component area of the West Midlands conurbation, and part of the Black Country. Walsall is the centre of the wider Metropolitan Borough of Walsall. At the 2011 census, the towns built-up area had a population of 67,594, neighbouring settlements in the borough include Darlaston, Brownhills, Willenhall, Bloxwich and Aldridge. The name Walsall is thought to have derived from the words Walh halh, Walsall is first referenced as Walesho in a document dated 1002. However, it is believed that a manor was held here by William FitzAnsculf, by the first part of the 13th century, Walsall was a small market town, with the weekly market being introduced in 1220 and held on Tuesdays. The mayor of Walsall was created as a position in the 14th century. The town was visited by Queen Elizabeth I, when it was known as Walshale and it was also visited by Henrietta Maria in 1643. She stayed in the town for one night at a building named the White Hart in the area of Caldmore, the Industrial Revolution changed Walsall from a village of 2,000 people in the 16th century to a town of over 86,000 in approximately 200 years. The town manufactured a range of products including saddles, chains, buckles. Nearby, limestone quarrying provided the town with much prosperity, in 1824, the Walsall Corporation received an Act of Parliament to improve the town by providing lighting and a gasworks. The gasworks was built in 1826 at a cost of £4,000, in 1825, the corporation built eleven tiled, brick almshouses for poor women. They were known to the area as Molesleys Almshouses, the Walsall Improvement and Market Act was passed in 1848 and amended in 1850. The Act provided facilities for the poor, improving and extending the sewerage system, on 10 October 1847, a gas explosion killed one person and destroyed the west window of St Matthews Church. Walsall finally received a line in 1847,48 years after canals reached the town. In 1855, Walsalls first newspaper, the Walsall Courier and South Staffordshire Gazette, was published, over 2000 men from Walsall were killed in fighting during the First World War. They are commemorated by the cenotaph, which is located on the site of a bomb which was dropped by Zeppelin L21 – killing the towns mayoress. Damage from the Zeppelin can still be seen on what is now a club on the corner of the main road, the town also has a memorial to two local VC recipients, John Henry Carless and Frederick Gibbs
26.
Stoke-on-Trent
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Stoke-on-Trent is a city and unitary authority area in Staffordshire, England, with an area of 36 square miles. Together with the boroughs of Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire Moorlands, it is part of North Staffordshire. Stoke is polycentric, having formed by a federation of six towns in the early 20th century. It took its name from Stoke-upon-Trent, where the town hall, Hanley is the primary commercial centre. The four other towns are Burslem, Tunstall, Longton and Fenton, Stoke-on-Trent is the home of the pottery industry in England and is commonly known as the Potteries. Formerly a primarily industrial conurbation, it is now a centre for service industries, the name Stoke is taken from the town of Stoke-upon-Trent, the original ancient parish, with other settlements being chapelries. Stoke derives from the Old English stoc, a word that at first meant little more than place and these variant meanings included dairy farm, secondary or dependent place or farm, summer pasture, crossing place, meeting place and place of worship. It is not known which of these was intended here, because Stoke was such a common name for a settlement, some kind of distinguishing affix was usually added later, in this case the name of the river. The motto of Stoke-on-Trent is Vis Unita Fortior which can be translated as, United Strength is Stronger, or Strength United is the More Powerful and it was not until 1 April 1910 that the Six Towns were brought together. The county borough of Hanley, the boroughs of Burslem, Longton. The combined borough took the town of Stoke. In 1919, the borough proposed to further and annex the neighbouring borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. This never took place, due to objections from Newcastle Corporation. A further attempt was made in 1930, with the promotion of the Stoke-on-Trent Extension Bill, ultimately, Wolstanton was instead added to Newcastle-under-Lyme in 1932. The borough was granted city status in 1925, with a Lord Mayor from 1928. The decision was overturned, however, when an approach was made to King George V. The public announcement of the elevation to city status was made by the King during a visit to Stoke on 4 June 1925, the county borough was abolished in 1974, and Stoke became a non-metropolitan district of Staffordshire. Its status as a unitary authority was restored on 1 April 1997, for Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS3 region
27.
Burton upon Trent
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Burton upon Trent, also known as Burton-on-Trent or simply Burton, is a town on the River Trent in East Staffordshire, England, close to the border with Derbyshire. In 2011, it had a population of 72,299, the demonym for residents of the town is Burtonian. The town originally grew up around Burton Abbey, Burton Bridge was also the site of two battles, in 1322 when Edward II defeated the rebel Earl of Lancaster and 1643 when royalists captured the town during the First English Civil War. William Lord Paget and his descendants were responsible for extending the house within the abbey grounds. Burton grew into a market town by the early modern period. The town is served by Burton-on-Trent railway station, Ryknild Street, a Roman road, ran north-east through what later became the parish of Burton, linking camps at Letocetum, near Lichfield, and Derventio, near Derby. Burton was almost certainly one of the sites, the name Andresey given to an island in the river Trent near the church means Andrews isle. The island is associated with the legend of St Modwen or Modwenna and it is likely that any surviving religious house would have been destroyed during the Danish incursion into the area in 874. Place names indicate Scandinavian influence, and several names of Scandinavian origin were still used in the area in the early 12th century. In 1003 a Benedictine abbey was established on a new site on the west bank of the Trent at Burton by Wulfric Spott and he is known to have been buried in the abbey cloister in 1010, alongside his wife. The monastery was the most important in Staffordshire and by the 1530s had the highest revenue and it is known that there were frequent Royal visits to the abbey, including those by William I, Henry II and Edward I. In the 12th and 13th centuries streets were laid out off the west side of High Street, the earliest being New Street, Horninglow Street at the north end of High Street was part of a major east-west route using the bridge over the river. A royal charter was granted on 12 April 1200 by King John to the Abbot to hold a market in Burton every Thursday. The bridge was the site of two battles, first in 1322 when Edward III defeated the rebel Earl of Lancaster and also in 1643 when the Royalists captured the town during the First English Civil War. Under Henry VIII the abbey was dissolved in 1539, to be refounded in 1541 as a church for a dean. It was again dissolved in 1545 and granted to Sir William Paget, Paget began planning to expand the Manor House within the abbey precincts, known to have existed since at least 1514, into a grand mansion. To provide the materials for this project, the old buildings were to be cannibalised. There were major alterations to the house over the three centuries
28.
Army Service Corps
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It became a Forming Corps of the Royal Logistic Corps. For centuries, army transport was operated by contracted civilians, the first uniformed transport corps in the British Army was the Royal Waggoners formed in 1794. It was not a success and was disbanded the following year, in 1799, the Royal Waggon Corps was formed, by August 1802, it had been renamed the Royal Waggon Train. This was reduced to two troops in 1818 and finally disbanded in 1833. A transport corps was not formed again until the Crimean War, in 1855, the Land Transport Corps was formed. This was renamed the Military Train the following year, in 1869, there was a major reorganisation of army supply and transport capabilities. Before 1869, supply duties had been the responsibility of the Commissariat, in 1869, the commissaries of the Commissariat and the officers of the Military Train amalgamated into the Control Department. The following year the other ranks of the Military Train were redesignated the Army Service Corps, in November 1875, the Control Department was divided into the Commissariat and Transport Department and the Ordnance Store Department. In January 1880, the Commissariat and Transport Department was renamed the Commissariat and Transport Staff, the ASC subsequently absorbed some transport elements of the Royal Engineers. In 1918, the received the Royal prefix for its service in the First World War. It was divided into Transport and Supply Branches, before the Second World War, RASC recruits were required to be at least 5 feet 2 inches tall and could enlist up to 30 years of age. They initially enlisted for six years with the colours and a six years with the reserve. Alone among the Services, RASC personnel were considered to be combatant personnel, in 1965, the RASC was merged with the Transportation and Movement Control Service of the Royal Engineers to form the Royal Corps of Transport. All its supply functions, along with the clerks, were transferred to the Royal Army Ordnance Corps, leaving the new RCT solely responsible for transport. In 1993, the RCT and RAOC were merged to form the Royal Logistic Corps, officers of the Control Department, Commissariat and Transport Department, and Commissariat and Transport Staff held different ranks from the rest of the Army. From February 1885 they were given military ranks, which they held in conjunction with their commissary ranks. Officers of the ASC and RASC held full military rank
29.
Royal Army Medical Corps
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The Royal Army Medical Corps is a specialist corps in the British Army which provides medical services to all Army personnel and their families, in war and in peace. Together with the Royal Army Veterinary Corps, the Royal Army Dental Corps and Queen Alexandras Royal Army Nursing Corps, because it is not a fighting arm, under the Geneva Conventions, members of the RAMC may only use their weapons for self-defence. Other ranks do not fix bayonets, neither do they prefix Surgeon in front of their rank as medical officers of the Royal Navy do. The RAMC, like every other British regiment, has its own distinctive unit insignia, dark blue beret, the default Army colour worn by units without distinctive coloured berets. There is also a small attachment to Special Forces, the Medical Support Unit who wear the beret of the SAS. Cap badge depicting the Rod of Asclepius, surmounted by a crown, enclosed within a wreath, with the regimental motto In Arduis Fidelis. The cap badge is worn 1 inch above the eye on the beret. The cap badge of the ranks must also be backed by an oval patch of dull cherry-red coloured cloth measuring 3.81 cm wide and 6.35 cm high sewn directly to the beret. Officers do not use the backing, but have a cloth cap badge instead. Silver regimental collar badges, a miniature of the cap badge, stable belt comprising equal horizontal bands of dull cherry, royal blue, and old gold, reflecting the old uniform worn in the 1900s, the gold depicting the royal in the title. Silver belt buckle with engraved regimental badge, Medical services in the British armed services go as far back as the formation of the Standing Regular Army after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. This was the first time a career was provided for a Medical Officer, known as the Regimental Surgeon, both in peacetime and in war. The Army was formed entirely on a basis, and an MO with a Warrant Officer as his Assistant Surgeon was appointed to each regiment. The MO was also for the first time concerned in the health of his troops. This regimental basis of appointment for MOs continued until 1873, when an army medical service was set up. There was much unhappiness in the Army Medical Service in the following years, for medical officers did not actually have military rank but advantages corresponding to relative military rank. They had inferior pay in India, excessive amounts of Indian and colonial service and they did not have their own identity as did the Army Service Corps, whose officers did have military rank. A number of complaints were published, and the British Medical Journal campaigned loudly, for over two years after 27 July 1887 there were no recruits to the Army Medical Department
30.
Rifle Brigade (The Prince Consort's Own)
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The Rifle Brigade was an infantry rifle regiment of the British Army. Formed in January 1800 as the Experimental Corps of Riflemen to provide sharpshooters, scouts and skirmishers, in January 1803 they became an established regular regiment and were titled the 95th Regiment of Foot. In 1816, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, they were again renamed, the Corps differed in several regards from the Line infantry of the British Army and most significantly were armed with the formidable Baker rifle. The rifle was accurate in an era when it was generally considered impractical for individual soldiers to aim at specific targets. Four months after its formation, the Rifle Corps was judged ready for its first operation, despite this, the expedition was defeated and withdrew on 26 August 1800. During the battle, the Rifle Corps suffered one lieutenant killed, its first officer to fall, in 1802, the Rifle Corps was brought into the line of the British Army as the 95th Regiment of Foot. The 95th subsequently formed the guard on the way to Bremen. In February 1806, the 95th formed the rearguard for the withdrawal to Cuxhaven, in October 1806, five companies of the 1st/95th and three companies of the 2nd/95th departed for Spanish-controlled South America, Spain then being allied with France. It was part of an invasion force that was designed as reinforcements for the first invasion against Buenos Aires. The 95th subsequently saw action in June at San Pedro where they, during the assault on Buenos Aires on 5 July, the 95th and the rest of the British force suffered heavy casualties in bitter fighting to capture the city. The Light Brigade had suffered so heavily that they had to take refuge in a church and were surrendered soon after, after Whitelocke negotiated the withdrawal of British forces, the men were released and they returned home later that year. The 95th would go on to fight for near the entirety of the Peninsular War in Spain, in the aftermath of the disastrous expedition, Popham and Whitelocke were court-martialed, with Popham reprimanded and Whitelocke dismissed from the Army. The remaining companies of the 95th were involved in the expedition to Denmark that year and they took part in the Battle of Copenhagen in 1807 as part of Arthur Wellesleys brigade. The expedition, commanded by Lord Cathcart, was intended to capture the Danish Fleet to prevent it falling into the hands of France, the expedition proved to be a thorough success with the Danish Fleet being captured at which point the British withdrew. In 1808 the 1st/95th took part in an expedition to another Scandinavian country, Sweden, in August 1808 the 2nd/95th was part of the immediate forces sent in the Portuguese expedition initially commanded by Sir Arthur Wellesley and covered the landings at Montego Bay. The 95th, as part of 6th Brigade which included the rifle armed 5th/60th Foot, took part in the Battle of Roliça, the 1st battalion was part of John Moores campaign which ended with evacuation after the Battle of Corunna on 16 January 1809. After the depletion suffered at Corunna, the two battalions of the 95th based at Hythe in Kent were made up to a strength of 1,000 men each. However, so many came forward to join the regiment that permission was granted to raise a third battalion in 1809
31.
Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
32.
Indian Rebellion of 1857
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The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against British rule. For nearly 100 years, that rule had been presided over by the British East India Company, the rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Companys army in the garrison town of Meerut,40 miles northeast of Delhi. It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a threat to British power in that region. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859. The rebellion is known by names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection. Many Indians did rise against the British, however, very many also fought for the British, after the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81-year-old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, they declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels had captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces. The East India Companys response came rapidly as well, with help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. However, it took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow. Other regions of Company controlled India—Bengal province, the Bombay Presidency, in the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system, even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian- and British Empire history. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj, on 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, the victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the granted the Company the right to the collection of Revenue in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras, later, the Anglo-Mysore Wars, in 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys. After the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories and this was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation
33.
Second Opium War
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The terms Second War and Arrow War are both used in literature. The Arrow War refers to the name of a vessel which became the point of the conflict. The war followed on from the First Opium War, the failure of the treaty to satisfy British goals of improved trade and diplomatic relations led to the Second Opium War. In China, the war is considered to be the beginning of modern Chinese history, the 1850s saw the rapid growth of Western imperialism. Some of the goals of the western powers were the expansion of their overseas markets. The French Treaty of Huangpu and the American Wangxia Treaty both contained clauses allowing renegotiation of the treaties after 12 years of being in effect. In an effort to expand their privileges in China, Britain demanded the Qing authorities renegotiate the Treaty of Nanking, citing their most favoured nation status. In October 1856, Chinese marines in Canton seized a ship called the Arrow on suspicion of piracy. The Arrow had previously used by pirates, captured by the Chinese government. It was then registered as a British ship and still flew the British flag at the time of its detainment and its captain, Thomas Kennedy, who was aboard a nearby vessel at the time, reported seeing Chinese marines pull the British flag down from the ship. Ye released nine of the members, but refused to release the last three. On 23 October the British destroyed four barrier forts, on 25 October a demand was made for the British to be allowed to enter the city. Next day the British started to bombard the city, firing one shot every 10 minutes, Ye Mingchen issued a bounty on every British head taken. On 29 October a hole was blasted in the city walls and troops entered, with a flag of the United States of America being planted by James Keenan on the walls, losses were 3 killed and 12 wounded. Negotiations failed and the city was bombarded, on 6 November 23 war junks attacked and were destroyed. There were pauses for talks, with the British bombarding at intervals, fires were caused, then on 5 January 1857, the British government lost a Parliamentary vote regarding the Arrow incident and what had taken place at Canton to the end of the year on 3 March 1857. Then there was an election in April 1857 which increased the government majority. In April, the government asked the United States of America and Russia if they were interested in alliances, in May 1857, the Indian Mutiny became serious
34.
Anglo-Ashanti wars
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The wars were mainly due to Ashanti attempts to establish strong control over the coastal areas of what is now Ghana. Coastal peoples, such as the Fante and the inhabitants of Accra, in the Ga-Fante War of 1811, the Akwapim captured a British fort at Tantamkweri and a Dutch fort at Apam. In the Ashanti-Akim-Akwapim War of 1814–16 the Ashanti defeated the Akim-Akwapim alliance, local British, Dutch, and Danish authorities all had to come to terms with the Ashanti. The African Company of Merchants was dissolved in 1821 and the British assumed control of the Gold Coast, by the 1820s the British had decided to support one of the other tribes, the Fanti, enemies of the Ashanti. Inland, the Ashanti kings who ruled from the Golden Stool, said to have come from their great god guardian of the Ashanti soul, Nyame, economic and social friction played their part in the causes for the outbreak of violence. The immediate cause of the war happened when a group of Ashanti kidnapped and murdered an African sergeant of the Royal African Corps, a small British group was led into a trap which resulted in 10 killed,39 wounded and a British retreat. The Ashanti tried to negotiate but the British governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, rejected Ashanti claims to Fanti areas of the coast and this started the First Anglo-Ashanti War which ran until 1831. The British were overrun, suffered losses, and ran out of ammunition, almost all the British force were killed immediately, only around 20 managed to escape. MacCarthy, along with the ensign and his secretary, attempted to back, he was wounded by gunfire, however. Ensign Wetherell was killed whilst trying to defend MacCarthys body and Williams taken prisoner, mcCarthys gold-rimmed skull was later used as a drinking-cup by the Ashanti rulers. On Mr Williamss recovering his senses, he saw the headless trunks of Sir Charles McCarthy, Mr Buckle, and Ensign Wetherell. During his captivity he was lodged under a shed in the same rooms as the heads which. Major Alexander Gordon Laing returned to Britain with news of their fate, the Ashanti swept down to the coast, but disease forced them back. The new governor of the Gold Coast, John Hope Smith, started to gather a new army, mainly comprising natives, including Denkyiras, in August 1826 the governor heard that the Ashanti were planning on attacking Accra. A defensive position was prepared on the open plain 10 miles north of Accra, on 7 August the Ashanti army appeared and attacked the centre of the British line where the best troops were held, which included some Royal Marines, the militia and a battery of Congreve rockets. The battle dissolved into hand-to-hand fighting but the Ashanti force were not doing well on their flanks whilst they looked like winning in the centre. The novelty of the weapons, the explosions, rocket trails, soon they fled leaving thousands of casualties on the field. In 1831, the Pra River was accepted as the border in a treaty, in 1863, a large Ashanti delegation crossed the Pra river pursuing a fugitive, Kwesi Gyana
35.
Sherwood Foresters
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The Sherwood Foresters was a line infantry regiment of the British Army in existence for just under 90 years, from 1881 to 1970. The lineage of the Sherwood Foresters is now continued by the 2nd Battalion, the regiment was formed on 1 July 1881 as part of the Childers Reforms. The 45th Regiment of Foot and the 95th Regiment of Foot were redesignated as the 1st, Henry Cooper (ex 45th Foot 1881-.1889, Gen. John Studholme Brownrigg, CB (ex 95th Foot 188n–. Sir Daniel Lysons, GCB (ex 45th Foot 1898–1900, Gen. Frederic Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford, GCB, GCVO 1900–1902, sir Mark Walker, VC, KCB 1902–1905, Lt-Gen. Sir William Bellairs, KCMG, CB 1905–1930, Gen, sir Horace Lockwood Smith-Dorrien, GCB, GCMG, DSO 1930–1935, Lt-Gen. Sir William Raine Marshall, GCMG, KCB, KCSI 1935–1941, sir Frederick Barton Maurice, KCMG, CB 1941–1946, Lt-Gen. Sir Douglas Studholme Brownrigg Wellesley, KCB, DSO 1946–1947, Lt-Gen, sir Henry Beresford Dennitts Willcox, KCIE, CB, DSO, MC 1947–1958, Maj-Gen. Percival Napier White, CB, CBE 1958–1965, Maj-Gen, cecil Benfield Fairbanks, CB, CBE 1965–1970, Brig. Built on the site of a tower called Crich Stand. It is 1,000 feet above sea level, and has 52 steps to the top, from there eight counties can be seen, including landmarks such as the Humber Bridge and Lincoln Cathedral. In 1931, the Sherwood Foresters were officially allied with the Simcoe Foresters, the Sherwood Foresters stable belt continues to be used by the East Midlands Universities Officer Training Corps. Anon, The Robin Hoods, 1/7th, 2/7th and 3/7th Battns Sherwood Foresters, J & H Bell, 1921/Uckfield, Naval and Military Press,2009, ISBN 1-847349-92-7 Bellis, regiments of the British Army 1939–1945. George Forty, British Army Handbook 1939-1945, Stroud, Sutton Publishing,1998, the Sherwood Foresters in the Great War 1914 -1919, History of 1/8th Battalion at Project Gutenberg. ISBN 1-4365-8981-9 BBC - WW2 Peoples War - History of the Sherwood Foresters
36.
Haldane Reforms
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The Haldane Reforms were a series of far-ranging reforms of the British Army made from 1906 to 1912, and named after the Secretary of State for War, Richard Burdon Haldane. They were the first major reforms since the Childers Reforms of the early 1880s, the major element of the reforms was the creation of an expeditionary force, specifically prepared and trained for intervening in a major war. At the same time, the forces were restructured and expanded to ensure that the overseas forces could be efficiently reinforced and supplied with new recruits. To encourage the development of skills, an Officer Training Corps was established in public schools. Finally, the Regular Army itself would be reformed by the development of a new operational and training doctrine, the first wave of reforms was from 1858 to 1860. The second wave was from 1868 to 1872, comprising a collection of administrative changes popularly known as the Cardwell Reforms after the then Secretary of State for War, Edward Cardwell. These measures at an increased the quality of the manpower of the Army. A number of half-hearted attempts were made at reform during the war and in its immediate aftermath, two important Royal Commissions were established in 1902 - the Esher Committee and the Norfolk Commission - and reported in 1904. Some of these reforms were instituted under the Conservative Secretary of State for War, Hugh Arnold-Forster, in 1904-5, but the broad thrust of his reform plans were strongly opposed. Attempts to reorganise the forces into six Army Corps had begun, but only one of these had actually been organised. In December 1905, the Balfour government collapsed, and Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman became Prime Minister, despite this inauspicious beginning, he would become, in the words of Douglas Haig, the greatest Secretary of State for War England has ever had. Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign Secretary, had agreed to commit the Army to the aid of France, if attacked. He quickly concluded that there was a need for an expeditionary force. The question now became how to provide this force, and after a short period Haldane settled on a strength of six infantry divisions and their supporting units. They would need to be organised in peacetime and prepared to mobilise in the United Kingdom, once the Regular Army had been organised as a continental Expeditionary Force, it would be necessary to provide forces for home defence. These changes were embodied in the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907, the Militia provided the Special Reserve, which would contain men who had not served in the regular Army but agreed to be liable for service with the regular forces in wartime. In November 1906, Douglas Haig was appointed Director of Staff Duties at the War Office, the Esher Report had suggested a new scheme for two sets of training manuals, but these had not been fully implemented. In 1907, the new provisional Field Service Pocket Book was produced, revised the following year, and finally standardised as Field Service Regulations, Part I - Operations in 1909
37.
Luton
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Luton is a large town, borough and unitary authority area of Bedfordshire, England. Luton and its neighbours, Dunstable and Houghton Regis, form the Luton/Dunstable Urban Area with a population of about 258,000. It is located 20 miles east of Aylesbury,14 miles west of Stevenage,30 miles north-northwest of London, and 22 miles southeast of Milton Keynes. Luton is home to League Two team Luton Town Football Club and they play at Kenilworth Road stadium, which has been their home since 1905. London Luton Airport, opened in 1938, is one of Britains major airports, during the Second World War it doubled as an RAF base. The University of Bedfordshire is based in the town, the Luton Carnival, which was traditionally been held on the Whitsun May bank holiday, is the largest one-day carnival in Europe. In 2012, it was moved to July to coincide with the Olympic Torch Relay, the town was for many years famous for hat-making, and also had a large Vauxhall Motors factory. Car production at the plant began in 1905 and continued until 2002, production of commercial vehicles continues, and the head office of Vauxhall Motors is still situated in the town. Luton derives its name from Saxon -tun, and the Brittonic element -lug, the joint linguistic heritage may indicate the towns foundation as an early Anglo-Saxon outpost in a newly conquered area. The earliest settlements in the Luton area were at Round Green and Mixes Hill, settlements re-appeared after the ice had retreated in the Mesolithic period around 8000 BC. Traces of these settlements have found in the Leagrave area of the modern town. Remains from the Neolithic period are more common. A particular concentration of Neolithic burials occurs at Galley Hill, the most prominent Neolithic structure is Wauluds Bank – a henge dating from around 3000 BC. From the Neolithic onwards, the area seems to have been populated, Luton itself is believed to have been founded as Lea-tun by the Anglo-Saxons sometime in the 6th century. And then very soon after that, as the one force came home, the Domesday Book records Luton as Loitone and also as Lintone. Agriculture dominated the economy at that time, and the towns population was around 700 to 800. But this number could represent a reduced population as a direct result of the Norman Invasion. The Domesday Book records the value of King Williams English possessions 20 years after his victory at Hastings, during which period, as the book would suggest, much destruction and death took place
38.
176th (2/1st Staffordshire) Brigade
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The 176th Brigade was an infantry brigade of the British Army that saw active service in World War I on the Western Front and disbanded in 1919. The brigade was raised again, now known as 176th Infantry Brigade, shortly prior to World War II, in both world wars the brigade was assigned to a 59th Division, the 59th Division in World War I and the 59th Infantry Division in World War II. On 31 August 1914,27 days after the British declaration of war on Germany, the brigade was formed mainly from those men in the Territorial Force who, when asked at the outbreak of war, did not volunteer for service overseas. Like the 1st Line formation, the brigade was composed of two battalions of the South Staffordshire Regiment and two of the North Staffordshire Regiment, to distinguish the 2nd Line from the 1st Line, they adopted the 2/ prefix. The original intention of the 2nd Line units was to act in a service role. In July 1915 the division was numbered as the 59th Division, in April 1916 the 59th Division was sent to Dublin in Ireland to quell the Easter Rising where the brigade suffered its first casualties of the war, from the Irish Volunteers. In the same year the Military Service Act 1916 came into being, stating that all soldiers in the Territorial Force were now liable to serve overseas, if they were medically fit. The brigade was sent to France in early 1917, with the rest of the 59th Division, the brigade fought in the Third Battle of Ypres, the Battle of Cambrai, both in 1917, sustaining heavy casualties. During the fighting at Cambrai in November 1917, Lance Corporal John Thomas of the 2/5th Battalion, North Staffordshire Regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross. As a result, in late January 1918, the 1/5th North Staffords was transferred from 137th Brigade of 46th Division where they amalgamated with the 2/5th Battalion and were renamed the 5th Battalion. At the same time the 1/5th South Staffs was disbanded, most of the men going to other South Staffs battalions, throughout the spring and summer of 1939 the Territorial Army was doubled in size as the threat of war with Nazi Germany was becoming increasingly likely. The division was organised as a motorised infantry division of only two brigades, the other being the 177th Infantry Brigade, which was formed as a 2nd Line duplicate of 176th Brigade. In June 1942 the brigade, with the rest of the 59th Division, was sent to Northern Ireland where they were to remain until March 1943, and came under command of British Troops Northern Ireland. Soon after arrival, they part in numerous large-scale exercises with American troops of the U. S. Army stationed there. 1st Armored and U. S. 34th Infantry divisions, both of which were later to serve with distinction fighting on the Italian Front. The brigade fought in the severe attritional battles to capture Caen, in particular during Operation Charnwood and his would be the first and only VC awarded to the brigade and the division throughout the war. He survived his injuries and remained in the Army after the war where he achieved the rank of major. G. At this stage of the Second World War, however, the British Army was suffering from a shortage of manpower
39.
59th (2nd North Midland) Division
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The 59th Division was an infantry division of the British Army during World War I. It was formed in late 1914/early 1915 as a 2nd Line Territorial Force formation raised as a duplicate of the 46th Division. After training in the United Kingdom and saw service in the Easter Rising in April 1916 and it saw action at Ypres and Cambrai, and was almost destroyed during the German Armys Spring Offensive in March 1918. The reconstituted division took part in the advances of the war. At first the men had to live at home, and parade in civilian clothes until the county TF associations were able to issue clothing and equipment. In January 1915, the 2nd North Midland was created as a duplicate of the 1st North Midland Division. The 1st North Midland Division was the first complete TF formation to reach the Western Front, the 2nd Line division was designated 59th Division in August 1915.59 Heavy Trench Mortar Battery X.59 Medium Trench Mortar Battery Y.59 Medium Trench Mortar Battery Z. In February the men were issued with. 256-in Japanese Ariska rifles with which to train, similarly, the gunners had to train with Quaker guns – logs of wood mounted on cart wheels – until March 1915 when a few 90 mm French guns arrived for training. Later, some 15-pounder field guns and obsolete 5-inch howitzers were received, in June 1915, the 2nd Line units began to send drafts of reinforcements to their 1st Line parents serving on the Western Front, while the Home Service men were transferred to provisional battalions. This reduced the strength and delayed the training of the division, in July 1915 it moved to a training area around St Albans. Here in early 1916 the artillery finally received their establishment of horses, after the end of fighting in Dublin, the 59th moved to the Curragh for further training until the end of the year. This was a prepared assault with massive artillery preparation. The next phase, the Battle of Polygon Wood, was equally successful, 59th Division was next moved south to join in the Battle of Cambrai. The division entered the captured line between Cantaing and Bourlon Wood on 28 November. Fierce German counter-attacks began on 30 November, two infantry assaults were made against 176 Bde, but both attacks were easily broken up under British artillery fire. Lance-Corporal John Thomas of the 2/5th North Staffords was awarded the Victoria Cross for his gallantry in reconnoitring these attacks. That night the rest of 176 Bde in Bourlon Wood were subjected to a violent bombardment of high explosive and gas shells, by 4 December the decision had been made to withdraw from the Bourlon Salient, and 59th Division held covering positions while this was carried out. By 7 December the British were back on the line that they would hold for the coming winter, as a result of the BEFs manpower crisis at the end of 1917, the establishment of each infantry brigade was reduced from four to three battalions in January 1918
40.
King's Regiment (Liverpool)
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The Kings Regiment was one of the oldest line infantry regiments of the British Army, having been formed in 1685 and numbered as the 8th Regiment of Foot in 1751. Unlike most British Army infantry regiments, which were associated with a county, the Kings notably saw active service in the Second Boer War, the two world wars, and the Korean War. In the First World War, the regiment contributed dozens of battalions to the Western Front, Salonika, more than 13,000 men were killed. In the Second World War, the 5th and 8th battalions landed during Operation Overlord, the 1st and 13th fought as Chindits in the Burma Campaign, the Kings later fought in the Korean War, earning the regiments last battle honour. Nine Victoria Crosses were awarded to men of the regiment, the first in 1900, an additional two were awarded to Royal Army Medical Corps officer Noel Godfrey Chavasse, who was attached to the 10th Battalion during the Great War. In peacetime, the battalions were based in the United Kingdom. The Cardwell–Childers reforms from the 1860s to the 1880s substantially reorganised the British Army, the Kings, which already had two regular battalions, did not amalgamate, but did adopt a new title on the numbering systems abolition. Thus, on 1 July 1881, the two battalions of the 8th Regiment of Foot became the 1st and 2nd Battalions, The Kings Regiment, the 8th Foot had been associated with Liverpool since 1873, when it became allocated to the towns 13th Brigade Depot. Under the new system, it was envisaged that one regular battalion would be based in the United Kingdom, the 1st Battalion had been in North West England since the late 1870s and had been bombed while based at Salford Barracks in 1881. The attack had been the first in a dynamite campaign instigated by the Irish Republican Jeremiah ODonovan Rossa, the barracks sustained only minor structural damage from the explosion, which killed a child and badly wounded its mother. Soon afterwards, rioting during mineworkers strikes in Chowbent, Wigan, in 1882, the battalion moved to Ireland, based in the Curragh. During the otherwise uneventful posting, the 1st responded to riots in Belfast, the sectarian disorder coincided with the introduction of the 1886 Home Rule Bill in the British Parliament. The battalion returned to England three years later, the 2nd Kings had been on the Indian subcontinent since 1877 and had fought in the Second Afghan War. The Third Burmese War punctuated the battalions service in the 1880s. Intent on deposing Upper Burmas King Thibaw and imposing imperial rule, after the capitals seizure, the battalion provided an escort that oversaw the exile of Thibaw. A guerrilla campaign against the British followed the completion of Upper Burmas annexation on 1 January 1886, for more than a year, the Kings operated in small groups pursuing guerrillas in the Burmese jungle. Casualties numbered 12 officers and 256 men by the time the battalion had returned to India, in early 1900 the 2nd Battalion Liverpool Regiment was stationed at Gibraltar. Overseas service for the 1st Kings included a residence in Nova Scotia
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Suffolk Regiment
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The Suffolk Regiment was an infantry regiment of the line in the British Army with a history dating back to 1685. The regiment was raised by Henry Howard, 7th Duke of Norfolk as the Duke of Norfolks Regiment of Foot in 1685 and it was originally formed to combat the Monmouth Rebellion, but was not disbanded when the rebellion was defeated. Following the 1688 Glorious Revolution its Colonel Lord Lichfield was dismissed for his sympathies with James II and was replaced by Henry Wharton, under Wharton the regiment participated in Marshal Schombergs expedition to Ireland in 1689. It captured the town of Belfast and then took part in the Siege of Carrickfergus in August 1689. Wharton died of fever in October 1689 while the regiment was part of the Dundalk Camp. Richard Brewer took command of the regiment and led it at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690, the Capture of Waterford in July 1690 and the Siege of Limerick in August 1690. The regiment also fought at the Siege of Athlone in June 1691, the regiment also saw action at the attack Fort Knokke during the Nine Years War in Flanders. The regiment was placed on the Irish establishment following the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 and it was subsequently stationed in Jamaica during the War of the Spanish Succession. It embarked for Flanders in 1742 for service in the War of the Austrian Succession and fought at the Battle of Dettingen in June 1743, the regiment was ranked in 1747 as the 12th Foot regiment and renamed as the 12th Regiment of Foot in 1751. In 1758 the 2nd Battalion of the regiment was separated from it, in 1782, it was given a county association as the 12th Regiment of Foot. The regiment embarked for the West Indies in 1793 and took part in the capture of Martinique, Saint Lucia and it also took part in the Invasion of Île Bonaparte in July 1810 and the Invasion of Isle de France in November 1810 during the Napoleonic Wars. Under the reforms the regiment became the Suffolk Regiment on 1 July 1881, as the county regiment of Suffolk, it also gained the countys militia and rifle volunteer battalions, which were integrated into the regiment as numbered battalions. The 1st Battalion served in the Second Boer War, it assaulted a hill near Colesberg in January 1900, by contrast between 1895 and 1914, the 2nd Battalion, Suffolk Regiment was not involved in hostilities. It was stationed for the majority of the time in India, the 2nd was also regarded as a good shooting battalion with high level of musketry skills. The 1st Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 84th Brigade in the 28th Division in January 1915 for service on the Western Front and it suffered some 400 casualties at the Second Battle of Ypres in May 1915. The 2nd Battalion landed at landed at Le Havre as part of the 14th Brigade in the 5th Division in August 1914. The value of the 2nd Battalions 20 years of training was exemplified at the Battle of Le Cateau on 26 August 1914. In this action the 2nd Battalion undertook a fierce rear-guard defence out-manned and out-gunned by superior numbers of enemy, the 2nd Battalion held their defensive position despite losing their commanding officer, Lt. Col. C. A. H
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Seaforth Highlanders
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This page is for the historical Scottish regiment. For the Canadian regiment of the same name see The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada, the Seaforth Highlanders was a historic line infantry regiment of the British Army, mainly associated with large areas of the northern Highlands of Scotland. The regiment existed from 1881 to 1961, and saw service in World War I and World War II, along with many numerous smaller conflicts. In 1961 the regiment was amalgamated with the Queens Own Cameron Highlanders to form the Queens Own Highlanders, which merged, in 1994, with the Gordon Highlanders to form the Highlanders. This, however, later joined the Royal Scots Borderers, the Black Watch, the Royal Highland Fusiliers and the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders to create the present Royal Regiment of Scotland. The regiment was created through the amalgamation of the 72nd Regiment of Foot and it was named after Kenneth Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Seaforth, who had originally raised the 72nd Regiment. Originally named Seaforth Highlanders Queen Victoria approved on 22 November 1881 to style the regiment forthwith Seaforth Highlanders, the 1st battalion saw action at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir in September 1882 during the Anglo-Egyptian War. Meanwhile the 2nd battalion were stationed in India and they saw service on the North West Frontier, taking part in the Hazara Expeditions in the summer 1888 and the spring of 1891, and the Chitral Expedition in spring 1895. A 3rd, Militia battalion, was embodied in late 1899, the 1st Battalion, which had been serving in India, landed at Marseilles as part of the Dehra Dun Brigade in the Meerut Division in October 1914 for service on the Western Front. It saw action at the Battle of Aubers Ridge in May 1915, the battalion then moved to Mesopotamia in December 1915, where it took part in the Siege of Kut later that month and the Fall of Baghdad in March 1917 before moving to Palestine in January 1918. The 2nd Battalion, which had been stationed at Shorncliffe Camp and it took part in the retreat from Le Cateau later that month, the Battle of the Marne in September 1914, the Battle of the Aisne also in September 1914 and the Battle of Messines in October 1914. It went on to fight in the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915, the Battle of the Somme in Autumn 1916 and the Battle of Arras in April 1917. The battalion also saw action at the Battle of Passchendaele in Autumn 1917, the Battle of the Lys in April 1918, the battles of the Hindenburg Line and the final advance in Picardy. The 1/4th Battalion landed at Le Havre as part of the 152nd Brigade in the 51st Division in November 1914 for service on the Western Front. The 1/5th Battalion and the 1/6th Battalion both landed in France as part of the 152nd Brigade in the 51st Division in May 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 7th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-mer as part of the 26th Brigade in the 9th Division in May 1915 for service on the Western Front, the 8th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-mer as part of the 44th Brigade in the 15th Division in July 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 9th Battalion landed at Boulogne-sur-mer as part of the battalion for the 9th Division in May 1915 for service on the Western Front. The 1st Garrison Battalion landed in Salonika as part of the 228th Brigade in the 28th Division in August 1916 for service on the Salonika Front, in 1921, the 1st Battalion was deployed to Cowdenbeath and to Bridge of Allan to maintain order during strike action by the miners
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London Regiment
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The London Regiment is an infantry regiment in the British Army, part of the Army Reserve. However, the regiment was raised again in 1993 and continues an existence in the present day and it was first formed in 1908 in order to regiment the 26 Volunteer Force battalions in the newly formed County of London, each battalion having a distinctive uniform. Now part of the Territorial Force, the London Regiment expanded to 88 battalions in the First World War, for example, the 10th London Regiment was transferred to the corps of the Royal Berkshire Regiment, becoming the 5th Battalion, Royal Berkshire Regiment. The London Regiment was reformed in 1992 through the regimentation of most of the successors of the original regiment. It is the reserve infantry battalion in London District and consists of an HQ. They are, HQ Company A Company B Company C D Company F Company Two companies of the Royal Green Jackets, F Company and G Company, formed part of the regiment between 1998 and 2004. In May 2004 Messines company, which was made up from an HQ, following the restructuring of the British Army in 2004, it was announced that the Guards Division would gain a TA battalion. This saw the London Regiment retaining its name and multi-badge structure, the two RGJ companies were transferred to the Royal Rifle Volunteers in preparation for the formation of The Rifles in 2007. The London battalions formed the London District, which consisted principally of the 1st, shortly after the outbreak of World War II, the formation of Reserve or 2nd-Line units for each existing Territorial Force unit was authorised. They were distinguished by a 2/ prefix from their parent unit, initially these were formed from men who had not volunteered for overseas service, and the recruits who were flooding in. Later they were mobilised for service in their own right. Unusually, the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th London Battalions each sent three battalions overseas and formed 4th Line reserve units, thus the 26 pre-war battalions of the London regiment became 82 battalions. In June 1915, men of TF units who had volunteered for Home service were formed into composite Provisional Battalions for coast defence. For example, the 100th Provisional Battalion was formed from Home Service men of 173rd Brigade, nine provisional battalions were associated with the London Regiment and Honourable Artillery Company. British Army units from 1945 on Great War Forum London Regiment The Long, Long Trail Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth - archive site
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