1.
Stamen Grigorov
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Stamen Grigorov was a prominent Bulgarian physician and microbiologist, who was the creator of anti-tuberculosis vaccine. He discovered the Lactobacillus bulgaricus bacillus, which is the cause for the existence of natural yogurt. Stamen Grigorov was born in the village of Studen Izvor, Tran, Pernik Province and he completed his secondary education in natural sciences in Montpellier, France and medical science in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1905, at the age of 27, Dr. Grigorov made the discovery, in the microbiological laboratory of Professor Léon Massol in Geneva, he discovered that a certain strain of bacillus is the true cause for the existence of natural yogurt. In recognition the strain was called by the scientific community Lactobacillus bulgaricus, yogurt in its original variety can be produced only in Bulgaria and in some neighboring regions on the Balkan peninsula. In other natural conditions the bacteria quickly degenerate, lose their qualities. Apart from the discovery of Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Dr. Grigorov made a contribution to the creation of an anti-tuberculosis vaccine. On 20 December 1906, in Paris in issue No, after the publication, the scientific community expressed serious interest in Dr. Grigorov’s vaccine. Grigorov Glacier on Brabant Island in Palmer Archipelago, Antarctica is named after Stamen Grigorov, www. stamengrigorov. org В началото бе родовата памет. Фондация Д-р Стамен Григоров, София,2005
2.
Antheridium
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An antheridium is a haploid structure or organ producing and containing male gametes. The plural form is antheridia, and a structure containing one or more antheridia is called an androecium, androecium is also used as the collective term for the stamens of flowering plants. Antheridia are present in the phase of cryptogams like bryophytes. Many algae and some fungi, for example ascomycetes and water moulds, in gymnosperms and angiosperms, the male gametophytes have been reduced to pollen grains and in most of these the antheridia have been reduced to a single generative cell within the pollen grain. During pollination, this cell divides and gives rise to sperm cells. The female counterpart to the antheridium in cryptogams is the archegonium, an antheridium typically consists of sterile cells and spermatogenous tissue. The sterile cells may form a support structure or surround the spermatogenous tissue as a protective jacket. The spermatogenous cells give rise to spermatids via mitotic cell division, in some bryophytes, the antheridium is borne on an antheridiophore, a stalk-like structure that carries the antheridium at its apex. Hornworts have antheridia, in some cases arranged within androecia, microsporangia produce spores that give rise to male gametophytes. National council for Science and the Environment
3.
Hippeastrum
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Hippeastrum /ˌhɪpiːˈæstrəm/ is a genus of about 90 species and over 600 hybrids and cultivars of perennial herbaceous bulbous plants. They generally have large fleshy bulbs and tall broad leaves, generally evergreen, Hippeastrum is a genus in the family Amaryllidaceae The name Hippeastrum, given to it by William Herbert, means Knights-star-lily, although precisely what Herbert meant by the name is not certain. By contrast the generic name Amaryllis applies to bulbs from South Africa, the genus is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas from Argentina north to Mexico and the Caribbean. Reproduction is generally by allogamy and Hippeastrum may be propagated by seed or offset bulbils, although commercial ventures use in vitro techniques, the genus has been intensely bred and cultivated since the early nineteenth century to produce large colourful showy flowers. In temperate climes these can be placed outside in the summer, the bulbs are generally between 5–12 cm in diameter and produce two to seven long-lasting evergreen or deciduous leaves that are 30–90 cm long and 2. 5–5 cm wide. The leaves are hysteranthous, sessile, rarely persistent and subpetiolate, depending on the species, there are two to fifteen large showy flowers, which are more or less zygomophic and hermaphrodite. Each flower is 13–20 cm across, and the species are usually purple or red. They are funnelform and declinate in shape, the perianth has six brightly colored tepals that may be similar in appearance or very different. The perianth segments are subequal or unequal, the tepals are united at the base to form a short tube, usually with a rudimentary scaly paraperigonium with fimbriae or a callose ridge present at the throat. The androecium consists of six stamens with filiform filaments, which are fasciculate and declinate or ascendent, the anthers are dorsifixed or versatile. In the gynaecium, the ovary is inferior and trilocular with pluriovulate locules, the style is filiform, and the stigma trifid. The taxonomy of the genus is complicated, the first issue is whether the name should more properly be Amaryllis L. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the name Amaryllis belladonna, the species of the genus Amaryllis. Linnaeus had earlier worked on the Estate of George Clifford near Haarlem between 1735 and 1737 describing the plants growing there in his Hortus Cliffortianus in 1738 and it is to this work that he refers in his Species Plantarum. This was assumed to be the South African Cape Belladonna, although not precisely known, cliffords herbarium is now preserved at the Natural History Museum in London. At the time both South African and South American plants were placed in this same genus and this work commenced in 1819 with the contributions of the English botanist, the Revd. William Herbert in Curtiss Botanical Magazine which he expanded in 1821 in The Botanical Register, identifying 14 species of the new genus of Hippeastrum, the rest of the Amaryllis species he transferred to other genera, several of which he created. Herbert further refined his descriptions of Hippeastrum in his work on the Amaryllidaceae in 1837, since then a key question has been whether Linnaeuss original type was a South African plant or a South American plant
4.
Pollen
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Pollen is a fine to coarse powdery substance comprising pollen grains which are male microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce male gametes. If pollen lands on a compatible pistil or female cone, it germinates, individual pollen grains are small enough to require magnification to see detail. The study of pollen is called palynology and is useful in paleoecology, paleontology, archaeology. Pollen in plants is used for transferring haploid male genetic material from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another in cross-pollination. In a case of self-pollination, this takes place from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower. Pollen itself is not the male gamete, each pollen grain contains vegetative cells and a generative cell. In flowering plants the vegetative tube cell produces the pollen tube, pollen is produced in the microsporangia in the male cone of a conifer or other gymnosperm or in the anthers of an angiosperm flower. Pollen grains come in a variety of shapes, sizes. Pollen grains of pines, firs, and spruces are winged, the smallest pollen grain, that of the forget-me-not, is around 6 µm in diameter. Wind-borne pollen grains can be as large as about 90–100 µm, in angiosperms, during flower development the anther is composed of a mass of cells that appear undifferentiated, except for a partially differentiated dermis. As the flower develops, four groups of cells form within the anther. The fertile sporogenous cells are surrounded by layers of cells that grow into the wall of the pollen sac. Some of the cells grow into nutritive cells that supply nutrition for the microspores that form by meiotic division from the sporogenous cells, in a process called microsporogenesis, four haploid microspores are produced from each diploid sporogenous cell, after meiotic division. After the formation of the four microspores, which are contained by callose walls, the exine is what is preserved in the fossil record. Two basic types of microsporogenesis are recognised, simultaneous and successive, in simultaneous microsporogenesis meiotic steps I and II are completed prior to cytokinesis, whereas in successive microsporogenesis cytokinesis follows. While there may be a continuum with intermediate forms, the type of microsporogenesis has systematic significance, the predominant form amongst the monocots is successive, but there are important exceptions. During microgametogenesis, the unicellular microspores undergo mitosis and develop into mature microgametophytes containing the gametes, in some flowering plants, germination of the pollen grain may begin even before it leaves the microsporangium, with the generative cell forming the two sperm cells. Except in the case of submerged aquatic plants, the mature pollen grain has a double wall
5.
Reproductive organ
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The external and visible organs, in males and females, are the primary sex organs known as the genitals or genitalia. The internal organs are known as the sex organs and are sometimes referred to as the internal genitalia. The characteristics that begin to appear during puberty, such as, in humans, mosses, ferns, and some similar plants have gametangia for reproductive organs, which are part of the gametophyte. The flowers of flowering plants produce pollen and egg cells, but the sex organs themselves are inside the gametophytes within the pollen, coniferous plants likewise produce their sexually reproductive structures within the gametophytes contained within the cones and pollen. The cones and pollen are not themselves sexual organs, the other, hidden sex organs are referred to as the secondary sex organs or internal genitalia. The most important of these are the gonads, a pair of sex organs, gonads are the true sex organs, generating reproductive gametes containing inheritable DNA. They also produce most of the hormones that affect sexual development. The visible portion of the genitals for males consists of the scrotum and penis, for females, it consists of the vulva. In placental mammals, females have two genital orifices, the vagina and urethra, while males have one, the urethra. Male and female genitals have many nerve endings, resulting in pleasurable, in most human societies, particularly in conservative ones, exposure of the genitals is considered a public indecency. In mammals, sex organs include, In typical prenatal development, sexual organs originate from a common anlage anatomy during early gestation, the SRY gene, usually located on the Y chromosome and encoding the testis determining factor, determines the direction of this differentiation. The absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries, thereafter, the development of the internal reproductive organs and the external genitalia is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads and the cells response to them. The initial appearance of the fetal genitalia looks basically feminine, a pair of urogenital folds with a protuberance in the middle. Each sexual organ in one sex has a counterpart in the other one. See a list of homologues of the reproductive system. Furthermore, differences in brain structure arise, affecting, but not absolutely determining, intersex is the development of genitalia somewhere between typical male and female genitalia. Some parents allow their doctors to choose, if they do decide to modify the genitalia, they have approximately a 50% chance of getting genitalia that will match the childs gender identity. If they pick the one, their child may begin to show symptoms of transsexualism
6.
Flower
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A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral. The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs, Flowers may facilitate outcrossing or allow selfing. Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization, Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds, the essential parts of a flower can be considered in two parts, the vegetative part, consisting of petals and associated structures in the perianth, and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk, each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls are as follows, Collectively the calyx, corolla, the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination. Androecium, the whorl, consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts, a called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis. Gynoecium, the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels, the carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes and these give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen, the supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma. The relationship to the gynoecium on the receptacle is described as hypogynous, perigynous, although the arrangement described above is considered typical, plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part, in some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens
7.
Sporangium
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A sporangium is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a cell or can be multicellular. All plants, fungi, and many other lineages form sporangia at some point in their life cycle, sporangia can produce spores by mitosis, but in nearly all land plants and many fungi, sporangia are the site of meiosis and produce genetically distinct haploid spores. Structure containing the spores in fungal species, in mosses, liverworts and hornworts, an unbranched sporophyte produces a single sporangium, which may be quite complex morphologically. Most non-vascular plants, as well as many lycophytes and most ferns, are homosporous, some bryophytes, most lycophytes, and some ferns are heterosporous. These plants produce microspores and megaspores, which rise to gametophytes that are functionally male or female. In some cases, both kinds of spores are produced in the sporangium, and may even develop together as part of a spore tetrad. However, in most heterosporous plants there are two kinds of sporangia, termed microsporangia and megasporangia, a few ferns and some lycophytes are heterosporous with two kinds of sporangia, as are all the seed plants. Sporangia can be terminal or lateral of stems or associated with leaves, in ferns, sporangia are typically found on the abaxial surface of the leaf and are densely aggregated into clusters called sori. Sori may be covered by a structure called an indusium, some ferns have their sporangia scattered along reduced leaf segments or along the margin of the leaf. Lycophytes, in contrast, bear their sporangia on the surface of leaves or laterally on stems. Leaves that bear sporangia are called sporophylls, if the plant is heterosporous, the sporangia-bearing leaves are distinguished as either microsporophylls or megasporophylls. In seed plants, sporangia are located within strobili or flowers. Cycads form their microsporangia on microsporophylls which are aggregated into strobili, megasporangia are formed within ovules, which are borne on megasporophylls, which are aggregated into strobili on separate plants. Conifers typically bear their microsporangia on microsporophylls aggregated into pollen strobili. Flowering plants contain microsporangia in the anthers of stamens and megasporangia inside ovules inside ovaries, in all seed plants, spores are produced by meiosis and develop into gametophytes while still inside the sporangium. Categorized based on sequence, eusporangia and leptosporangia are differentiated in the vascular plants. In a leptosporangium, found only in ferns, development involves a single cell that becomes the stalk, wall
8.
Microspore
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Microspores are land plant spores that develop into male gametophytes, whereas megaspores develop into female gametophytes. The male gametophyte gives rise to cells, which are used for fertilization of an egg cell to form a zygote. Microspores are structures that are part of the alternation of generations in many seedless vascular cryptogams, all gymnosperms, plants with heterosporous life cycles using microspores and megaspores arose independently in several plant groups during the Devonian period. Microspores are haploid, and are produced from microsporocytes by meiosis. This process is the most effective way of yielding haploid and double haploid plants through the use of sex hormones. In the anther, after a microspore undergoes microsporogenesis, it can deviate towards embryogenesis, the microspore can then go one of four ways, Become an embryogenic microspore, undergo callogenesis to organogenesis, become a pollen-like structure or die. The microspore consists of three different walled layers, the outer layer is called the perispore, the next is the exospore, and the inner layer is the endospore. The perispore is the thickest of the three layers while the exospore and endospore are relatively equal in width, microsporophylls bear microsporangia containing many microsporocytes that undergo meiosis, producing tiny microspores. Each microspore may become a male gametophyte consisting of a somewhat spherical antheridium within the microspore wall, either 128 or 256 sperm cells with flagella are produced in each antheridium. In the ferns, the only heterosporous plants are aquatic or semi-aquatic, including the genera Marsilea, Regnellidium, Pilularia, Salvinia and this condition is also known in the lycopod genus Selaginella and in the quillwort genus Isoëtes. Types of seedless vascular plants, Ferns Spikemosses Quillworts In seed plants the microspores are the first cells to form into the male gametophyte, the megaspores, in turn, are formed within the developing seed. Pollen cones usually develop toward the tips of the branches in clusters up to 50 or more. Microsporangia develop in pairs toward the bases of the scales, each of the microsporocytes in the microsporangia undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid microspores. These develop into pollen grains, each consists of four cells. The air sacs give the pollen grains added buoyancy that could help with wind dispersal, types of Gymnosperms, Conifers Pines Ginkgos Cycads Gnetophytes As the anther of a flowering plant develops, four patches of tissue differentiate from the main mass of cells. These patches of tissue contain many diploid microsporocyte cells, each of which undergoes meiosis producing a quartet of microspores, four chambers lined with nutritive tapetal cells are visible by the time the microspores are produced. After meiosis, the haploid microspores undergo several changes, The microspore divides by mitosis producing two cells, the first of the cells is small and is formed inside the second larger cell. The members of each part of the microspores separate from each other, a double-layered wall then develops around each microspore
9.
Gametophyte
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A gametophyte is a stage in the life cycle of plants and algae that undergo alternation of generations. It is a multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the phase in the life cycle of plants. It develops sex organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells that participate in fertilization to form a diploid zygote in which each cell has two sets of chromosomes. Cell division of the results in a new diploid multicellular organism, the second stage in the life cycle known as the sporophyte. In some multicellular green algae, red algae and brown algae sporophytes and gametophytes may be externally indistinguishable, in Ulva the gametes are isogamous, all of one size, shape and general morphology. In land plants, anisogamy is universal, as in animals, female and male gametes are called, respectively, eggs and sperm. Either the sporophyte or the gametophyte may be reduced, in bryophytes, the gametophyte is the most visible stage of the life cycle. The bryophyte gametophyte is longer lived, nutritionally independent, and the sporophytes are typically attached to the gametophytes, when a moss spore germinates it grows to produce a filament of cells. The mature gametophyte of mosses develops into leafy shoots that produce sex organs that produce gametes, eggs develop in archegonia and sperm in antheridia. In some bryophyte groups such as many liverworts of the order Marchantiales, in most ferns, gametophyte is a photosynthetic free living organism called a prothallus. However, in groups, notably the clade that includes Ophioglossaceae and Psilotaceae. Extant lycophytes produce several different types of gametophytes, in the families Lycopodiaceae and Huperziaceae, gametophytes are subterranean and mycotrophic, deriving nutrients from symbiosis with fungi. The gametophytes of Isoetes appear to be similar in respect to those of the extinct Carboniferous giant arborescent clubmosses, Lepidodendron. By contrast, in seed plants, gametophytes develop into multicellular organisms while still enclosed within the sporangium, vascular plants that produce only one type of spore are said to be homosporous. They have exosporic gametophytes—that is, the gametophyte is free-living and develops outside of the spore wall, exosporic gametophytes are normally bisexual, capable of producing both sperm and eggs. In heterosporous vascular plants, the gametophyte develops endosporically, within the spore wall and these gametophytes are unisexual, producing either sperm or eggs but not both. All vascular plants are dominant, and a trend toward smaller
10.
Locule
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A locule or loculus is a small cavity or compartment within an organ or part of an organism. In angiosperms, the term usually refers to a chamber within an ovary of the flower. Depending on the number of locules in the ovary, fruits can be classified as uni-locular, bi-locular, tri-locular or multi-locular, the number of locules present in a gynoecium may be equal to or less than the number of carpels. The locules contain the ovules or seeds, the term may also refer to chambers within anthers containing pollen. In Ascomycete fungi, locules are chambers within the hymenium in which the perithecia develop
11.
Canna (plant)
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Canna is a genus of 10 species of flowering plants. The closest living relations to cannas are the plant families of the order Zingiberales. Canna is the genus in the family Cannaceae. The APG II system of 2003 assigns it to the clade commelinids, Plants have large foliage and horticulturists have turned it into a large-flowered garden plant. It is also used in agriculture as a source of starch for human. See the Canna cultivar gallery for photographs of Canna cultivars, the name Canna originates from the Latin word for a cane or reed. The plants are large tropical and subtropical perennial herbs with a rhizomatous rootstock, the broad, flat, alternate leaves that are such a feature of this plant, grow out of a stem in a long, narrow roll and then unfurl. The leaves are solid green, but some cultivars have glaucose, brownish, maroon. The flowers are composed of three sepals and three petals that are seldom noticed by people, they are small and hidden under extravagant stamens, what appear to be petals are the highly modified stamens or staminodes. The staminodes number 3 (with at least one staminodal member called the labellum, a specialized staminode, the stamen, bears pollen from a half-anther. A somewhat narrower petal is the pistil which is connected down to a three-chambered ovary, the flowers are typically red, orange, or yellow or any combination of those colours, and are aggregated in inflorescences that are spikes or panicles. Although gardeners enjoy these odd flowers, nature really intended them to attract pollinators collecting nectar and pollen, such as bees, hummingbirds, sunbirds, the pollination mechanism is conspicuously specialized. Later cultivars have a lower anther, and rely on pollinators alighting on the labellum and touching first the terminal stigma, and then the pollen. The wild species grow to at least 2–3 m in height. Canna is the member of the Liliopsida class in which hibernation of seed is known to occur, due to its hard. The first species of Canna introduced to Europe was C. indica L. which was imported from the East Indies, charles de lEcluse, who first described and sketched C. Without exception, all Canna species that have been introduced into Europe can be traced back to the Americas, if the soils of India or Africa had produced some of them, they would have been imported before the 1860s into European gardens. Both reduced the number of species from the 50-100 accepted previously and this reduction in species is also confirmed by work done by Kress and Prince at the Smithsonian Institution, however, this only covers a subset of the species range
12.
Saguaro
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The saguaro is an arborescent cactus species in the monotypic genus Carnegiea, which can grow to be over 70 feet tall. It is native to the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, the Mexican State of Sonora, the saguaro blossom is the state wildflower of Arizona. Its scientific name is given in honor of Andrew Carnegie, in 1994, Saguaro National Park, near Tucson, Arizona, was designated to help protect this species and its habitat. The image of the saguaro is indelibly linked with that of the American Southwest, the common name saguaro came into the English language through the Spanish language, originating in the Mayo language. Saguaros have a long lifespan, often exceeding 150 years. They may grow their first side arm any time from 75–100 years of age, a saguaro without arms is called a spear. Arms are developed to increase the reproductive capacity, as more apices lead to more flowers. The growth rate of saguaros is strongly dependent on precipitation, saguaros in drier western Arizona grow only half as fast as those in, saguaros grow slowly from seed, never from cuttings, and grow to be over 40 feet in height. The largest known living saguaro is the Champion Saguaro growing in Maricopa County, Arizona, the tallest saguaro ever measured was an armless specimen found near Cave Creek, Arizona. It was 78 feet in height before it was toppled in 1986 by a windstorm, a saguaro is able to absorb and store considerable amounts of rainwater, visibly expanding in the process, while slowly using the stored water as needed. This characteristic enables the saguaro to survive during periods of drought, the saguaro genome is around 1.5 billion base pairs long. Sequencing has revealed that the genome of the saguaros chloroplast is the smallest known among non-parasitic flowering plants, the spines on a saguaro, less than two meters in height, rapidly grow up to a millimeter per day. When held up to the light or bisected, alternating light and these transverse bands have been correlated to daily growth. In columnar cacti, spines almost always grow in areoles which originate at the apex of the plant, a spine stops growing in its first season. Areoles are moved to the side and the continues to grow upwards. Thus, older spines are towards the base of a columnar cactus, studies are underway to examine the relationship of carbon and oxygen isotope ratios in the tissues of spines of an individual to its climate and photosynthetic history. Flowers appear in April through June and they are white and open well after sunset and close in mid-afternoon. They continue to produce nectar after sunrise, flowers are self-incompatible, thus require cross-pollination
13.
Gynoecium
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Gynoecium is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of pistils in a flower and is surrounded by the pollen-producing reproductive organs. The term gynoecium is also used by botanists to refer to a cluster of archegonia and any associated modified leaves or stems present on a shoot in mosses. The corresponding terms for the parts of those plants are clusters of antheridia within the androecium. Flowers that bear a gynoecium but no stamens are called carpellate, flowers lacking a gynoecium are called staminate. The gynoecium is often referred to as female because it gives rise to female gametophytes, however, strictly speaking sporophytes do not have a sex, only gametophytes do. Gynoecium development and arrangement is important in research and identification of angiosperms. The gynoecium may consist of one or more separate pistils, a pistil typically consists of an expanded basal portion called the ovary, an elongated section called a style and an apical structure that receives pollen called a stigma. The ovary, is the basal portion which contains placentas. The placentas and/or ovule may be born on the gynoecial appendages or less frequently on the floral apex, the chamber in which the ovules develop is called a locule. The style, is a pillar-like stalk through which pollen tubes grow to reach the ovary, some flowers such as Tulipa do not have a distinct style, and the stigma sits directly on the ovary. The style is a tube in some plants such as lilies. The stigma, is found at the tip of the style. It is commonly sticky or feathery to capture pollen, the word pistil comes from Latin pistillum meaning pestle. A sterile pistil in a flower is referred to as a pistillode. The pistils of a flower are considered to be composed of carpels, a carpel is a theoretical construct interpreted as modified leaves bearing structures called ovules, inside which the egg cells ultimately form. A pistil may consist of one carpel, with its ovary, style and stigma, or several carpels may be joined together with a single ovary, the gynoecium may consist of one or more uni-carpellate pistils, or of one multi-carpellate pistil. The number of carpels is described by such as tricarpellate
14.
Perianth
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The perianth is the non-reproductive part of the flower, and structure that forms an envelope surrounding the sexual organs, consisting of the calyx and the corolla. The term perianth is derived from the Greek περί, peri, meaning around, in the mosses and liverworts, the perianth is the sterile tubelike tissue that surrounds the female reproductive structure. When the perianth is in two whorls, it is described as biseriate, while the calyx may be green, it may also be brightly coloured, and is then described as petaloid. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as petaloid, as in petaloid monocots. Since they include Liliales, a name is lilioid monocots. The corolla and petals have a role in attracting pollinators, when the corolla consists of separate tepals the term apotepalous is used, or syntepalous if the tepals are fused to one another. The petals may be united to form a tubular corolla, if either the petals or sepals are entirely absent, the perianth can be described as being monochlamydeous. Both sepals and petals may have stomata and veins, even if vestigial, in some taxa, for instance some magnolias and water lilies the perianth is arranged in a spiral on nodes, rather than whorls. Flowers with spiral perianths tend to also be those with undifferentiated perianths, an additional structure in some plants is the corona, a ring or set of appendages of adaxial tissue arising from the corolla or the outer edge of the stamens. It is often positioned where the corolla lobes arise from the corolla tube, the pappus of Asteraceae, considered to be a modified calyx, is also called a corona if it is shaped like a crown. The dictionary definition of perianth at Wiktionary
15.
Triuridaceae
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Triuridaceae is a family of tropical and subtropical flowering plants, including nine genera with a total of ca 55 known species. All members lack chlorophyll and are mycoheterotrophic, the heterotrophicphytic lifestyle of these plants has resulted in a loss of xylem vessels and stomata, and a reduction of leaves to scales. The flowers of Triuridaceae have tepals which are fused at the base, the circumscription of Triuridaceae has been unstable and some taxa may be paraphyletic. Triuridaceae have been allied with Alismataceae but the APG III system places them among the non-commelinid monocots, the genus Lacandonia is sometimes placed in its own family, Lacandoniaceae. Triuridaceae are included in the Kew Royal Botanical Garden World Checklist of Selected Plant Families and were reviewed by H. Maas-van de Kamer and P. Maas-van de Kamer in 2005. In this list, the genera Andruris and Hyalisma are subsumed into Sciaphila and Hexuris is subsumed into Peltophyllum, both genera were described in 2003. The included genera are, Kihansia Cheek Kupea Cheek & S. A. Williams Lacandonia E. Martínez & Ramos Peltophyllum Gardner Sciaphila Blume Seychellaria Hemsl, soridium Miers Triuridopsis H. Maas & Maas Triuris Miers Triuridaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
16.
Lacandonia schismatica
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Lacandonia schismatica is a species of mycoheterotrophic plants in the Triuridaceae. It is endemic to Lacandon Jungle in the State of Chiapas in southern Mexico and it is known from very few populations and is considered endangered by the researchers who investigate this species. Lacandonia schismatica is known from small populations at altitudes around 200 m in the Lacandon Jungle. It grows in shady sites within this rainforest, gerrit Davidse and Esteban Martínez noted in 1990 how the plants are extremely localized and highly endangered due to encroaching habitat conversion to cattle pasture. They also explain that the species is difficult to cultivate and therefore they encourage other scientists to study this unique organisms biology before it can no longer be found in the wild
17.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
18.
Warp and weft
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In weaving, the weft is the term for the thread or yarn which is drawn through, inserted over-and-under, the lengthwise warp yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom to create cloth. Warp is the lengthwise or longitudinal thread in a roll, while weft is the transverse thread, a single thread of the weft, crossing the warp, is called a pick. Each individual warp thread in a fabric is called an end or end. The weft is a thread or yarn usually made of spun fibre, the original fibres used were wool, flax or cotton. Today, man-made fibres are used in weaving. Because the weft does not have to be stretched on a loom in the way that the warp is, the weft is threaded through the warp using a shuttle, air jets or rapier grippers. Hand looms were the original weavers tool, with the shuttle being threaded through alternately raised warps by hand, inventions during the 18th century spurred the Industrial Revolution, with the picking stick and the flying shuttle speeding up production of cloth. The power loom patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 allowed sixty picks per minute, a useful way of remembering which is warp and which is weft is, one of them goes from weft to wight. The words woof and weft derive ultimately from the Old English word wefan, Warp means that which is thrown away. Very simple looms use a warp, in which a single. Because the warp is held under tension during the entire process of weaving and warp yarn must be strong, yarn for warp ends is usually spun. Traditional fibres for warping are wool, linen, alpaca, with the improvements in spinning technology during the Industrial Revolution, it became possible to make cotton yarn of sufficient strength to be used as the warp in mechanized weaving. Later, artificial or man-made fibres such as nylon or rayon were employed, while most people are familiar with weft-faced weavings, it is possible to create warp-faced weavings using densely arranged warp threads. In warp-faced weavings, the design for the textile is in the warp, warp-faced weavings are defined by length-wise stripes and vertical designs due to the limitations of color placement. The expression woof and warp is used metaphorically as one might similarly use fabric, e. g. the warp. The expression is used as a metaphor for the structure on which something is built. Warp or woof are also found in the Bible in the discussion of mildews found in cloth materials in Leviticus 13. Weft is also a term for temporary hair extensions
19.
Classical Latin
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Classical Latin is the modern term used to describe the form of the Latin language recognized as standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In some later periods, it was regarded as good Latin, the word Latin is now taken by default as meaning Classical Latin, so that, for example, modern Latin textbooks describe classical Latin. Latinitas was spoken as well as written, moreover, it was the language taught by the schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and where a subject was concerned, such as poetry or rhetoric. No authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, except possibly the repetitious abbreviations, good Latin in philology is classical Latin literature. The term classicus was devised by the Romans themselves to translate Greek ἐγκριθέντες, select, before then, classis, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society according to property ownership by the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek κλῆσις calling, used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class, classicus is anything primae classis, first class, such as the authors of the polished works of Latinitas, or sermo urbanus. It had nuances of the certified and the authentic, testis classicus and it was in this sense that Marcus Cornelius Fronto in the 2nd century AD used scriptores classici, first-class or reliable authors whose works could be relied upon as model of good Latin. This is the first known reference, possibly innovated at this time, aulus Gellius includes many authors, such as Plautus, who are currently considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in the period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris, each author in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek, for example Ennius was the Latin Homer, the Aeneid was a new Iliad, and so on. The lists of authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology. The Renaissance brought a revival of interest in restoring as much of Roman culture as could be restored and with it the return of the concept of classic, the best. Thomas Sébillet in 1548 referred to les bons et classiques poètes françois, meaning Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier, according to Merriam Websters Collegiate Dictionary, the term classical, from classicus, entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction on the continent. In 1715 Laurence Echards Classical Geographical Dictionary was published, in 1736 Robert Ainsworths Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into proper and classical Latin. In 1768 David Ruhnken recast the mold of the view of the classical by applying the word canon to the pinakes of orators, Ruhnken had a kind of secular catechism in mind. The practice and Teuffels classification, with modifications, are still in use and his work was translated into English as soon as published in German by Wilhelm Wagner, who corresponded with Teuffel. Wagner published the English translation in 1873, Teuffel divides the chronology of classical Latin authors into several periods according to political events, rather than by style. Regarding the style of the literary Latin of those periods he had, Teuffel was to go on with other editions of his history, but meanwhile it had come out in English almost as soon as it did in German and found immediate favorable reception
20.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
21.
Cucurbitaceae
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The Cucurbitaceae family ranks among the highest of plant families for number and percentage of species used as human food. The Cucurbitaceae consist of 98 proposed genera with 975 species, mainly in tropical and subtropical. All species are sensitive to frost, most of the plants in this family are annual vines, but some are woody lianas, thorny shrubs, or trees. Many species have large, yellow or white flowers, the stems are hairy and pentangular. Tendrils are present at 90° to the petioles at nodes. Leaves are exstipulate alternate simple palmately lobed or palmately compound, the flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers on different plants or on the same plant. The female flowers have inferior ovaries, the fruit is often a kind of modified berry called a pepo. One of the oldest fossil records so far is Cucurbitaciphyllum lobatum from the Paleocene epoch, found at Shirley Canal and it was described for the first time in 1924 by Knowlton. The fossil leaf is palmate, trilobed with rounded lobal sinuses and it has a leaf pattern similar to the members of the genera Kedrostis, Melothria and Zehneria. Cucurbits are represented in 23 of the 134 mosaics containing images of crop plants, several of the cucurbit images have not been found elsewhere, suggesting a diverse and highly developed local horticulture of cucurbits in Israel during the Byzantine era. Representations of mature sponge gourds are found in localities, suggestive of the high value accorded to cleanliness. The name Cucurbitaceae comes to scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from Cucurbita, the type genus, + -aceae. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word cucurbita, gourd, bates D, Robinson R, Jeffrey C, ed. Biology and Utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. CS1 maint, Multiple names, editors list Jeffrey C, Cucurbitaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
22.
Phyllanthus
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Phyllanthus is the largest genus in the flowering plant family Phyllanthaceae. Estimates of the species in this genus vary widely, from 750 to 1200. Phyllanthus has a diversity of growth forms including annual and perennial herbs, shrubs, climbers, floating aquatics. Some have flattened leaflike stems called cladodes and it has a wide variety of floral morphologies and chromosome numbers and has one of the widest range of pollen types of any seed plant genus. Despite their variety, almost all Phyllanthus species express a type of growth called phyllanthoid branching in which the vertical stems bear deciduous, floriferous. The leaves on the axes are reduced to scales called cataphylls. Phyllanthus is distributed in all tropical and subtropical regions on Earth, leafflower is the common name for all Phyllanthus species. The circumscription of this genus has been a cause of much confusion, Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Phyllanthus is paraphyletic over Reverchonia, Glochidion, Sauropus, and Breynia. A recent revision of the family Phyllanthaceae has subsumed all four of these genera into Phyllanthus and this enlarged version of Phyllanthus might eventually be divided into smaller genera, but much more research will be needed before anyone knows how to do this. Progress continues to be made in this area, also see Taxonomy of the Phyllanthaceae and Phyllanthaceae. Phyllanthus acidus Skeels - Otaheite gooseberry Phyllanthus acuminatus Vahl - Jamaican gooseberry tree Phyllanthus amarus Schumacher Phyllanthus angustifolius Sw, Phyllanthus atropurpureus Bojer Phyllanthus brasiliensis Poir. - native to the Americas Phyllanthus cochinchinensis Spreng, Phyllanthus cuneifolius Croizat Phyllanthus debilis Klein ex Willd. Phyllanthus emblica L. - Indian gooseberry, also known as amla or amalaki, Phyllanthus engleri Pax Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus L. Phyllanthus ericoides Torr. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Phyllanthus microcladus Muell. -Arg, - the only succulent species of this genus Phyllanthus myrtifolius - Wight. Phyllanthus muellerianus Exell Phyllanthus niruri L. - Chanca piedra Phyllanthus parvifolius Buch. -Ham, ex D. Don Phyllanthus piscatorum Kunth Phyllanthus pentaphyllus C. Wright ex Griseb. - often misidentified as P. reticulatus Phyllanthus profusus N. E. Br, Phyllanthus pudens L. C. Wheeler Phyllanthus pulcher Wallich ex Muell. -Arg. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. - similar in appearance to P. polyspermus Phyllanthus saffordii Merr, Phyllanthus salviifolius Kunth Phyllanthus sepialis Müll. Arg. Phyllanthus stipulatus G. L. Webster Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb, Phyllanthus urinaria L. - chamberbitter Phyllanthus virgatus G. Forst
23.
Euphorbiaceae
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Most spurges such as Euphorbia paralias are herbs, but some, especially in the tropics, are shrubs or trees, such as Hevea brasiliensis. Some, such as Euphorbia canariensis, are succulent and resemble cacti because of convergent evolution and this family occurs mainly in the tropics, with the majority of the species in the Indo-Malayan region and tropical America a good second. A large variety occurs in tropical Africa, but they are not as abundant or varied as in the two other tropical regions. However, Euphorbia also has many species in areas such as the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East, South Africa. The leaves are alternate, seldom opposite, with stipules and they are mainly simple, but where compound, are always palmate, never pinnate. Stipules may be reduced to hairs, glands, or spines, the plants can be monoecious or dioecious. The radially symmetrical flowers are unisexual, with the male and female usually on the same plant. As can be expected from such a family, a wide variety exists in the structure of the flowers. The stamens number from one to 10, the female flowers are hypogynous, that is, with superior ovaries. The genera in tribe Euphorbieae, subtribe Euphorbiinae show a highly specialized form of pseudanthium called a cyathium and this is usually a small, cup-like involucre consisting of fused-together bracts and peripheral nectary glands, surrounding a ring of male flowers, each a single stamen. In the middle of the stands an female flower, a single pistil with branched stigmas. This whole arrangement resembles a single flower, the fruit is usually a schizocarp, but sometimes a drupe. A typical schizocarp is the regma, a fruit with three or more cells, each of which splits open at maturity into separate parts and then breaks away explosively. The family contains a variety of phytotoxins, mainly diterpene esters, alkaloids, glycosides. A milky latex is a characteristic of the subfamilies Euphorbioideae and Crotonoideae, the latex is poisonous in the Euphorbioideae, but innocuous in the Crotonoideae. White mangrove, or blind-your-eye mangrove latex causes blistering on contact, other common names are milky mangrove, buta buta, and gewa. The latex of spurge was used as a laxative, recent molecular studies have shown that the enigmatic family Rafflesiaceae, which was only recently recognized to belong to order Malpighiales, is derived from within the Euphorbiaceae. The Euphorbiaceae family has about 7,500 species organised into 300 genera,37 tribes, prominent plants include cassava, castor oil plant, Barbados nut, and the Para rubber tree
24.
Ploidy
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Ploidy is the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Cells are described according to the number of present, monoploid, diploid, triploid, tetraploid, pentaploid, hexaploid, heptaploid or septaploid. The generic term polyploid is used to describe cells with three or more sets of chromosomes, humans are diploid organisms, carrying two complete sets of chromosomes, one set of 23 chromosomes from their father and one set of 23 chromosomes from their mother. The two sets combined provide a complement of 46 chromosomes. This total number of chromosomes is called the chromosome number, when a species has a varying chromosome number, e. g. a diploid and tetraploid form, the chromosome number is called diploid number in the diploid form, and tetraploid number in the tetraploid form. The number of found in a single complete set of chromosomes is called the monoploid number. The haploid number is unique to gametes, and refers to the number of chromosomes found in a gamete. The haploid number for humans is 23, and the monoploid number equals 46 divided by the level of 2. When a human germ cell undergoes meiosis the two sets of 23 chromosomes are split in half to form gametes, after fusion of a male and a female gamete both containing 1 set of 23 chromosomes, the resulting zygote has 46 chromosomes,2 sets of 23 chromosomes. The common potato is an example of an organism, carrying four sets of chromosomes. The potato plant inherits two sets of 12 chromosomes from the parent, and two sets of 12 chromosomes from the ovule parent. The four sets combined provide a complement of 48 chromosomes. The monoploid number equals the number divided by the ploidy level,48 chromosomes in total divided by a ploidy level of 4 equals a monoploid number of 12. Because the chromosome number is reduced only by the specialized process of meiosis. However, in many situations somatic cells double their number by means of endoreduplication as an aspect of cellular differentiation. When a germ cell with an number of chromosomes undergoes meiosis. Triploid organisms for instance are usually sterile, because of this, triploidy is a common way of making seedless fruit such as bananas and watermelons. If the fertilization of human gametes results in 3 sets of chromosomes the condition is called triploid syndrome, the term ploidy is a back-formation from haploidy and diploidy
25.
Dehiscence (botany)
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Dehiscence is the splitting at maturity along a built-in line of weakness in a plant structure in order to release its contents, and is common among fruits, anthers and sporangia. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part, structures that open in this way are said to be dehiscent. Structures that do not open in this way are called indehiscent, dehiscence may or may not involve the loss of a structure through the process of abscission. The lost structures are said to be caducous, manipulation of dehiscence can improve crop yield since a trait that causes seed dispersal is a disadvantage for farmers whose goal is to collect the seed. Many of the agronomically important plants have been bred for reduced shattering, explosive dehiscence is a ballistic form of dispersal that flings seeds or spores far from the parent plant. This rapid plant movement can achieve limited dispersal without the assistance of animals, a notable example is the sandbox tree, which can fling seeds 100 meters and has been called the Dynamite tree due to the loud sound of its explosive dehiscence. Another example is Impatiens, whose explosive dehiscence is triggered by being touched, explosive dehiscence of sporangia is a characteristic of Sphagnum. Septicidal and loculicidal dehiscence may not be distinct, in some cases both the septa and the walls of the locules split. Dehiscence occurs through breakage of parts of the enclosing structure, the mechanisms can be classified in various ways. Dehiscence through a hole is referred to as poricidal dehiscence. The pore may have a cover that is referred to as an operculum or it may not, poricidal dehiscence occurs in many unrelated organisms, in fruit, causing the release of seeds, and also in the sporangia of many organisms. Poricidal anthers of flowers are associated with buzz pollination by insects. Circumscissile dehiscence involves a horizontal opening that causes a lid to separate completely and this type of dehiscence occurs in some fruit and anthers and also in some flower buds. Anther dehiscence is the function of the anther that causes the release of pollen grains. This process is coordinated precisely with pollen differentiation, floral development, the anther wall breaks at a specific site. Usually this site is observed as an indentation between the locules of each theca and runs the length of the anther, but in species with poricidal anther dehiscence it is instead a small pore. If the pollen is released from the anther through a split on the side, this is extrorse dehiscence, and if the pollen is released from the inner side. If the pollen is released through a split that is positioned to the side, towards other anthers, rather than towards the inside or outside of the flower, the stomium is the region of the anther where dehiscence occurs
26.
Erica
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Erica is a genus of roughly 860 species of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae. The English common names heath and heather are shared by closely related genera of similar appearance. The genus Calluna was formerly included in Erica – it differs in having even smaller scale-leaves, Erica is sometimes referred to as winter heather to distinguish it from Calluna summer heather. The Latin word erica means heath or broom and it is believed that Pliny adapted erica from Ancient Greek ἐρείκη. The expected Anglo-Latin pronunciation, /ᵻˈraɪkə/, may be given in dictionaries, but /ˈɛrᵻkə/ is more commonly heard. Most of the species of Erica are small shrubs from 20–150 cm high, though some are taller, all are evergreen, with minute, needle-like leaves 2–15 mm long. Flowers are sometimes axillary, and sometimes borne in umbels or spikes. The seeds are small, and in some species may survive in the soil for decades. Dulfer published the last revision of the genus Erica, treating 605 species, many new species have subsequently been described and a further 83 have been included in Erica from former “minor genera”, such as Phillipia Klotzsch and Blaeria L. A more recent overview of Erica species is provided in an identification aid. A number of increasingly detailed phylogenetic hypotheses for Erica have been published based on nuclear ribosomal, the closest relatives of Erica are Daboecia and Calluna, representing the oldest surviving lineages of a, by inference, ancestrally Palearctic tribe Ericeae. The small number of European Erica species represent the oldest lineages of the genus, within which a single, order-of-magnitude more species rich, within the African clade, Cape and Madagascan/Mascarene species respectively represent monophyletic groups. Around 690 of the species are endemic to South Africa, the remaining species are native to other parts of Africa, Madagascar, the Mediterranean, and Europe. Like most Ericaceae, Erica species are mainly calcifuges, being limited to acidic or very acidic soils, in fact, the term ericaceous is frequently applied to all calcifuges, and to the compost used in their cultivation. Soils range from dry, sandy soils to extremely wet ones such as bog and they often dominate dwarf-shrub habitats, or the ground vegetation of open acidic woodland. Erica species are grown as landscape or garden plants for their floral effect and they associate well with conifers and are frequently seen in planting schemes as massed groundcover beneath varieties of dwarf conifers. They are capable of producing flower colour throughout the year and they can also be grown in tubs or window boxes to provide interest through autumn and into winter. Some species of sunbirds are known to visit and pollinate Erica, two such species are the southern double-collared sunbird and the orange-breasted sunbird
27.
Ericaceae
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The Ericaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the heath or heather family, found most commonly in acid and infertile growing conditions. The family is large, with c.4250 known species spread across 124 genera, the many well-known and economically important members of the Ericaceae include the cranberry, blueberry, huckleberry, rhododendron, and various common heaths and heathers. The Ericaceae contain a diverse range of taxa, including herbs, dwarf shrubs, shrubs. Their leaves are alternate or whorled, simple and without stipules. Their flowers are hermaphrodite and show considerable variability, the petals are often fused with shapes ranging from narrowly tubular to funnelform or widely bowl-shaped. The corollas are usually symmetrical, but many flowers of the genus Rhododendron are somewhat bilaterally symmetrical. Adanson used the term Vaccinia to describe a family. The name comes from the type genus Erica, which appears to be derived from the Greek word ereike, the exact meaning is difficult to interpret, but some sources show it as meaning heather. Historically, the Ericaceae included both subfamilies and tribes, within tribe Rhodoreae, five genera were described, Rhododendron L. Therorhodion Small, Ledum L. Tsusiophyllum Max. Menziesia J. E. Smith, that were transferred into Rhododendron. The move significantly increased the morphological and geographical range found within the group, the Ericaceae have a nearly worldwide distribution. They are absent from continental Antarctica, parts of the high Arctic, central Greenland, northern and central Australia, the family is largely composed of plants that can tolerate acidic, infertile conditions. Like other stress-tolerant plants, many Ericaceae have mycorrhizal fungi to assist with extracting nutrients from infertile soils and this trait is not found in the Clethraceae and Cyrillaceae, the two families most closely related to the Ericaceae. Most Ericaceae form a distinctive accumulation of mycorrhizae, in which grow in and around the roots. The Pyroloideae are mixotrophic and gain sugars from the mycorrhizae, as well as nutrients, in many parts of the world, a heath or heathland is an environment characterised by an open dwarf-shrub community found on low-quality acidic soils, generally dominated by plants in the Ericaceae. A common example is Erica tetralix and this plant family is also typical of peat bogs and blanket bogs, examples include Rhododendron groenlandicum and Kalmia polifolia. In eastern North America, members of this family grow in association with an oak canopy. Some evidence suggests eutrophic rainwater can convert ericoid heaths with species such as Erica tetralix to grasslands, nitrogen is particularly suspect in this regard, and may be causing measurable changes to the distribution and abundance of some ericaceous species
28.
Berberis
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Berberis, commonly known as barberry, is a large genus of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from 1–5 m tall found throughout the temperate and subtropical regions of the world. Species diversity is greatest in South America, Africa and Asia, Europe, the most well-known Berberis species is the European barberry, Berberis vulgaris, which is common in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and central Asia. Many of the species have spines on the shoots and along the margins of the leaves, the genus Berberis has dimorphic shoots, long shoots which form the structure of the plant, and short shoots only 1–2 mm long. The leaves on long shoots are non-photosynthetic, developed into one to three or more spines 3–30 mm long, the bud in the axil of each thorn-leaf then develops a short shoot with several normal, photosynthetic leaves. These leaves are 1–10 cm long, simple, and either entire, only on young seedlings do leaves develop on the long shoots, with the adult foliage style developing after the young plant is 1–2 years old. Many deciduous species, such as Berberis thunbergii or B. vulgaris, are noted for their pink or red autumn color. In some evergreen species from China, such as B. candidula or B. verruculosa, the leaves are brilliant white beneath, some horticultural variants of B. thunbergii have dark red to violet foliage. The flowers are produced singly or in racemes of up to 20 on a single flower-head and they are yellow or orange, 3–6 mm long, with six sepals and six petals in alternating whorls of three, the sepals usually colored like the petals. The fruit is a small berry 5–15 mm long, ripening red or dark blue, often with a pink or violet waxy surface bloom, in species, they may be long and narrow. Some authors regard the species as a separate genus, Mahonia. There are no consistent differences between the two other than the compound leaves, and studies suggest that the simple-leaved group is very likely polyphyletic. Berberis species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the moths Barberry Carpet Moth, and Mottled Pug. Berberis vulgaris and Berberis canadensis serve as alternate host species of the wheat rust fungus, for this reason, cultivation of B. vulgaris is prohibited in many areas, and imports to the United States are forbidden. Several species of Berberis are popular garden shrubs, grown for such features as ornamental leaves, yellow flowers, numerous cultivars and hybrids have been selected for garden use. Low-growing Berberis plants are commonly planted as pedestrian barriers. Taller-growing species are valued for crime prevention, being very dense, viciously spiny shrubs, for this reason they are often planted below potentially vulnerable windows, and used as hedges. X ottawensis f. purpurea Superba B, X stenophylla Lindl Berberis vulgaris grows in the wild in much of Europe and West Asia. It produces large crops of edible berries, rich in vitamin C, in Europe for many centuries the berries were used for culinary purposes in ways comparable to how citrus peel might be used
29.
Berberidaceae
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The Berberidaceae are a family of 14 genera flowering plants commonly called the barberry family. This family is in the order Ranunculales, the family contains about 700 known species, of which the majority are in Berberis. The species include trees, shrubs and perennial herbaceous plants, in some older treatments of the family, Berberidaceae only included four genera, with the other genera treated in separate families, Leonticaceae, Nandinaceae, and Podophyllaceae. Mahonia is very related to Berberis, and most botanists now include it in Berberis. Species in the two genera can be hybridised, with the hybrids being classified in the hybrid genus × Mahoberberis, Berberidaceae, Leonticaceae, Nandinaceae, Podophyllaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz, The families of flowering plants. Berberidaceae links NCBI Taxonomy Browser, Berberidaceae Flora of North America, Berberidaceae Chilean Berberidaceae, by Chileflora
30.
Orchidaceae
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The Orchidaceae are a diverse and widespread family of flowering plants, with blooms that are often colourful and often fragrant, commonly known as the orchid family. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering plants, the Orchidaceae have about 28,000 currently accepted species, distributed in about 763 genera. The determination of which family is larger is still under debate, regardless, the number of orchid species nearly equals the number of bony fishes and is more than twice the number of bird species, and about four times the number of mammal species. The family also encompasses about 6–11% of all seed plants, the largest genera are Bulbophyllum, Epidendrum, Dendrobium and Pleurothallis. The family also includes Vanilla, Orchis, and many cultivated plants such as Phalaenopsis. Moreover, since the introduction of species into cultivation in the 19th century, horticulturists have produced more than 100,000 hybrids. Orchids are easily distinguished from plants, as they share some very evident, shared derived characteristics. Among these are, bilateral symmetry of the flower, many flowers, a nearly always highly modified petal, fused stamens and carpels. All orchids are perennial herbs that lack any permanent woody structure and they can grow according to two patterns, Monopodial, The stem grows from a single bud, leaves are added from the apex each year and the stem grows longer accordingly. The stem of orchids with a monopodial growth can reach several metres in length, as in Vanda, Sympodial, Sympodial orchids have a front and a back. The plant produces a series of adjacent shoots which grow to a size, bloom. Sympodial orchids grow laterally rather than vertically, following the surface of their support, the growth continues by development of new leads, with their own leaves and roots, sprouting from or next to those of the previous year, as in Cattleya. While a new lead is developing, the rhizome may start its growth again from a so-called eye, Sympodial orchids may have visible pseudobulbs joined by a rhizome, which creeps along the top or just beneath the soil. Terrestrial orchids may be rhizomatous or form corms or tubers, the root caps of terrestrial orchids are smooth and white. Some sympodial terrestrial orchids, such as Orchis and Ophrys, have two subterranean tuberous roots, one is used as a food reserve for wintry periods, and provides for the development of the other one, from which visible growth develops. In warm and constantly humid climates, many terrestrial orchids do not need pseudobulbs, epiphytic orchids, those that grow upon a support, have modified aerial roots that can sometimes be a few meters long. In the older parts of the roots, a modified spongy epidermis and it is made of dead cells and can have a silvery-grey, white or brown appearance. In some orchids, the velamen includes spongy and fibrous bodies near the passage cells, the cells of the root epidermis grow at a right angle to the axis of the root to allow them to get a firm grasp on their support
31.
Asclepiadoideae
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According to APG II, the Asclepiadaceae, commonly known as milkweed family, is a former plant family now treated as a subfamily in the Apocynaceae. They form a group of perennial herbs, twining shrubs, lianas or rarely trees, the name comes from the type genus Asclepias. There are 348 genera, with about 2,900 species and they are mainly located in the tropics to subtropics, especially in Africa and South America. The florally advanced tribe Stapeliae within this family contains the relatively familiar stem succulent genera such as Huernia, Stapelia and Hoodia. They are remarkable for the mechanisms they have developed for pollination. The fragrance from the flowers, often called carrion, attracts flies, many new hybrids have been formed due to the unique fertilization method of the flowers. Endress, M. E. and P. V. Bruyns, A revised classification of the Apocynaceae s. l
32.
Pollinium
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A pollinium, or plural pollinia, is a coherent mass of pollen grains in a plant that are the product of only one anther, but are transferred, during pollination, as a single unit. This is regularly seen in such as orchids and many species of milkweeds. Usage of the term differs, in some orchids two masses of pollen are well attached to one another, but in other orchids there are two each of which is sometimes referred to as a pollinium. These are connected to one or two elongate stipes, which in turn are attached to a sticky viscidium, a structure that sticks to a visiting insect. Some orchid genera have mealy pollinia and these are tapering into a caudicle, attached to the viscidium. They extend into the section of the column
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Pollination
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Pollination is the process by which pollen is transferred to the female reproductive organs of a plant, thereby enabling fertilization to take place. Like all living organisms, seed plants have a major goal. The reproductive unit is the seed, and pollination is a step in the production of seeds in all spermatophytes. The process is different in angiosperms from what it is in gymnosperms. In angiosperms, after the grain has landed on the stigma. Sperm cells from the pollen grain then move along the tube, enter the egg cell through the micropyle and fertilise it. A successful angiosperm pollen grain containing the gametes is transported to the stigma. Its two gametes travel down the tube to where the containing the female gametes are held within the carpel. One nucleus fuses with the bodies to produce the endosperm tissues. In gymnosperms, the ovule is not contained in a carpel, details of the process vary according to the division of gymnosperms in question. Two main modes of fertilization are found in gymnosperms, the study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and pollen vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel and it is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization, the result of pollination. The study of pollination by insects is known as anthecology, pollen germination has three stages, hydration, activation and pollen tube emergence. The pollen grain is severely dehydrated so that its mass is reduced enabling it to be easily transported from flower to flower. Germination only takes place after rehydration, ensuring that premature germination does not take place in the anther, hydration allows the plasma membrane of the pollen grain to reform into its normal bilayer organization providing an effective osmotic membrane. Activation involves the development of actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm of the cell, hydration and activation continue as the pollen tube begins to grow. In conifers, the structures are borne on cones. The cones are either pollen cones or ovulate cones, but some species are monoecious, a pollen cone contains hundreds of microsporangia carried on reproductive structures called sporophylls
34.
Plant reproduction
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Plant reproduction is the production of new individuals or offspring in plants, which can be accomplished by sexual or asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction produces offspring by the fusion of gametes, resulting in offspring genetically different from the parent or parents, asexual reproduction produces new individuals without the fusion of gametes, genetically identical to the parent plants and each other, except when mutations occur. In seed plants, the offspring can be packaged in a protective seed, plants have two main types of asexual reproduction in which new plants are produced that are genetically identical clones of the parent individual. Vegetative reproduction involves a piece of the original plant and is distinguished from apomixis, which is a replacement for sexual reproduction. Apomixis occurs in plant species and also in some non-plant organisms. For apomixis and similar processes in non-plant organisms, see parthenogenesis, natural vegetative reproduction is mostly a process found in herbaceous and woody perennial plants, and typically involves structural modifications of the stem or roots and in a few species leaves. In a sense, this process is not one of reproduction but one of survival, when an individual organism increases in size via cell multiplication and remains intact, the process is called vegetative growth. However, in reproduction, the new plants that result are new individuals in almost every respect except genetic. Seeds generated by apomixis are a means of reproduction, involving the formation. Hawkweed, dandelion, some Citrus and Kentucky blue grass all use this form of asexual reproduction, pseudogamy occurs in some plants that have apomictic seeds, where pollination is often needed to initiate embryo growth, though the pollen contributes no genetic material to the developing offspring. A rhizome is an underground stem serving as an organ of vegetative reproduction. Prostrate aerial stems, called runners or stolons are important vegetative reproduction organs in some species, such as the strawberry, numerous grasses, adventitious buds form on roots near the ground surface, on damaged stems, or on old roots. These develop into above-ground stems and leaves, a form of budding called suckering is the reproduction or regeneration of a plant by shoots that arise from an existing root system. Species that characteristically produce suckers include Elm, Dandelion, and many members of the Rose family such as Rosa, plants like onion, hyacinth, narcissus and tulips reproduce by dividing their underground bulbs into more bulbs. Other plants like potatoes and dahlia reproduce by a method involving underground tubers. Gladioli and crocuses reproduce in a way with corms. Asexual methods are most often used to propagate cultivars with individual desirable characteristics that do not come true from seed, fruit tree propagation is frequently performed by budding or grafting desirable cultivars, onto rootstocks that are also clones, propagated by stooling. In horticulture, a cutting is a branch that has cut off from a mother plant below an internode and then rooted
35.
Stamen
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The stamen is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium, a stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament and an anther which contains microsporangia. Most commonly anthers are two-lobed and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the area of the anther. The sterile tissue between the lobes is called the connective, a pollen grain develops from a microspore in the microsporangium and contains the male gametophyte. The stamens in a flower are called the androecium. The androecium can consist of as few a one-half stamen as in Canna species or as many as 3,482 stamens which have been counted in Carnegiea gigantea, the androecium in various species of plants forms a great variety of patterns, some of them highly complex. It surrounds the gynoecium and is surrounded by the perianth, a few members of the family Triuridaceae, particularly Lacandonia schismatica, are exceptional in that their gynoecia surround their androecia. Stamen is the Latin word meaning thread, depending on the species of plant, some or all of the stamens in a flower may be attached to the petals or to the floral axis. They also may be free-standing or fused to one another in different ways, including fusion of some. The filaments may be fused and the free, or the filaments free. Rather than there being two locules, one locule of a stamen may fail to develop, or alternatively the two locules may merge late in development to give a single locule, a typical anther contains four microsporangia. The microsporangia form sacs or pockets in the anther, the two separate locules on each side of an anther may fuse into a single locule. Each microsporangium is lined with a tissue layer called the tapetum. These undergo meiosis to form haploid spores, the spores may remain attached to each other in a tetrad or separate after meiosis. Each microspore then divides mitotically to form an immature microgametophyte called a pollen grain, the pollen is eventually released when the anther forms openings. These may consist of longitudinal slits, pores, as in the family, or by valves. More commonly, mature pollen grains separate and are dispensed by wind or water, pollinating insects, pollen of angiosperms must be transported to the stigma, the receptive surface of the carpel, of a compatible flower, for successful pollination to occur. After arriving, the pollen grain typically completes its development and it may grow a pollen tube and undergoing mitosis to produce two sperm nuclei
36.
Phalaenopsis
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Phalaenopsis /ˌfælᵻˈnɒpsɪs/ Blume, known as moth orchids, abbreviated Phal in the horticultural trade, is an orchid genus of approximately 60 species. Phalaenopsis is one of the most popular orchids in the trade and it is native to southern China, Taiwan, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Queensland. For this reason, the species are called moth orchids. They are native throughout southeast Asia from the Himalayan mountains to the islands of Polillo, Palawan and Zamboanga del Norte in the island of Mindanao in the Philippines, Orchid Island of Taiwan is named after this genus. Little recent information about their habitat and their ecology in nature is available since little field research has been done in the last decades, most are epiphytic shade plants, a few are lithophytes. In the wild, some species grow below the canopies of moist and humid forests, protected against direct sunlight. The species have adapted individually to these three habitats, if very healthy, a Phalaenopsis plant can have up to ten or more leaves. The inflorescence, either a raceme or panicle, appears from the stem between the leaves and they bloom in their full glory for several weeks. If kept in the home, the flowers may last two to three months after which a Phalaenopsis Orchid will need to conserve energy for further leaf, bud, some Phalaenopsis species in Malaysia are known to use subtle weather cues to coordinate mass flowering. The genus can be classified into two groups, A group of species with a long, branched inflorescence and large, almost round flowers with rose or white tints, a group of species with short stems and less rounded, waxy flowers with more pronounced colors. In terms of Raunkiær plant lifeform terminology, these plants are epiphytes, based on DNA evidence, the genera Doritis Lindl. and Kingidium P. F. Hunt are now included in Phalaenopsis, according to the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. However, not every specialist in this field accepts these taxonomic changes, intensive cross-fertilization has produced a great number of hybrids in all colors and variations. These are usually more adaptable to artificial conditions than their botanical ancestors, many are hybrids of Phalaenopsis amabilis, Phalaenopsis schilleriana or Phalaenopsis stuartiana. Phalaenopsis amboinensis var. flavida Phalaenopsis aphrodite, Phalaenopsis buyssoniana Phalaenopsis celebensis Phalaenopsis chibae Phalaenopsis cochlearis Phalaenopsis corningiana Phalaenopsis cornu-cervi Phalaenopsis deliciosa Phalaenopsis deliciosa subsp. Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica var. Alba Phalaenopsis honghenensis, Phalaenopsis × amphitrita Phalaenopsis × gersenii Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica × lueddemanniana Phalaenopsis × intermedia Phalaenopsis × intermedia var. As in many plants, the petals of the orchid flowers serve to attract pollinating insects. Following pollination, petals will usually undergo senescence because it is expensive to maintain them. In many Phalaenopsis species, such as P. violacea, the petals and sepals find new uses following pollination, in producing chloroplasts, they turn green, become fleshy and apparently start to photosynthesize, as leaves do
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Plant reproductive morphology
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Plant reproductive morphology is the study of the physical form and structure of those parts of plants directly or indirectly concerned with sexual reproduction. Among all living organisms, flowers, which are the structures of angiosperms, are the most varied physically. Plants that are not flowering plants also have complex interplays between morphological adaptation and environmental factors in their sexual reproduction, christian Konrad Sprengel studied the reproduction of flowering plants and for the first time it was understood that the pollination process involved both biotic and abiotic interactions. Charles Darwins theories of natural selection utilized this work to build his theory of evolution, Plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations. One generation, the sporophyte, gives rise to the next generation asexually via spores, spores may be identical isospores or come in different sizes, but strictly speaking, spores and sporophytes are neither male nor female because they do not produce gametes. The alternate generation, the gametophyte, produces gametes, eggs and/or sperm, a gametophyte can be be monoicous, producing both eggs and sperm or dioicous, either female or male. In the bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant generation. In ferns and seed plants the sporophyte is the dominant generation, the obvious visible plant, whether a small herb or a large tree, is the sporophyte, and the gametophyte is very small. In seed plants, each female gametophyte, and the spore that gives rise to it, is hidden within the sporophyte and is dependent on it for nutrition. Each male gametophyte consists of from two to four cells enclosed within the protective wall of a pollen grain. The sporophyte of a plant is often described using sexual terms based on the sexuality of the gametophyte it gives rise to. For example, a sporophyte that produces spores that give rise only to male gametophytes may be described as male, even though the sporophyte itself is asexual, producing only spores. Similarly, flowers produced by the sporophyte may be described as unisexual or bisexual, the flower is the characteristic structure concerned with sexual reproduction in flowering plants. Flowers vary enormously in their construction, a complete flower, like that of Ranunculus glaberrimus shown in the figure, has a calyx of outer sepals and a corolla of inner petals. The sepals and petals form the perianth. Next inwards there are numerous stamens, which produce pollen grains, stamens may be called the male parts of a flower and collectively form the androecium. Finally in the middle there are carpels, which at maturity one or more ovules. Carpels may be called the parts of a flower and collectively form the gynoecium
38.
Dioecy
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Dioecy is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct male and female individual organisms or colonies, meaning that a colony contains only either male or female individuals. Dioecy is one method that excludes self-fertilization and promotes allogamy, flowering plants have several other methods of excluding self-fertilization, called Self-incompatibility. In zoology, dioecious species may be opposed to hermaphroditic species, meaning that an individual is of one sex. Dioecy may also describe colonies, such as the colonies of Siphonophorae, Dioecious colonies contain members of only one sex, whereas monoecious colonies contain members of both sexes. Dioecious species have the male and female structures on separate plants. The meaning of male and female in the context of plants is different from that used in animal groups and this issue is discussed below in the Alternation of generations section. About 6 percent of species are entirely dioecious and about 7% of angiosperm genera contain some dioecious species. Examples of dioecious plant species include ginkgos, willows, cannabis, more examples of dioecious plants can be found in the Wikipedia category, Dioecious plants. Dioecy occurs in a variety of plant families. However it is common in woody plants and heterotrophic species. There are several alternatives to dioecy for sexual reproductive structure organization in plants including bisexual flowers and these are described at Plant reproductive morphology. Land plants have alternation of generations, for which the sporophyte produces spores rather than gametes. Strictly speaking, the sporophytes of plants do not have either male or female reproductive organs. The gametophytes of flowering plants are of a sex, the male gametophytes are contained within the pollen. The sporophyte generation is called dioecious when each sporophyte has only one kind of spore-producing organ whose spores ultimately give rise to all male gametes or all female gametes. Slightly different terms, dioicous and monoicous, may be used for the gametophyte generation, the definition avoids reference to male and female reproductive structures, which are rare in fungi. An individual of a fungal species not only requires a partner for mating. A monoecious fungal species can perform roles, but may not be self-compatible
39.
Staminode
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In botany, a staminode is an often rudimentary, sterile or abortive stamen, which means that it does not produce pollen. Staminodes are frequently inconspicuous and stamen-like, usually occurring at the inner whorl of the flower, sometimes, the staminodes are modified to produce nectar, as in the Witch Hazel. Staminodes can be a characteristic for differentiating between species, for instance in the orchid genus Paphiopedilum, and among the penstemons. In the case of Cannas, the petals are inconsequential and the staminodes are refined into eye-catching petal-like replacements, a spectacular example of staminode is given by Couroupita guianensis, a tropical tree growing in South America also known as cannonball tree
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Scrophularia
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The genus Scrophularia of the family Scrophulariaceae comprises about 200 species of herbaceous flowering plants commonly known as figworts. Species of Scrophularia all share square stems, opposite leaves and open two-lipped flowers forming clusters at the end of their stems, the genus is found throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but concentrated in Asia with only a few species in Europe and North America. Scrophularia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Phymatopus hectoides, the name Scrophularia comes from scrofula, a form of tuberculosis, because several species have been used in herbal medicine for this disease
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Column (botany)
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The column, or technically the gynostemium, is a reproductive structure that can be found in several plant families, Aristolochiaceae, Orchidaceae, and Stylidiaceae. It is derived from the fusion of male and female parts into a single organ. This means that the style and stigma of the pistil, with the filaments, the stigma sits at the apex of the column in the front, but is pointing downwards after resupination. This stigma has the form of a bowl, the clinandrium. On top of it all is the anther cap, sometimes there is a small extension or little beak to the median stigma lobe, called rostellum. Column wings may project laterally from the stigma, the column foot is formed by the attachment of the lip to the basal protruding part of the column. One speaks of a if the lateral sepals are also basally adnate. The column both releases pollen and also receives it for fertilization
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Lilium
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Lilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world, most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though their range extends into the northern subtropics. Many other plants have lily in their name but are not related to true lilies. Lilies are tall perennials ranging in height from 2–6 ft and they form naked or tunicless scaly underground bulbs which are their overwintering organs. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into rhizomes, most bulbs are deeply buried, but a few species form bulbs near the soil surface. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil and these roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb. The flowers are large, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours including whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds, markings include spots and brush strokes. The plants are late spring- or summer-flowering, flowers are borne in racemes or umbels at the tip of the stem, with six tepals spreading or reflexed, to give flowers varying from funnel shape to a Turks cap. The tepals are free from other, and bear a nectary at the base of each flower. The ovary is superior, borne above the point of attachment of the anthers, the fruit is a three-celled capsule. They exhibit varying and sometimes complex patterns, many adapted to cool temperate climates. Naturally most cool temperate species are deciduous and dormant in winter in their native environment, the basic chromosome number is twelve. 2007, the taxonomy of Chinese species follows the Flora of China and these genera include Cardiocrinum, Notholirion, Nomocharis and Fritillaria. The botanic name Lilium is the Latin form and is a Linnaean name, the Latin name is derived from the Greek λείριον, leírion, generally assumed to refer to true, white lilies as exemplified by the Madonna lily. The word was borrowed from Coptic hleri, from standard hreri, from Demotic hrry, meillet maintains that both the Egyptian and the Greek word are possible loans from an extinct, substratum language of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Greeks also used the word κρῖνον, krīnon, albeit for non-white lilies, all English translations of the Bible render the Hebrew shūshan, shōshan, shōshannā as lily, but the lily among the thorns of Song of Solomon, for instance, may be the honeysuckle. For a list of species described as lilies, see Lily. The range of lilies in the Old World extends across much of Europe, across most of Asia to Japan, south to India, and east to Indochina, in the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States
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Asteraceae
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Asteraceae or Compositae is a very large and widespread family of flowering plants. The family currently has 32,913 accepted species names, in 1,911 genera and 13 subfamilies, in terms of numbers of species, the Asteraceae are rivaled only by the Orchidaceae. Many members have composite flowers in the form of flower heads surrounded by involucral bracts, when viewed from a distance, each capitulum may have the appearance of being a single flower. The name Asteraceae comes from the type genus Aster, from the Greek ἀστήρ, meaning star, Compositae is an older but still valid name which refers to the fact that the family is one of the few angiosperm ones to have composite flowers. Most members of Asteraceae are herbaceous, but a significant number are also shrubs, vines, the family has a worldwide distribution, from the polar regions to the tropics, colonizing a wide variety of habitats. It is most common in the arid and semiarid regions of subtropical, the Asteraceae may represent as much as 10% of autochthonous flora in many regions of the world. Asteraceae is an important family, providing products such as cooking oils, lettuce, sunflower seeds, artichokes, sweetening agents, coffee substitutes. Several genera are of importance, including pot marigold, Calendula officinalis, Echinacea, various daisies, fleabane, chrysanthemums, dahlias, zinnias. Asteraceae are important in medicine, including Grindelia, yarrow. A number of species are considered invasive, including, most notably in North America, dandelion, the name Asteraceae comes to international scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from Aster, the type genus, + -aceae, a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word aster, star, Compositae, an older but still valid name, means composite and refers to the characteristic inflorescence, a special type of pseudanthium found in only a few other angiosperm families. The study of family is known as synantherology. The vernacular name daisy, widely applied to members of family, is derived from its Old English name, dægesege, from dæges eage. This is because the open at dawn and close at dusk. Composite flowers have a distribution, and are found everywhere except Antarctica. They are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions, Compositae were first described in 1792 by the German botanist Paul Dietrich Giseke. Traditionally, two subfamilies were recognised, Asteroideae and Cichorioideae, the latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic, and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies, but the former still stands. The phylogenetic tree presented below is based on Panero & Funk updated in 2014, the diamond denotes a very poorly supported node, the dot a poorly supported node
44.
Petal
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Petals are modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators, together, all of the petals of a flower are called a corolla. Petals are usually accompanied by another set of special leaves called sepals, the calyx and the corolla together make up the perianth. When the petals and sepals of a flower are difficult to distinguish, examples of plants in which the term tepal is appropriate include genera such as Aloe and Tulipa. Conversely, genera such as Rosa and Phaseolus have well-distinguished sepals and petals, when the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as petaloid, as in petaloid monocots, orders of monocots with brightly coloured tepals. Since they include Liliales, a name is lilioid monocots. Although petals are usually the most conspicuous parts of animal-pollinated flowers, wind-pollinated species, such as the grasses, the role of the corolla in plant evolution has been studied extensively since Charles Darwin postulated a theory of the origin of elongated corollae and corolla tubes. If the petals are free from one another in the corolla, the corolla in some plants forms a tube. Petals can differ dramatically in different species, the number of petals in a flower may hold clues to a plants classification. For example, flowers on eudicots most frequently have four or five petals while flowers on monocots have three or six petals, although there are exceptions to this rule. The petal whorl or corolla may be radially or bilaterally symmetrical. If all of the petals are essentially identical in size and shape, many flowers are symmetrical in only one plane and are termed irregular or zygomorphic. In irregular flowers, other parts may be modified from the regular form. Examples of zygomorphic flowers may be seen in orchids and members of the pea family, in many plants of the aster family such as the sunflower, Helianthus annuus, the circumference of the flower head is composed of ray florets. Each ray floret is anatomically an individual flower with a large petal. Florets in the centre of the disc typically have no or very reduced petals, in some plants such as Narcissus the lower part of the petals or tepals are fused to form a floral cup above the ovary, and from which the petals proper extend. Petal often consists of two parts, the upper, broad part, similar to leaf blade, called the limb, claws are developed in petals of some flowers of the family Brassicaceae, such as Erysimum cheiri. The inception and further development of shows a great variety of patterns
45.
Tepal
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A tepal is one of the outer parts of a flower when these parts cannot easily be divided into two kinds, sepals and petals. The term was first proposed by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1827, undifferentiated tepals are believed to be the ancestral condition in flowering plants. For example, Amborella, which is thought to have separated earliest in the evolution of flowering plants, has flowers with undifferentiated tepals, distinct petals and sepals would therefore have arisen by differentiation, probably in response to animal pollination. Tepals formed by similar sepals and petals are common in monocotyledons, in tulips, for example, the first and second whorls both contain structures that look like petals. These are fused at the base to one large, showy. In lilies the organs in the first whorl are separate from the second, where sepals and petals can in principle be distinguished, usage of the term tepal is not always consistent – some authors will refer to sepals and petals where others use tepals in the same context. In some plants the flowers have no petals, and all the tepals are sepals modified to look like petals and these organs are described as petaloid, for example, the sepals of hellebores. When the undifferentiated tepals resemble petals, they are referred to as petaloid, as in petaloid monocots. Since they include Liliales, a name is lilioid monocots. Terms used in the description of tepals include pubescent, puberulent, tepal shape is described in similar terms to those used for leaves. Plant Systematics - Jones, Samuel - McGraw-Hill 1979 ISBN 0-07-032795-5
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Rendle, Alfred Barton (1911). "Flower". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 10 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 553–573.
Rendle, Alfred Barton (1911). "
