1.
Amos Doolittle
–
Amos Doolittle was an American engraver and silversmith, known as The Revere of Connecticut. His engravings included portraits and maps, made in his New Haven and he became famous for his four engravings depicting the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which were based on his first-hand reconnaissance of the battlefield. Born in Cheshire, Connecticut on May 18,1754, Doolittle became skilled in copper engraving through self-teaching and his first published experiment with the medium began when he enlisted in the New Haven company of the Governors Guards in 1775. Under the leadership of Captain Benedict Arnold, the arrived in Cambridge, Massachusetts ten days after the Battles of Lexington. Upon arriving in Cambridge, Doolittle took leave to inspect the site of the battle accompanied by Ralph Earl, Doolittle interviewed colonial militants and residents to establish the scene while Earl surveyed the site and made drawings. From these drawings, Doolittle made at least four engraved copper prints of the battle, the success of these prints marked the beginning of Doolittles artistic career. He was sought out by many early Americans eager to learn the art of engraving, including James Wilson, Doolittle established a shop in New Haven, Connecticut, on the present-day site of Yale Universitys Old Campus, from where he created portraits, maps, and bookplates. Doolittle died on January 30,1832 and is buried in the Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, engravings of Battles of Lexington and Concord freepages. genealogy. rootsweb. com OBrien, Donald C. Amos Doolittle, Engraver of the New Republic. American paintings & historical prints from the Middendorf collection, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Amos Doolittle
–
Lithograph of Doolittle, following
Ralph Earl 's portrait
Amos Doolittle
–
An engraving of
George Washington created by Doolittle in 1794
Amos Doolittle
–
The
Battle of Lexington
Amos Doolittle
–
The British entering Concord
2.
Unicameral
–
In government, unicameralism is the practice of having one legislative or parliamentary chamber. Thus, a parliament or unicameral legislature is a legislature which consists of one chamber or house. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multicameralism, many multicameral legislatures were created to give separate voices to different sectors of society. Multiple chambers allowed for guaranteed representation of different social classes, ethnic or regional interests, where these factors are unimportant, in unitary states with limited regional autonomy, unicameralism often prevails. Unicameral legislatures are also common in official Communist states such as the Peoples Republic of China, similarly, many formerly Communist states, such as Ukraine, Moldova and Serbia, have retained their unicameral legislatures, though others, such as Romania and Poland, adopted bicameral legislatures. Both the former Russian SFSR and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were bicameral, the two chambers were the Soviet of Nationalities and the Soviet of the Union. The Russian Federation retained bicameralism after the dissolution of the USSR, the principal advantage of a unicameral system is more efficient lawmaking, as the legislative process is much simpler and there is no possibility of deadlock. Proponents of unicameralism have also argued that it costs, even if the number of legislators stay the same, since there are fewer institutions to maintain. There is also the risk that important sectors of society may not be adequately represented, approximately half of the worlds sovereign states are currently unicameral, including both the most populous and the least populous. Many subnational entities have unicameral legislatures, and all of the Brazilian states. In the United Kingdom, the devolved Scottish Parliament, National Assembly for Wales, Congress of Deputies of Second Spanish Republic was unicameral between 1931 and 1936. Dissolved at the end of Spanish Civil War, the actual Spanish Parliament is bicameral, Supreme Assembly of Uzbekistan was unicameral before being replaced in 2005 by the current, bicameral Supreme Assembly. National Assembly of Cameroon was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, chamber of Peoples Representative of Equatorial Guinea was unicameral before being replaced in 2013 by the current, bicameral Parliament of Equatorial Guinea. National Assembly of Kenya was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Kenya in 2013. National Assembly of Ivory Coast was the unicameral legislature before becoming the lower house of the bicameral Parliament of Ivory Coast in 2016. Nebraskas state legislature is also unique in the sense that it is the state legislature that is entirely nonpartisan. In 1999, Governor Jesse Ventura proposed converting the Minnesota Legislature into a unicameral chamber. Although debated, the idea was never adopted, if those constitutional changes had been approved, Puerto Rico could have switched to a unicameral legislature as early as 2015
Unicameral
–
Nations with bicameral legislatures.
3.
Albany Congress
–
The Albany Congress, also known as, The Conference of Albany was a meeting of representatives sent by the legislatures of seven of the thirteen British North American colonies. Delegates did not have the goal of creating an American nation, rather, they were colonists with the more limited mission of pursuing a treaty with the Mohawk and other major Iroquois tribes. The Albany Congress was the first time in the 18th century that colonial representatives met to discuss some manner of formal union. In the 1680s, the British Government created the Dominion of New England as a government on the colonies between the Delaware River and Penobscot Bay, it was dissolved in 1689. Jacob Leisler summoned an intercolonial congress, which met in New York on 1 May 1690, to plan concerted action against the French, because of differences in threat, he attracted only the colonies as far south as Maryland. The Albany delegates spent most of their time debating Benjamin Franklins Albany Plan of union to create a level of colonial government. The delegates voted approval of a plan called for a union of 11 colonies. Each colonial assembly would send 2 to 7 delegates to a grand council, the Union would have jurisdiction over Native affairs. The plan was rejected by the legislatures, which were jealous of their powers, and by the Colonial Office. Much of the elements of the plan were later the basis for the American governments established by the Articles of Confederation of 1777, franklin speculated that had the 1754 plan been adopted, the colonial separation from England might not have happened so soon. The Congress and its Albany Plan have achieved status as presaging the formation of the United States of America in 1776. It is often illustrated with Franklins famous snake cartoon, Join, Benjamin Franklins plan to unite the colonies exceeded the scope of the congress, which had been called to plan a defense to the French and Indian threat. The original plan was debated by all who attended the conference including the young Philadelphia lawyer Benjamin Chew. Numerous modifications were proposed by Thomas Hutchinson, who later became Governor of Massachusetts. The delegates passed the plan unanimously and they submitted it with their recommendations, but the legislatures of the seven colonies rejected it, as it would have removed some of their existing powers. The plan was never sent to the Crown for approval, although it was submitted to the British Board of Trade, the Plan of Union proposed to include all the British North American colonies although none of the colonies south of Maryland sent representatives to the Albany Congress. It called for a Grand Council to be selected by the colonial legislatures, twenty-one representatives of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire attended the Congress. James DeLancey, Governor of New York, as host governor was the Chairman, peter Wraxall served as Secretary to the Congress
Albany Congress
–
Delegates converse outside the Stadt Huys during the Albany Congress
Albany Congress
–
Benjamin Franklin's cartoon, encouraging support for the Congress
4.
First Continental Congress
–
It was called in response to The passage of the Coercive Acts by the British Parliament. The Intolerable Acts had punished Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party, the Congress was attended by 56 delegates. The Pennsylvania delegation was appointed by the colonial assembly, Georgia declined to send delegates because they were hoping for British assistance with Native American problems on their frontier and did not want to upset the British. The Congress met briefly to consider options, including a boycott of British trade, rights and grievances. The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War, the delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia. The Congress met from September 5 to October 26,1774, peyton Randolph presided over the proceedings, Henry Middleton took over as President of the Congress for the last few days, from October 22 to October 26. Charles Thomson, leader of Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, was selected to be Secretary of the Continental Congress, the delegates who attended the Congress were not of one mind concerning why they were there. Their ultimate goal was to develop a solution to the difficulties. Radicals, such as Patrick Henry, Roger Sherman, Samuel Adams, to counter these ideas, Galloway put forward a Plan of Union, which suggested an American legislative body be formed, with some authority, and whose consent would be required for imperial measures. In the end, the voices of reconciliation and compromise carried the day and it requested that local Committees of Safety enforce the boycott and regulate local prices for goods. These resolutions adopted by the Congress did not acknowledge the power of Parliament even to regulate trade. Furthermore, they did not repudiate control by the royal prerogative, the Congress had two primary accomplishments. The first was a compact among the colonies to boycott British goods beginning on December 1,1774, the West Indies were threatened with a boycott unless the islands agreed to nonimportation of British goods. Imports from Britain dropped by 97 percent in 1775, compared with the previous year, Committees of observation and inspection were to be formed in each colony for enforcement of the Association. All of the colonial Houses of Assembly approved the proceedings of the congress with the exception of New York, if the Intolerable Acts were not repealed, the colonies would also cease exports to Britain after September 10,1775. The boycott was successfully implemented, but its potential for altering British colonial policy was cut off by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, the colonists were forced to quarter British soldiers, and feed them. The second accomplishment of the Congress was to provide for a Second Continental Congress to meet on May 10,1775, however, letters appear to have been sent only to Quebec
First Continental Congress
–
First Continental Congress 1774
First Continental Congress
–
Carpenters' Hall
First Continental Congress
5.
Timothy Ruggles
–
Timothy Dwight Ruggles was an American military leader, jurist and politician. He was a delegate to the Stamp Act Congress of 1765, Ruggles was born on October 20,1711 to Rev. Timothy Ruggles. He was grandson of Capt. Samuel Ruggles of Roxbury and Martha Woodbridge and he graduated from Harvard in 1732, studied law, and established himself in practice in Rochester. In 1735 he married Mrs. Bathsheba Newcomb, widow of William Newcomb and he was a military officer during the French and Indian War. After he refused to sanction the addresses sent by that body to Great Britain he was censured by the General Court of Massachusetts. He became one of the leading Tories of New England and he commanded the Loyal American Association and was a Mandamus Councillor appointed by General Gage in Boston. The Loyal American Association vowed to, - Not submit to rebellious assembly, - Enforce obedience to the King. - Defend each other if imperiled by unlawful assembly, - Use retaliation if any member or their property were injured. In 1775, he became a Loyalist and left Boston for Nova Scotia with the British troops and his estates were confiscated and he was named in the Massachusetts Banishment Act. In 1779 he received a grant of 10,000 acres of land in Wilmot, Nova Scotia, Ruggles left his daughter, Bathsheba Ruggles Spooner, behind in Massachusetts. On July 2,1778 she became the first woman executed in the newly independent United States of America, military history of Nova Scotia Catherine Cottreau-Robins. Timothy Ruggles - A Loyalist Plantation in Nova Scotia, 1784-1800
Timothy Ruggles
–
Timothy Dwight Ruggles
Timothy Ruggles
–
Monument to Timothy Ruggles, Middleton Park,
Middleton, Nova Scotia
6.
Federal Hall
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It was also where the United States Bill of Rights was introduced in the First Congress. The building was demolished in 1812, Federal Hall National Memorial was built in 1842 as the United States Custom House, on the site of the old Federal Hall on Wall Street, and later served as a sub-Treasury building. It is now operated by the National Park Service as a memorial commemorating the historic events that occurred there. The original structure on the site was built as New Yorks second City Hall in 1699 -1703, on Wall Street, in 1735, John Peter Zenger, an American newspaper publisher, was arrested for committing libel against the British royal governor and was imprisoned and tried there. His acquittal on the grounds that the material he had printed was true established freedom of the press as it was defined in the Bill of Rights. In October 1765, delegates from nine of the 13 colonies met as the Stamp Act Congress in response to the levying of the Stamp Act by the Parliament of Great Britain. After the American Revolution, the City Hall served as the place for the Congress of the Confederation of the United States under the Articles of Confederation. In 1788, the building was remodeled and enlarged under the direction of Pierre Charles LEnfant and this was the first example of Federal Style architecture in the United States. It was renamed Federal Hall when it became the first Capitol of the United States under the Constitution in 1789 and he was inaugurated on the balcony of the building on April 30,1789. Many of the most important legislative actions in the United States occurred with the 1st Congress at Federal Hall, part of the original railing and balcony floor where Washington was inaugurated are on display in the memorial. The current structure, one of the best surviving examples of architecture in New York, was built as the first purpose-built U. S. Custom House for the Port of New York, designed by John Frazee, it was constructed of Tuckahoe marble and took more than a decade to complete. In 1862, Customs moved to 55 Wall Street and the served as one of six United States Sub-Treasury locations. Millions of dollars of gold and silver were kept in the basement vaults until the Federal Reserve Bank replaced the Sub-Treasury system in 1920. In 1882, John Quincy Adams Wards bronze George Washington statue was erected on its front steps, in 1920, a bomb was detonated across the street from Federal Hall at 23 Wall Street, in what became known as the Wall Street bombing. Thirty-eight people were killed and 400 injured, and 23 Wall Street was visibly damaged, a famous photograph of the event shows the destruction and effects of the bombing, but also shows the statue of Washington standing stoically in the face of chaos. The building was designated as Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site on May 26,1939, as with all historic areas administered by the National Park Service, the memorial was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15,1966. Federal Hall was designated a landmark by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission on December 21,1965, held just four blocks from the World Trade Center site, the meeting was the first by Congress in New York since 1790
Federal Hall
–
The former United States Customs House
Federal Hall
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Federal Hall, Seat of Congress, 1790 hand-colored engraving by
Amos Doolittle, depicting Washington's April 30, 1789 inauguration
Federal Hall
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Archibald Robertson’s "View up Wall Street" with City Hall (Federal Hall) and Trinity Church, New York City, from around 1798
Federal Hall
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George Washington in front of Federal Hall National Memorial
7.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
New York City
–
Clockwise, from top:
Midtown Manhattan,
Times Square, the
Unisphere in
Queens, the
Brooklyn Bridge,
Lower Manhattan with
One World Trade Center,
Central Park, the
headquarters of the United Nations, and the
Statue of Liberty
New York City
–
New Amsterdam, centered in the eventual
Lower Manhattan, in 1664, the year
England took control and renamed it "New York".
New York City
–
The
Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the
American Revolution, took place in
Brooklyn in 1776.
New York City
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Broadway follows the Native American Wickquasgeck Trail through Manhattan.
8.
British colonisation of the Americas
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British colonization of the Americas began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas. The British were among the most important colonizers of the Americas, three types of colonies existed in the British Empire in America during the height of its power in the 18th Century. These were charter colonies, proprietary colonies and royal colonies, a group of 13 British American colonies collectively broke from the British Empire in the 1770s through a successful revolution, establishing the modern United States. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, British territories in the Americas were slowly granted more responsible government, in 1838 the Durham Report recommended full responsible government for Canada, but this was not fully implemented for another decade. Eventually, with the Confederation of Canada, the Canadian colonies were granted significant autonomy, other colonies in the Americas followed at a much slower pace. In this way, two countries in North America, ten in the Caribbean, and one in South America have received their independence from the United Kingdom, all of these are members of the Commonwealth of Nations and nine are Commonwealth realms. The eight current British overseas territories in the Americas have varying degrees of self-government, a number of English colonies were established under a system of Proprietary Governors, who were appointed under mercantile charters to English joint stock companies to found and run settlements. In 1607, Jamestown, Virginia was founded by the London Company, in Newfoundland, a chartered company known as the Society of Merchant Venturers established a permanent settlement at Cupers Cove, from 1610. St. Georges, Bermuda was founded by the Virginia Company, in 1664, England took over the Dutch colony of New Netherland which England renamed the Province of New York. With New Netherland, the English also came to control the former New Sweden and this later became part of Pennsylvania after that was established in 1680. The Kingdom of Scotland tried unsuccessfully to establish a colony at Darién, thousands of Scotsmen also participated in English colonization before the two countries were united in 1707. The Kingdom of Great Britain acquired the French colony of Acadia in 1713 and then Canada, in the north, the Hudsons Bay Company actively traded for fur with the indigenous peoples, and had competed with French, Aboriginal, and Metis fur traders. The company came to control the entire basin of Hudson Bay. The small part of the Hudson Bay drainage south of the 49th parallel went to the United States in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818. Great Britain also colonised the west coast of North America, indirectly via the Hudsons Bay Company licenses west of the Rocky Mountains, the Columbia District and New Caledonia fur district. British Columbia was expanded with the inclusion of the Stikine Territory in 1863, in 1867, the colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada combined to form a self-governing dominion, named Canada, within the British Empire. Quebec and Nova Scotia had been ceded to Britain by the French, the colonies of Prince Edward Island and British Columbia joined over the next six years, and Newfoundland joined in 1949. Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory were ceded to Canada in 1870 and this area now consists of the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, as well as the Northwest Territories, the Yukon Territory, and Nunavut
British colonisation of the Americas
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Plaque in
St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, commemorating Gilbert's founding of the British overseas Empire
British colonisation of the Americas
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The
massacre of Jamestown settlers in 1622. Soon the colonists in the South feared all natives as enemies.
British colonisation of the Americas
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The Treaty of
William Penn with the Indians.
Penn's Treaty was never violated.
9.
Parliament of Great Britain
–
The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801. Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, Acts of Union ratifying the Treaty were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new parliament, referred to as the Parliament of Great Britain and it was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation was thereafter to be enacted by the new parliament, after the Hanoverian King George I ascended the British throne in 1714 through the Act of Settlement of 1701, real power continued to shift away from the monarchy. George was a German ruler, spoke poor English, and remained interested in governing his dominions in continental Europe rather than in Britain. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the British government became repressive against dissent and progress towards reform was stalled. During the first half of George IIIs reign, the still had considerable influence over Parliament. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, reformers like William Beckford and Radicals beginning with John Wilkes called for reform of the system. In 1780 a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis and this included calls for the six points later adopted by the Chartists. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the rotten boroughs to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174
Parliament of Great Britain
–
Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain
Parliament of Great Britain
–
Royal coat of arms of Great Britain, 1714–1800
10.
Stamp Act 1765
–
Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the tax had to be paid in valid British currency. The purpose of the tax was to pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years War and its North American theater of the French. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers there were no foreign enemies on the continent. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers, the Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant and their slogan was No taxation without representation. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, the Act was repealed on March 18,1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists, the British victory in the Seven Years War, known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt increased more than fourfold, the primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role, the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministrys 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent
Stamp Act 1765
–
Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in a newspaper
Stamp Act 1765
Stamp Act 1765
–
American newspapers reacted to the Stamp Act with anger and predictions of the demise of
journalism.
Stamp Act 1765
–
Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania in discussions about the act
11.
Province of Massachusetts Bay
–
The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in British North America and, from 1776, one of the thirteen original states of the United States. It was chartered on October 7,1691, by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The charter took effect on May 14,1692, and included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of Maine, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The modern Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the successor, Maine has been a separate U. S. state since 1820. The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett, an Algonquian tribe, the name has been translated as at the great hill, at the place of large hills, or at the range of hills, with reference to the Blue Hills, and in particular, Great Blue Hill. Colonial settlement of the shores of Massachusetts Bay began in 1620 with the founding of the Plymouth Colony, over the next ten years there was a major migration of Puritans to the area, leading to the founding of a number of new colonies in New England. By the 1680s the number of colonies had stabilized at five, in addition to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay was the most populous and economically significant, housing a sizable merchant fleet. The colonies at times struggled against the Indian population, which had suffered a decline in population prior to the arrival of the first permanent settlers. In the 1630s the Pequot tribe was destroyed, and King Philips War in the 1670s resulted in the expulsion, pacification. The latter war was costly to the colonists of New England. Massachusetts and Plymouth were both somewhat politically independent from England in their days, but this situation changed after the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. Charles sought closer oversight of the colonies, and to introduce and enforce economic control over their activities, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked in Massachusetts, where merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. These issues and others led to the revocation of the first Massachusetts Charter in 1684, when James was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts political leaders conspired against Andros, arresting him and other English authorities in April 1689. This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as the other colonies then quickly reasserted their old forms of government, the Plymouth colony had never had a royal charter, so its governance had always been on a somewhat precarious footing. Massachusetts, however, was placed into constitutional anarchy by the uprising, provincial agents traveled to London where Increase Mather, representing the old colony leaders, petitioned new rulers William and Mary to restore the old colonial charter. When King William learned that this result in a return to the predominantly entrenched religious rule. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve two problems at once by combining the two colonies, accordingly, on October 7,1691, they issued a charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and appointed Sir William Phips its governor. Although the effect of change has been subject to debate among historians
Province of Massachusetts Bay
–
Flag
12.
Thirteen Colonies
–
The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
Thirteen Colonies
–
Join, or Die by
Benjamin Franklin was recycled to encourage the former colonies to unite against British rule.
Thirteen Colonies
–
Map of the thirteen original colonies as published for the US Centennial in 1876
13.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
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The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
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The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
14.
No taxation without representation
–
Jonathan Mayhew, Old West Church’s second Congregational pastor, used the phrase, No Taxation Without Representation in a sermon in 1750. The phrase revives a sentiment central to the cause of the English Civil War following the refusal of parliamentarian John Hampden to pay ship money tax, the English Parliament had controlled colonial trade and taxed imports and exports since 1660. By the 1760s, the Americans were being deprived of a historic right, the English Bill of Rights 1689 had forbidden the imposition of taxes without the consent of Parliament. Since the colonists had no representation in Parliament, the taxes violated the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen, Parliament initially contended that the colonists had virtual representation, but the idea found little support on either side of the Atlantic. John Dunmore Lang wrote in 1852, The person who first suggested the idea appears to have been Oldmixon, an American annalist of the era of Queen Anne or George I. It was afterwards put forward with approbation by the celebrated Dr. Adam Smith, and advocated for a time, the phrase had been used for more than a generation in Ireland. By 1765, the term was in use in Boston, and local politician James Otis was most famously associated with the phrase, in the course of the Revolutionary era, many arguments were pursued that sought to resolve the dispute surrounding Parliamentary sovereignty, taxation, self-governance and representation. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, the London Quaker Thomas Crowley, supported Barre and other pro-American M. P. s by producing before the House copies of earlier Acts of Parliament that had admitted Durham and Chester seats upon their petitions for representation. The argument was put forward in Parliament that America ought to have representatives on these grounds too, richard Jackson supposed that Parliament had a right to tax America, but he much doubted the expediency of the Stamp act. He was shortly afterwards appointed agent for Georgia and East Florida, I am glad to find the author has at length discovered that we have not given a sufficient attention to their concerns, or a proper redress to their grievances. His great friend would once have been displeased with any person, who should tell him. He thought he did so, when he regulated the colonies over and over again, he thought he did so and these systems supposed, or ought to suppose, the greatest attention to, and the most detailed information of, all their affairs. Perhaps it may be some time before this scheme can be brought to perfect maturity. Burke supported the doctrine of virtual representation in Britain, yet in his Parliamentary speech of 1774, entitled On American Taxation, Burke responded to the suggestion that America was virtually represented in Parliament by remarking, What. Does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the Atlantic than pervade Wales, or than Chester and Durham, surrounded by abundance of representation that is actual and palpable. How, then, can I think it sufficient for those which are infinitely greater and you will now, Sir, perhaps imagine that I am on the point of proposing to you a scheme for a representation of the colonies in Parliament. Perhaps I might be inclined to some such thought, but a great flood stops me in my course. I cannot remove the barriers of the creation
No taxation without representation
–
Bronze sculpture of James Otis, Jr stands in front of the
Barnstable County Courthouse.
No taxation without representation
–
Taxation
No taxation without representation
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Shimer College student holds "No tuition without representation" sign during protest over school governance in 2010.
No taxation without representation
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The standard-issue District of Columbia license plate bears the phrase, "Taxation Without Representation".
15.
George III of Great Britain
–
He was concurrently Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire until his promotion to King of Hanover on 12 October 1814. He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years War, becoming the dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britains American colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence, further wars against revolutionary and Napoleonic France from 1793 concluded in the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. In the later part of his life, George III had recurrent, although it has since been suggested that he had the blood disease porphyria, the cause of his illness remains unknown. After a final relapse in 1810, a regency was established, on George IIIs death, the Prince Regent succeeded his father as George IV. Historical analysis of George IIIs life has gone through a kaleidoscope of changing views that have depended heavily on the prejudices of his biographers and the sources available to them. Until it was reassessed in the half of the 20th century, his reputation in the United States was one of a tyrant. George was born in London at Norfolk House and he was the grandson of King George II, and the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. As Prince George was born two months prematurely and he was unlikely to survive, he was baptised the same day by Thomas Secker. One month later, he was baptised at Norfolk House. His godparents were the King of Sweden, his uncle the Duke of Saxe-Gotha, George grew into a healthy but reserved and shy child. The family moved to Leicester Square, where George and his younger brother Prince Edward, Duke of York, Family letters show that he could read and write in both English and German, as well as comment on political events of the time, by the age of eight. He was the first British monarch to study science systematically and his religious education was wholly Anglican. At age 10 George took part in a production of Joseph Addisons play Cato and said in the new prologue, What. It may with truth be said, A boy in England born, historian Romney Sedgwick argued that these lines appear to be the source of the only historical phrase with which he is associated. Georges grandfather, King George II, disliked the Prince of Wales, however, in 1751 the Prince of Wales died unexpectedly from a lung injury, and George became heir apparent to the throne. He inherited one of his fathers titles and became the Duke of Edinburgh, now more interested in his grandson, three weeks later the King created George Prince of Wales. Georges mother, now the Dowager Princess of Wales, preferred to keep George at home where she could imbue him with her moral values
George III of Great Britain
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Coronation portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
George III of Great Britain
–
George (right) with his brother
Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany, and their tutor,
Francis Ayscough, later
Dean of
Bristol, c. 1749
George III of Great Britain
–
Pastel portrait of George as
Prince of Wales by
Jean-Étienne Liotard, 1754
George III of Great Britain
–
George III by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
16.
Boycott
–
The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
Kentucky Fried Chicken due to
animal rights issues
Boycott
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Vanity Fair caricature of Charles C. Boycott
Boycott
–
Nameplate of Dr. Werner Liebenthal,
Notary &
Advocate. The plate was hung outside his office on Martin Luther Str,
Schöneberg,
Berlin. In 1933, following the
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service the plate was painted black by the Nazis, who boycotted Jewish owned offices.
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
BP due to the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
17.
Declaratory Act
–
Parliament repealed the Stamp Act because boycotts were hurting British trade and used the declaration to justify the repeal and save face. The declaration stated that the Parliaments authority was the same in America as in Britain, the British Parliament was then faced with colonies who refused to comply with their Act. Normally the economic activity in the colonies would not have caused such an outcry, another reason for repeal of the Stamp Act was the replacement of George Grenville, the Prime Minister who had enacted the Stamp Acts, by Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham. Rockingham was more favorable towards the colonies and furthermore he was antagonistic towards policies that Grenville had enacted, Parliament then agreed to repeal the Stamp Act on the condition that the Declaratory Act was passed. On March 18,1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, the phrasing of the act was intentionally unambiguous. Other colonists, however, were outraged because the Declaratory Act hinted that more acts would be coming, however, the colonists never explicitly called for its repeal, and would seek reconciliation with the crown up until the last minute. James Otis and Sam Adams in Massachusetts, Patrick Henry in Virginia and other colonial leaders along the seaboard screamed Treason, despite British recognition in 1783 of the independence of the United States, the Declaratory Act remained in force for the British Empires remaining colonies in the western hemisphere. The Act was not repealed until 1964, by time the handful of remaining British colonies in the West Indies were governed under constitutions explicitly granted under the authority of Parliament. However, since the Taxation of Colonies Act 1778 passed during the American Revolution, British Empire Colonial America Townshend Acts Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham George Grenville Text of Act Repealing the Stamp Act
Declaratory Act
18.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
Wikisource
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The original Wikisource logo
Wikisource
–
Screenshot of wikisource.org home page
Wikisource
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::: Original text
Wikisource
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::: Action of the modernizing tool
19.
French and Indian War
–
The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
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Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
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French and Indian War
French and Indian War
–
Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
–
Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
20.
Sugar Act
–
The Sugar Act, also known as the American Revenue Act or the American Duties Act, was a revenue-raising act passed by the Parliament of Great Britain on April 5,1764. The preamble to the act stated, it is expedient that new provisions and regulations should be established for improving the revenue of this Kingdom and it is just and necessary that a revenue should be raised. For defraying the expenses of defending, protecting, and securing the same, the earlier Molasses Act of 1733, which had imposed a tax of six pence per gallon of molasses, had never been effectively collected due to colonial evasion. The Molasses Act of 1733 was passed by Parliament largely at the insistence of large plantation owners in the British West Indies, Molasses from French, Dutch, and Spanish West Indian possessions was inexpensive. Sugar was priced higher than its competitors and they also had no need for the large quantities of lumber, fish. Sometimes colonists would pay Molasses Act taxes because they were rather low depending on where they resided, in the first part of the 18th Century, the British West Indies were Great Britains most important trading partner, so Parliament was attentive to their requests. If actually collected, the tax would have closed that source to New England. Instead, smuggling, bribery or intimidation of customs officials effectively nullified the law, during the Seven Years War, known in Colonial America as the French and Indian War, the British government substantially increased the national debt to pay for the war. In February 1763, as the war ended, the ministry headed by John Stuart, shortly thereafter, George Grenville replaced Bute. Grenville supported his predecessors policy, even more so after the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763, Grenville faced the problem of not only paying for these troops but servicing the national debt. The debt grew from £75,000,000 before the war to £122,600,000 in January 1763, and almost £130,000,000 by the beginning of 1764. George Grenville did not expect the colonies to contribute to the interest or the retirement of the debt, the Molasses Act was set to expire in 1763. The Commissioners of Customs anticipated greater demand for both molasses and rum as a result of the end of the war and the acquisition of Canada and they believed that the increased demand would make a sharply reduced rate both affordable and collectible. When passed by Parliament, the new Sugar Act of 1764 halved the tax on molasses. In addition to promising stricter enforcement, the language of the bill made it clear that the purpose of the legislation was not to regulate the trade. The new act listed specific goods, the most important being lumber, ship captains were required to maintain detailed manifests of their cargo and the papers were subject to verification before anything could be unloaded from the ships. Historian Fred Anderson wrote that the purpose of the Act was “to resolve the problems of finance and control that plagued the postwar empire. ”The Sugar Act was passed by Parliament on April 5,1764, and it arrived in the colonies at a time of economic depression. It was a tax, although the colonists were well informed of its presence
Sugar Act
–
Chemistry
21.
George Grenville
–
George Grenville, PC was a British Whig statesman who rose to the position of Prime Minister of Great Britain. Grenville was born into a political family and first entered Parliament in 1741 as an MP for Buckingham. He emerged as one of Cobhams Cubs, a group of members of Parliament associated with Lord Cobham. In 1754 Grenville became Treasurer of the Navy, a position he held twice until 1761, in October 1761 he chose to stay in government and accepted the new role of Leader of the Commons causing a rift with his brother-in-law and political ally William Pitt who had resigned. Grenville was subsequently made Northern Secretary and First Lord of the Admiralty by the new Prime Minister Lord Bute, on 8 April 1763, Lord Bute resigned, and Grenville assumed his position as Prime Minister. His government tried to bring public spending under control and pursued a foreign policy. His best known policy is the Stamp Act, a tax in Great Britain onto the colonies in America. Grenville had increasingly strained relations with his colleagues and the King and in 1765 he was dismissed by George III, for the last five years of his life Grenville led a group of his supporters in opposition and staged a public reconciliation with Pitt. George Grenville was born at Wotton House on 14 October 1712 and he was the second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple. He was one of five brothers, all of whom became MPs and his sister Hester Grenville married the leading political figure William Pitt. His elder brother was Richard Grenville, later the 2nd Earl Temple and it was intended by his parents that George Grenville should become a lawyer. Grenville received his education at Eton College and at Christ Church, Oxford and he entered Parliament in 1741 as one of the two members for Buckingham, and continued to represent that borough for the next twenty-nine years until his death. He was disappointed to be giving up what appeared to be a legal career for the uncertainties of opposition politics. In Parliament he subscribed to the Boy Patriot party, which opposed Sir Robert Walpole, in December 1744 he became a Lord of the Admiralty in the administration of Henry Pelham. He allied himself with his brother Richard and with William Pitt in forcing Pelham to give them promotion by rebelling against his authority, in June 1747, Grenville became a Lord of the Treasury. In 1754 Grenville was made Treasurer of the Navy and Privy Councillor, opposition to European entanglements was a cornerstone of Patriot Whig thinking. He and Pitt joined the opposition, haranguing the Newcastle government, Grenville and Pitt both championed the formation of a British militia to provide additional security rather than the deployment of Hessian mercenaries favoured by the government. As the military situation deteriorated following the loss of Minorca, the government grew increasingly weak until it was forced to resign in Autumn 1756, Pitt then formed a government led by the Duke of Devonshire
George Grenville
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The Right Honourable George Grenville
George Grenville
–
Coat of arms of Grenville of Wotton Underwood, Buckinghamshire: Vert, on a cross argent five torteaux
George Grenville
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Stowe House, Buckinghamshire, the political base of the
Cobham faction. In 1749 ownership of the estate passed to Grenville's brother
Richard.
George Grenville
–
Lord Bute, Prime Minister between 1762 and 1763, under whom Grenville served and who he later succeeded
22.
Stamp duty
–
Stamp duty is a tax that is levied on documents. Historically, this included the majority of documents such as cheques, receipts, military commissions, marriage licences. A physical stamp had to be attached to or impressed upon the document to denote that stamp duty had been paid before the document was legally effective, more modern versions of the tax no longer require an actual stamp. The duty is thought to have originated in Spain, being introduced in the Netherlands in the 1620s, France in 1651, Denmark in 1657, Prussia in 1682, the Australian Federal Government does not levy stamp duty. However, stamp duties are levied by the Australian states on various instruments, Stamp duty laws can differ significantly between all 8 jurisdictions. The rates of duty also differ between the jurisdictions as do the nature of instruments and transactions subject to duty. Some jurisdictions no longer require a physical document to attract what is now referred to as transaction duty. Major forms of duty include transfer duty on the sale of land, buildings, fixtures, plant and equipment, intangible business assets debts and other types of dutiable property. Another key type of duty is Landholder duty, which is imposed on the acquisition of shares in a company or units in a trust that holds land above a certain value threshold, a temporary stamp duty was introduced in 1657 to finance the war with Sweden. It was made permanent in 1660 and remains on the book although it has been substantially altered. Most stamp duties were abolished from 1 January 2000 and the present act only provides for stamp duties on insurance policies. Stamp duties on land registration were renamed and transferred to a statute but remain essentially the same. Stamp duty is approached by the European Commission regarding raising of capital, the spirit of the Council Directive 2008/7/EC of 12 February 2008 concerning indirect taxes on the raising of capital is that capital duty interferes with the free movement of capital. The Proposal for a Council Directive of 28 September 2011 on a system of financial transaction tax will amend this Directive 2008/7/EC. Indirect taxes are also prohibited on the issue of certain securities and debentures. Head 2, The transfer of Hong Kong Stock, head 3, All Hong Kong bearer instruments. Head 4, Any duplicates and counterparts of the above documents, one example is shares of companies which are either incorporated in Hong Kong or listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. Other than the shares, HK Stock is defined as shares and marketable securities, units in unit trusts
Stamp duty
–
A Stamp Duty
revenue stamp of Tasmania from 1892.
Stamp duty
–
Hong Kong stamp duty revenue stamp and overembossing die
Stamp duty
–
The "Stamp Duty Paid" mark that appeared on British cheques from 1956 to 1971. There is now no duty on British cheques.
23.
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
–
The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was one of Englands original Thirteen Colonies established on the east coast of North America bordering the Atlantic Ocean. After the American Revolution, it became the State of Rhode Island, the land that became the English colony was first home to the Narragansett Indians, which led to the name of the modern town of Narragansett, showing respect to the Narragansett and Nipmuc peoples. European settlement began with the Dutch, and the area was claimed by the Colony of New Netherlands. Once the English claimed the area of New England, Dutch influence was withdrawn from the area, Providence Plantation was an English settlement founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, a theologian, independent preacher, and linguist, on land given to him by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. Williams was exiled under religious persecution from the Massachusetts Bay Colony and he and his fellow settlers agreed on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule in civil things, with liberty of conscience on spiritual matters. He named the settlement Providence Plantation, believing that God had brought them there, Williams named the islands in the Narragansett Bay after Christian virtues, Patience, Prudence, and Hope Islands. In 1637, another group of Massachusetts dissenters purchased land on Rhode Island from the Indians, the group included William Coddington, John Clarke, and Anne and William Hutchinson, among others. That settlement, however, quickly split into two separate settlements, Samuel Gorton and others remained to establish the settlement of Portsmouth in 1638, while Coddington and Clarke established nearby Newport in 1639. Both settlements were situated on Rhode Island, the second plantation settlement on the mainland was Samuel Gorton’s Shawomet Purchase from the Narragansetts in 1642. As soon as Gorton settled at Shawomet, however, the Massachusetts Bay authorities laid claim to his territory, Gorton returned in 1648 with a letter from Rich, ordering Massachusetts to cease molesting him and his people. In gratitude, he changed the name of Shawomet Plantation to Warwick Plantation, protest, open rebellion, and a further petition to Oliver Cromwell in London led to the reinstatement of the original charter in 1653. Following the 1660 restoration of rule in England, it was necessary to gain a Royal Charter from King Charles II. Charles was a Catholic sympathizer in staunchly Protestant England, and he approved of the promise of religious freedom. He granted the request with the Royal Charter of 1663, uniting the four settlements together into the Colony of Rhode Island, in the following years, many persecuted groups settled in the colony, notably Quakers and Jews. During King Philips War, both sides regularly violated Rhode Islands neutrality, the Narragansetts also invaded and burned down several of the cities of Rhode Island, including Providence. Roger Williams knew both Metacom and Canonchet as children and he was aware of the tribes movements and promptly sent letters informing the Governor of Massachusetts of enemy movements. By his prompt action, Providence Plantations made some efforts at fortifying the town, in one of the final actions of the war, troops from Connecticut hunted down and killed King Philip, as they called the Narragansett war leader Metacom, on Rhode Islands territory. In the 1680s, Charles II sought to streamline administration of the English colonies, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked, since merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
–
Map of Dutch America
Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
–
The statue of
Roger Williams at
Roger Williams University, Rhode Island
24.
Connecticut Colony
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The Connecticut Colony or Colony of Connecticut, originally known as the River Colony, was an English colony located in North America that became the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3,1636 as a settlement for a Puritan congregation, after early struggles with the Dutch, the English permanently gained control of the region in 1637. The colony was later the scene of a war between the English and Pequot Indians known as the Pequot War. Two other English settlements in the state of Connecticut were merged into the Colony of Connecticut, Saybrook Colony in 1644. Governor John Haynes of the Massachusetts Bay Colony led 100 people to present-day Hartford in 1636 and he and Thomas Hooker, a prominent Puritan minister, are often considered the founders of the Connecticut colony. Hooker delivered a sermon to his congregation on May 31,1638, on the principles of government, the Rev. John Davenport and merchant Theophilus Eaton led the founders of the New Haven Colony, which was absorbed into Connecticut Colony in the 1660s. In the colonys early years, the governor could not serve consecutive terms, thus, for twenty years, the governorship often rotated between John Haynes and Edward Hopkins, both of whom were from Hartford. George Wyllys, Thomas Welles, and John Webster, also Hartford men, Winthrop was also instrumental in obtaining the colonys 1662 charter, which incorporated New Haven into Connecticut. His son Fitz-John Winthrop also governed the colony for ten years, major John Mason was the military leader of the early colony, the commander in the Pequot War, a magistrate, founder of Windsor, Saybrook, and Norwich, and Deputy Governor under Winthrop. Roger Ludlow was an Oxford-educated lawyer and former Deputy Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who petitioned the General Court for rights to settle the area, Ludlow led the March Commission in settling disputes over land rights. He is credited as drafting the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut in collaboration with Hooker, Winthrop, Ludlow was the first Deputy Governor of Connecticut. William Leete of Guilford served as governor of New Haven Colony before the merger into Connecticut. He is the man to serve as governor of both New Haven and Connecticut. Robert Treat of Milford served as governor of the colony, both prior to and after its inclusion in Sir Edmund Andross Dominion of New England and his father Richard Treat was one of the original patentees of the colony. The original colonies along the Connecticut River and in New Haven were established by separatist Puritans who were connected with the Massachusetts and they held Calvinist religious beliefs similar to the English Puritans, but they maintained that their congregations needed to be separated from the English state church. They had emigrated to New England during the Great Migration, the American Revolution cut off imports from Britain, and stimulated a manufacturing sector that made heavy use of the entrepreneurship and mechanical skills of the people. In the second half of the 18th century, difficulties arose from the shortage of farmland, periodic money problems. In agriculture there was a shift from grain to animal products, Connecticuts domestic architecture included a wide variety of house forms
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25.
Province of New York
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The majority of this land was soon reassigned by the Crown, leaving territory that included the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk Rivers, and Vermont. The territory of western New York was Iroquois land, also disputed between the English colonies and New France, and that of Vermont was disputed with the Province of New Hampshire, the province resulted from the Dutch Republic surrender of Provincie Nieuw-Nederland to the Kingdom of England in 1664. Immediately after, the province was renamed for James, Duke of York, the colony was one of the Middle Colonies, and ruled at first directly from England. British claims on any part of New York ended with the Treaty of Paris of 1783, after the American Revolution, the former colony became the State of New York. This British crown colony was established upon the former Dutch colony of New Netherland, with its core being York Shire, in what today is typically known as Downstate New York. The Province of New York was divided into counties on November 1,1683, by New York Governor Thomas Dongan, Albany County. Also claimed the area, later disputed, that is now Vermont, in addition, as there was no fixed western border to the colony, Albany County technically extended to the Pacific Ocean. Most of this land, which was Indian land for most of the history, has now been ceded to other states. Cornwall County, that part of Maine between the Kennebec River and the St. Croix River from the Atlantic Ocean to the St. Lawrence River, ceded to the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692. Dukes County, the Elizabeth Islands, Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket Island east of Long Island, Dutchess County, now Dutchess and Putnam counties. Kings County, the current Kings County, Brooklyn, New York County, the current New York County, Manhattan. Orange County, now Orange and Rockland counties, Queens County, now Queens and Nassau counties. Richmond County, the current Richmond County, Staten Island, Suffolk County, the current Suffolk County. Ulster County, now Ulster and Sullivan counties and part of what is now Delaware, Westchester County, now Bronx and Westchester counties. On March 24,1772, Tryon County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Montgomery County in 1784, with a later division to Herkimer County around Little Falls. Charlotte County was formed out of Albany County and it was renamed Washington County in 1784. In 1617 officials of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland created a settlement at present-day Albany, New Amsterdam surrendered to Colonel Richard Nicholls on August 27,1664, he renamed it New York. On September 24 Sir George Carteret accepted the capitulation of the garrison at Fort Orange, the capture was confirmed by the Treaty of Breda in July 1667
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26.
Province of New Jersey
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The Province of New Jersey was one of the Middle Colonies of Colonial America and became the U. S. state of New Jersey in 1776. The province had originally settled by Europeans as part of New Netherland. The English then renamed the province after the Isle of Jersey in the English Channel, the Dutch Republic reasserted control for a brief period in 1673–1674. After that it consisted of two divisions, East Jersey and West Jersey, until they were united as a royal colony in 1702. The original boundaries of the province were slightly larger than the current state, extending into a part of the present state of New York, the Province of New Jersey was originally settled in the 1610s as part of the colony of New Netherland. The surrender of Fort Amsterdam in September 1664 gave control over the entire Mid-Atlantic region to the English as part the Second Anglo-Dutch War and this charter also included parts of present-day Massachusetts, which conflicted with that colonys charter. The charter allowed James traditional propriety rights and imposed few restrictions upon his powers, the Duke of York never visited his colony and exercised little direct control of it. He elected to administer his government through governors, councils, no provision was made for an elected assembly. Later in 1664, the Duke of York gave the part of his new possessions between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to Sir George Carteret in exchange for settlement of a debt, the territory was named after the Island of Jersey, Carterets ancestral home. The other section of New Jersey was sold to Lord Berkeley of Stratton, as a result, Carteret and Berkeley became the two English Lords Proprietors of New Jersey. In return for the land, the settlers were supposed to pay annual fees known as quit-rents, in 1665, Philip Carteret became the first Governor of New Jersey, appointed by the two proprietors. He selected Elizabeth as the capital of New Jersey, immediately, Carteret issued several additional grants of land to landowners. Towns were started and charters granted to Bergen Woodbridge, Piscataway, Shrewsbury, Middletown, the idea of quitrents became increasingly difficult because many of the settlers refused to pay them. Most of them claimed that they owed nothing to the proprietors because they received land from Richard Nicolls and this forced Berkeley to sell West Jersey to John Fenwick and Edward Byllynge, two English Quakers. Many more Quakers made their homes in New Jersey, seeking freedom from English rule. Meanwhile, conflicts began rising in New Jersey, edmund Andros, governor of New York, attempted to gain authority over East Jersey after the death of Proprietor George Carteret in 1680. However, he was unable to remove the position of governorship from Governor Phillip Carteret and subsequently moved to attack him, in addition, quarrels occurred in between Eastern and Western New Jerseyans, between Native Americans and New Jerseyans and between different religious groups. In the largest of these squabbles, the New York-New Jersey Line War some 210,000 acres of land were at stake between New York and New Jersey, the conflict was eventually settled by a royal commission in 1769
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1706 Map of East and West Jersey
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27.
Province of Pennsylvania
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The Province of Pennsylvania, also known as the Pennsylvania Colony, was founded in English North America by William Penn on March 4,1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II. The name Pennsylvania, which translates roughly as Penns Woods, was created by combining the Penn surname with the Latin word sylvania, the Province of Pennsylvania was one of the two major Restoration colonies, the other being the Province of Carolina. The colonial government, established in 1683 by Penns Frame of Government, consisted of an appointed Governor, the proprietor, a 72-member Provincial Council, and a larger General Assembly. The General Assembly, also known as the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, was the largest and most representative branch of government, succeeding Frames of Government, also known as the Charter of Privileges, were produced in 1683,1696 and 1701. The fourth Frame remained in effect until the American Revolution and he was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Indians. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed, the province was divided first into 5 counties, plus the three lower counties on Delaware Bay. Philadelphia County is present-day Philadelphia City, montgomery County was west of Bucks and northwest of Philadelphia, and extended along the Schuylkill River to the area presently known as Minersville, in Schuylkill County. Chester County extended along the border of Pennsylvania from Marcus Hook to the western border of the province. The remainder of the province, which is now North Central and their borders remain unchanged to this day. William Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values on the early Pennsylvanian government, the Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to everyone monotheists and government was initially open to all Christians. Until the French and Indian War Pennsylvania had no military, few taxes, among the first groups were the Mennonites, who founded Germantown in 1683, and the Amish, who established the Northkill Amish Settlement in 1740. 1751 was an year for the colony. Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British American colonies, and The Academy and College of Philadelphia, Benjamin Franklin founded both of these institutions along with Philadelphias Union Fire Company fifteen years earlier in 1736. Likewise in 1751, the Pennsylvania State House ordered a new bell which would become known as the Liberty Bell for the new tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia. William Penn had mandated fair dealings with Native Americans and this led to significantly better relations with the local Native tribes than most other colonies had. The Quakers had previously treated Indians with respect, bought land from them voluntarily, according to Voltaire, the Shackamaxon Treaty was the only treaty between Indians and Christians that was never sworn to and that was never broken. The Quakers also refused to provide any assistance to New Englands Indian wars, in 1737, the Colony exchanged a great deal of its political goodwill with the native Lenape for more land. This purchase has become known as the Walking Purchase, although the document was most likely a forgery, the Lenape did not realize that
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Benjamin West 's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the
Lenni Lenape
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28.
Delaware Colony
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Delaware Colony in the North American Middle Colonies consisted of land on the west bank of the Delaware River Bay. In the early 17th century the area was inhabited by Lenape, the first European settlers were the Swedes and the Dutch, but the land fell under English control in 1664. William Penn was given the deed to what was called the Lower Counties on the Delaware by the Duke of York. From the early Dutch settlement in 1631 to the rule by Pennsylvania in 1682. Because of this, Delaware became a heterogeneous society made up of individuals who were both religiously and culturally diverse. Hudson sailed into what now is the Delaware Bay and he would name it the South River, but this would later change after Samuel Argall discovered the river in 1610 after being blown off course. Argall would later rename the river Delaware, after Thomas West, Lord De La Warr, follow-up expeditions by Cornelius May in 1613 and Cornelius Hendrickson in 1614 mapped the shoreline of what would become Delaware for inclusion in the New Netherland colony. Initial Dutch settlement was centered up river at Fort Nassau at Big Timber Creek south of what is now Gloucester City, neither the Dutch nor the English showed any early interest in establishing any kind of settlement on this land. In 1631 the Dutch sent a group of men to build a fort inside Cape Henlopen on Lewes Creek to establish the Zwaanendael Colony. This first colony was established to take advantage of the whale population. A cultural misunderstanding with the Native Americans led to the massacre of the initial 28 colonists before a year was out, patroon David Pietersz. de Vries arrived shortly thereafter with an additional 50 settlers. In March 1638, the Swedish colony of New Sweden became the first permanent European settlement in Delaware, Minuit resented the company and was well aware of the spareness of Dutch occupation along the Zuyd river valley. Like the Dutch colony it aimed to squat, New Sweden was an affair, with Finns, Dutch. The first outpost of the Swedish settlement was named Fort Christina after Queen Christina of Sweden, Governor Johan Björnsson Printz administered the colony from 1643 to 1653. He was succeeded by Johan Classon Risingh, the last governor of New Sweden, the Dutch had never accepted the Swedish colony as legitimate and the struggle between the forces of the Dutch West India Company and the officials and backers of New Sweden was on going. In 1651, New Netherland Governor Peter Stuyvesant had removed Fort Nassau and had it reassembled down river of Fort Christina as Fort Casimir, Fort Beversreede, a short-lived attempt to establish a foothold at the end of the Great Minquas Path was abandoned. Three years later, the New Sweden colony attacked and seized the outpost, the struggle finally came to an end in September 1655. With the Second Great Northern War raging in Europe, Stuyvesant assembled a sufficient army and naval squadron to capture the Swedish forts, thus re-establishing control of the colony
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29.
Province of Maryland
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Its first settlement and capital was St. Marys City, in the southern end of St. Marys County, which is a peninsula in the Chesapeake Bay and is also bordered by four tidal rivers. The province began as a colony of the English Lord Baltimore. In 1689, the following the Glorious Revolution, John Coode led a rebellion that removed Lord Baltimore from power in Maryland. Power in the colony was restored to the Baltimore family in 1715 when Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, insisted in public that he was a Protestant. Despite early competition with the colony of Virginia to its south, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland to its north, Maryland received a larger felon quota than any other province. By 1776 the old order had been overthrown, as Maryland citizens signed the Declaration of Independence, the Catholic George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, former Secretary of State to His Majesty, King Charles I, wished to create a haven for English Catholics in the New World. Upon Baltimores death in 1632 the grant was transferred to his eldest son Cecil, on June 20,1632 Charles I of England granted the original charter for Maryland, a proprietary colony of about twelve million acres, to Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore. Some historians view this grant as a form of compensation for Calverts fathers having been stripped of his title of Secretary of State upon announcing his Roman Catholicism in 1625. The charter offered no guidelines on religion, although it was assumed that Catholics would not be molested in the new colony. The charter had originally granted to Calverts father, George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore. Whatever the reason for granting the colony specifically to Baltimore, however, the colony of New Netherland begun by Englands great imperial rival in this era, the United Provinces specifically claimed the Delaware River valley and was vague about its border with Virginia. Charles rejected all the Dutch claims on the Atlantic seaboard, but was anxious to bolster English claims by formally occupying the territory, the new colony was named after the devoutly Catholic Henrietta Maria of France, the Queen Consort. Colonial Maryland was considerably larger than the state of Maryland. The original charter granted the Calverts an imprecisely defined territory north of Virginia and south of the 40th parallel, like other aristocratic proprietors, he also hoped to turn a profit on the new colony. The Calvert family recruited Catholic aristocrats and Protestant settlers for Maryland, luring them with land grants. To try to gain settlers, Maryland used what is known as the headright system, settlers were given 50 acres of land for each person they brought into the colony, whether as settler, indentured servant or slave. Of the 200 or so initial settlers who traveled to Maryland on the ships Ark and Dove, Clements Island, off the northern shore of the Potomac River, upstream from its confluence with the Chesapeake Bay and Point Lookout. The new settlers were led by Lord Baltimores younger brother Leonard Calvert and he knew of white men from communication with native tribes to the South and West in Virginia and he was eager to gain technology, such as guns and gunpowder, from the Maryland settlers
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Henrietta Maria, the French Princess who gave her name to the young colony of "Maryland"
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1975 reconstruction of
Maryland Dove at St. Mary's City
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Catholic church at St Mary's City
30.
Province of South Carolina
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The Province of South Carolina was originally part of the Province of Carolina in British America, which was chartered by eight Lords Proprietor in 1663. The province later became the U. S. state of South Carolina, the Carolinas were named for King Charles II of England. Derived from Latin Carolus, the colony was originally Carolana, the spelling changed to Carolina. Charles Towne was the first settlement, established in 1670, Charles II had given the land to a group of eight nobles called the Lords Proprietors, they planned for a Protestant Christian colony. Originally a single colony, the northern and southern sections grew apart over time. Dissent over governance of the led to the appointment of a deputy governor to administer the northern half of the Carolina colony in 1691. The division of the Carolina Province into North Carolina and South Carolina became complete in 1712, the Yamasee War ravaged the back-country of the colony. A rebellion broke out against the proprietors in 1719, acting on a petition of the residents of the colony, the British government appointed a royal governor for South Carolina in 1720. After nearly a decade in which the British government sought to locate and buy out the proprietors, lord Charles Montagu was Royal Governor of the Province of South Carolina from 1766 to 1773 until he escaped to Nova Scotia as with fellow United Empire Loyalists. The Court of Kings Bench and Common Pleas was founded c.1725, “Global Perspectives on the Early Economic History of South Carolina, ” South Carolina Historical Magazine,106, 130–46. The Southern Frontier, 1670-1732 Edgar, Walter, South Carolina, A History, the standard scholarly history Edgar, Walter, ed. The South Carolina Encyclopedia, ISBN 1-57003-598-9, the most comprehensive scholarly guide Feeser, white Servitude in Colonial South Carolina Tuten, James H. Lowcountry Time and Tide, The Fall of the South Carolina Rice Kingdom 178 pp. Wallace, David Duncan. South Carolina, A Short History, 1520-1948 online standard scholarly history Wright, South Carolina, A Bicentennial History online, popular survey Wood, Peter H. Black Majority, Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 Through the Stono Rebellion
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Lord Charles Montagu,
St. Paul's Church (Halifax),
Nova Scotia
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31.
William Franklin
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William Franklin FRSE was an American-born attorney, a colonial administrator, and the acknowledged illegitimate son of Benjamin Franklin. He was the last colonial Governor of New Jersey, Franklin was a steadfast Loyalist throughout the American Revolutionary War. As his father was one of the most prominent Patriots and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, following imprisonment during the war, in 1782 the younger Franklin went into exile in Britain. He lived in London until his death, William Franklin was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, then a colony in British America. He was the son of Benjamin Franklin, a leading figure in the city. Confusion exists about Williams birth and parentage because Benjamin was secretive about his sons origins, in 1750, Ben told his own mother that William was nineteen years old, but this may have been an attempt to make the youth appear legitimate. William was raised by Benjamin Franklin and Deborah Read, his common-law wife, William joined a company of Pennsylvania provincial troops in 1746 and fought in Albany in King Georges War, obtaining the rank of captain in 1747. As he grew older, he accompanied his father on several missions, although often depicted as a young child when he assisted his father in the famed kite experiment of 1752, William was 21 years old at the time. As a young man, William became engaged to Elizabeth Graeme, daughter of prominent Philadelphia physician Dr. Thomas Graeme and granddaughter of Pennsylvanias 14th Governor, Sir William Keith. Neither family approved of the match, but when William went to London to study law about 1759, while in London, Franklin sired an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, who was born 22 February 1762. His mother has never identified, and he was placed in foster care. Later that year, Franklin married Elizabeth Downes on 4 September 1762 at St Georges and she was born in the English colony of Barbados to the sugar planter John Downes and his wife Elizabeth. She met Franklin while visiting England with her father in 1760 and they moved to the New Jersey colony in 1763. William Franklins wife Elizabeth died in 1777 while he was imprisoned as a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War and she was interred beneath the altar of St. Pauls Chapel in lower Manhattan, where she had resided after the British evacuated Perth Amboy. The memorial plaque on the wall at St. Pauls was commissioned by William Franklin from London and he was a widower for more than ten years. William Franklin completed his law education in England, and was admitted to the bar, William and Benjamin Franklin became partners and confidants, working together to pursue land grants in what was then called the Northwest. Before they left England, the senior Franklin lobbied hard to procure his son an appointment, William Franklin was appointed as Royal Governor of New Jersey. In 1763, William Franklin was appointed as the Royal Governor of New Jersey and he replaced Josiah Hardy, a merchant and colonial administrator
William Franklin
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William Franklin
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Proprietary House in
Perth Amboy, where Franklin lived as governor
32.
Horatio Sharpe
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Horatio Sharpe was the 22nd proprietary governor of Maryland from 1753 to 1768 under the restored proprietary government of Maryland. Horatio Sharpe was born in England in 1718 to parents William Sharpe and Margaret Beake, of Beak Street, Picadilly and his four sisters were Mary, Elizabeth, Gulielma-Maria and Anne. His brother Gregory Sharpe was appointed Master of the Temple in 1763 and was chaplain to George III and his brother William Sharpe of Brocklee Hill, Elstree in Hertfordshire was Clerk of the Council. His brother John Sharpe Esq. of Lincolns Inn was Solicitor to the Treasury and he was commissioned in the Kings forces in 1745 as a Captain and fought in the Jacobite rebellion against the Scots. He served with the 20th Regiment of Foot and the Marines, later he is found in the West Indies as a Lieutenant-Colonel. He served until his appointment by Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore as the proprietary Maryland colonial governor, Horatio Sharpe was the brother of Lord Baltimores guardian. He arrived in Maryland in August 1753, prior to Sharpes service, Colonel James Innes had commanded all provincial soldiers. He was a civil and military administrator, gentleman-farmer, fancier of fine horses, hospitable host. Horatio Sharpe also built Whitehall on the outskirts of Annapolis, now a National Historic Landmark, Whitehall was designed by Joseph Horatio Anderson, who was also the architect of the Maryland State House. It served as Sharpes residence from the time of his retirement in 1769 until his return to England in 1773. He returned to England to attend to matters in 1773. In the Maryland Confiscation Act of 1780, Horatio Sharpe is specifically mentioned by name and he was encouraged by the new state of Maryland to return from England to Maryland and reclaim his lands. Barring that, he was permitted to sell or dispose of all his Maryland properties, Sharpe sold or gave his Maryland properties to his long-time secretary, John Ridout, who had stayed in Maryland during the Revolutionary War to protect his former employers property. Sir Robert Eden, 1st Baronet was the last Royal Governor of Maryland and he followed Horatio Sharpe as governor in 1769. Kingdom of Great Britain Sharpes correspondence
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Horatio Sharpe
33.
James Otis, Jr.
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His catchphrase Taxation without representation is tyranny became the basic Patriot position. Otis was born in West Barnstable, Massachusetts, the second of thirteen children and his sister Mercy Otis Warren, his brother Joseph Otis, and his youngest brother Samuel Allyne Otis became leaders of the American Revolution, as did his nephew Harrison Gray Otis. His father Colonel James Otis Sr. was a prominent lawyer, in 1755, James married the beautiful Ruth Cunningham, a merchants daughter and heiress to a fortune worth ₤10,000. Their politics were different, yet they were attached to each other. Otis later half-complained that she was a High Tory, yet in the same breath she was a good Wife, the marriage produced children James, Elizabeth, and Mary. Their son James died at the age of eighteen and their daughter Elizabeth was a Loyalist like her mother, she married Captain Brown of the British Army and lived in England for the rest of her life. Their youngest daughter Mary married Benjamin Lincoln, son of the distinguished Continental Army General Benjamin Lincoln, Otis graduated from Harvard in 1743 and rose meteorically to the top of the Boston legal profession. In 1760, he received an appointment as Advocate General of the Admiralty Court. These writs enabled British authorities to enter any colonists home with no notice, no probable cause. James Otis considered himself a loyal British subject, yet in February 1761, he argued against the Writs of Assistance in a nearly five-hour oration before a select audience in the State House. His argument failed to win his case, although it galvanized the revolutionary movement, John Adams promoted Otis as a major player in the coming of the Revolution. Adams claimed that the independence was then and there born, every man of an immense crowded audience appeared to me to go away as I did. His challenge to the authority of Parliament made an impression on Adams. Otis expanded his argument in a pamphlet published three years later in 1765, that the writs violated the British constitution harkening back to the Magna Carta. The text of his 1761 speech was much enhanced by John Adams on several occasions, it was first printed in 1773, according to James R. Ferguson, the four tracts that Otis wrote during 1764–65 to protest British tax measures reveal contradictions and even intellectual confusion. Otis was the first leader of the period to develop distinctive American theories of constitutionalism and representation, Otis refused to follow the logical direction of his natural law theory and, by drawing back from radicalism, appeared to be inconsistent. Some historians have suggested incipient insanity, but Samuelson argues that Otis should be seen as a political thinker rather than a theorist. Otis did not identify himself as a revolutionary, his peers, too, Otis at times counseled against the mob violence of the radicals and argued against Adams proposal for a convention of all the colonies resembling that of the British Glorious Revolution of 1688
James Otis, Jr.
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Portrait by
Joseph Blackburn, 1755
James Otis, Jr.
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Bronze sculpture of James Otis, Jr stands in front of the
Barnstable County Courthouse.
James Otis, Jr.
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James Otis' grave in
Granary Burying Ground.
34.
Joseph Blackburn (painter)
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Joseph Blackburn, also known as Jonathan Blackburn, was an English portrait painter who worked mainly in Bermuda and in colonial America. His notable works include portraits of Hugh Jones and Colonel Theodore Atkinson, Blackburn spent time in Bermuda, Newport, Boston, and Portsmouth. In late 1763 he returned to London and painted portraits in southwestern England, Wales, approximately one hundred fifty of Blackburns portraits survive. One portrait, of Elizabeth Browne Rogers completed in 1761, is part of the permanent American art collection at Reynolda House Museum of American Art located in Winston-Salem, North Carolina. John Singleton Copley was Blackburns pupil, and it is said that he left his studio in Boston. His pictures were long attributed to Copley, now, thanks to evidence found within records held in our collections, we are able to confirm that Joseph Blackburn lived and died in the city of Worcester. He and his family lived in Broad Street in the parish of St. Nicholas, the exact date they moved there is unclear, but he certainly is a resident in 1768. They also leased properties around St. Martins Gate in the city, Joseph inherited the lease for the properties after his father, Joseph Blackburn, gentleman, of Kinfare, Staffordshire, and possibly his aunt, Henrietta Blackburn of Worcester died in 1759. The 1759 will of Henrietta mentions Joseph’s wife Mary and their two daughters, Henrietta and Elizabeth and his daughters both married local men, Henrietta to William Hill and Elizabeth to George Squire, but both women appear to have died without children. There is a degree of confusion about the dates of birth and death of Blackburn, the most common suggestion for year of death is 1778 whereas Microsoft Encarta suggests 1774. 1730 is usually posited as the year of birth but it is at best an estimate, some sources still give 1700–1765 as Blackburns years. In 2015 Worcestershire Archives announced that they had located details of Blackburns burial in Worcester in 1787, selected artworks Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Blackburn, Jonathan. Which contains material on Joseph Blackburn Blackburn, Joseph active 1752-1778, inventories of American Painting, Smithsonian Institution Research Information System
Joseph Blackburn (painter)
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Abigail Chesebrough (Mrs. Alexander Grant), oil on canvas of 1754, in the
Art Institute of Chicago
Joseph Blackburn (painter)
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view
Joseph Blackburn (painter)
Joseph Blackburn (painter)
35.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
John Adams
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John Adams
John Adams
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Adams' birthplace in
Quincy, Massachusetts
John Adams
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Mrs. Abigail Smith Adams – 1766 Portrait by Benjamin Blythe
John Adams
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John Adams – 1766 Portrait by Benjamin Blyth
36.
Colony of Virginia
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The Colony of Virginia was the first permanently settled English colony in North America. Newfoundland, with settlements, had been established as a colony by Royal Charter in 1583. American archaeologist William Kelso says Virginia is where the British Empire began and this was the first colony in the British Empire. The colony existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution, the name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. In 1607, members of a joint venture called the Virginia Company founded Jamestown, tobacco became Virginias first profitable export, the production of which had a significant impact on the society and settlement patterns. In 1624, the Virginia Companys charter was revoked by King James I, from 1619 to 1776, the legislature of the Virginia was the House of Burgesses, which governed in conjunction with a colonial governor. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, from 1699 until its dissolution the capital was in Williamsburg and it experienced its first major political turmoil with Bacons Rebellion of 1676. The name Virginia is the oldest designation for English claims in North America, the latter word may have inspired the Queen to name the colony Virginia, noting her status as the Virgin Queen. in Carolina Algonquian, and was not the name of the country as previously misunderstood. Virginia was originally a term used to refer to North Americas entire eastern coast from the 34th parallel north to 48th parallel and this area included a large section of Canada and the shores of Acadia. In gratitude for Virginians loyalty to the crown during the English Civil War, Charles II gave it the title of Old Dominion, Virginia maintains Old Dominion as its state nickname. Accordingly, the University of Virginias athletic teams use Cavaliers as one of their nicknames, earlier attempts had been made by the Spanish in what is now Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia, and by the French in South Carolina. Farther south, the Spanish colony of Spanish Florida, centered on St. Augustine, was established in 1565, while to the north, in 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh sent his first colonization mission to the island of Roanoke. This was the first English settlement, although it did not survive and it was a military research expedition with a very narrow focus. In 1587, Raleigh sent another group to attempt to establish a permanent settlement. The first English child born in the New World was named Virginia Dare, the expedition leader, John White returned to England for supplies that same year, but was unable to return to the colony due to war between England and Spain. When he finally did return in 1590, he found the colony abandoned, the houses were intact, but the colonists had completely disappeared. Although there are a number of theories about the fate of the colony, Dare County was named in honor of the baby Virginia Dare, who was among those whose fate is unknown. The word Croatoan was found carved into a tree, the name of a tribe on a nearby island, following the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, King James I ascended to the throne
Colony of Virginia
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"
The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles ", by
Capt. John Smith
Colony of Virginia
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Flag
Colony of Virginia
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Lines show legal treaty frontiers between Virginia Colony and Indian Nations in various years, as well as today's state boundaries. Red: Treaty of 1646. Green: Treaty of Albany (1684). Blue: Treaty of Albany (1722). Orange:
Proclamation of 1763. Black: Treaty of Camp Charlotte (1774). Area west of this line in present-day Southwest VA was ceded by the Cherokee in 1775.
Colony of Virginia
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Indian massacre of 1622, depicted in a 1628 woodcut by
Matthäus Merian out of
Theodore de Bry 's workshop.
37.
Province of Georgia
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The Province of Georgia was one of the Southern colonies in British America. It was the last of the thirteen original American colonies established by Great Britain in what became the United States. In the original grant, a strip of the province extended to the Pacific Ocean. The colonys corporate charter was granted to General James Oglethorpe on April 21,1732, by George II, the charter was finalized by the Kings privy council on June 9,1732. Oglethorpe envisioned a colony which would serve as a haven for English subjects who had imprisoned for debt. General Oglethorpe imposed very strict laws that many colonists disagreed with, Oglethorpe disagreed with slavery and thought a system of smallholdings more appropriate than the large plantations common in the colonies to the north. However, land grants were not as large as most colonists would have preferred, Oglethorpe envisioned the province as a location for the resettlement of English debtors and the worthy poor. Another motivation for the founding of the colony was as a buffer state, Oglethorpe imagined a province populated by sturdy farmers that could guard the border, because of this, the colonys charter prohibited slavery. Oglethorpes original plan had called for Georgia to be established as a home for those who had been imprisoned as debtors. Thirty-five families, numbering one hundred and twenty persons, were selected, on the 16th of November,1732, the emigrants embarked at Gravesend on the ship Anne. Arriving January 13th in the harbor of Charleston, S. C and they set sail the day following. Into Port Royal, some eighty miles southward, to be conveyed in small vessels to the river Savannah, Oglethorpe continued up the river to scout a location suitable for settlement. A Yamacraw Indian village had occupied the site, but Oglethorpe arranged for the Indians to move, the day is still celebrated as Georgia Day. The original charter specified the colony as being between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, up to their headwaters, and then extending westward to the south seas. The area within the charter had previously been part of the grant of the Province of Carolina. The Privy Council approved the establishment charter on June 9,1732, on January 7,1755, Georgia officially ceased to be a proprietary colony and became a crown colony. From 1732 until 1758, the minor divisions were districts. In 1758, without Indian permission, the Province of Georgia was divided into eight parishes by the Act of the Assembly of Georgia on March 15, the Town and District of Savannah was named Christ Church Parish
Province of Georgia
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Savannah, Georgia colony, early 18th century
Province of Georgia
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Flag
38.
Province of New Hampshire
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The Province of New Hampshire was a colony of England and later of Great Britain. The name was first given in 1629 to the territory between the Merrimack and Piscataqua rivers on the eastern coast of North America and it was formally organized as an English royal colony on October 7,1691, during the period of English colonization. The charter was enacted May 14,1692, by William and Mary, the territory is now the U. S. state of New Hampshire, and was named after the county of Hampshire in southern England by Captain John Mason, its first named proprietor. First settled in the 1620s, the province consisted for many years of a number of communities along the seacoast. In 1641 the communities came under the government of the neighboring Massachusetts Bay Colony, after a brief period as a separate province, the territory was absorbed into the Dominion of New England in 1686. The Dominion collapsed in 1689, and the New Hampshire communities again came under Massachusetts rule until a charter was issued in 1691 by William. Between 1699 and 1741 the provinces governors were also commissioned as governors of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, in 1741, Benning Wentworth was appointed governor solely of New Hampshire. These disputes resulted in the formation of the state of Vermont. The provinces economy was dominated by timber and fishing, the timber trade, although lucrative, was a subject of conflict with the crown, which sought to reserve the best trees for use as ship masts. The province was at first not strongly in favor of independence, after Governor John Wentworth fled the province in August 1775, the inhabitants adopted a constitution in early 1776. Independence as part of the United States was confirmed with the 1783 Treaty of Paris, prior to English colonization, the area that is now northeastern New England was populated by bands of the Abenaki, who lived in sometimes-large villages of longhouses. The seacoast was explored in the years of the 17th century by English and French explorers, including Samuel de Champlain. These settlers were mostly intending to profit from the local fisheries, Mason and Gorges, neither of whom ever came to New England, divided their claims along the Piscataqua River in 1629. Mason took the territory between the Piscataqua and Merrimack, and called it New Hampshire, after the English county of Hampshire, conflicts between holders of grants issued by Mason and Gorges concerning their boundaries eventually led to a need for more active management. After Mason died in 1635, the colonists and employees of Mason appropriated many of his holdings to themselves, exeter was founded in 1638 by John Wheelwright, after he had been banished from the neighboring Massachusetts Bay Colony for defending the teachings of Anne Hutchinson, his sister-in-law. In the absence of granting authority from anyone associated with the Masons and his party included William Wentworth, whose descendants came to play a major role in colonial history. Around the same time, others unhappy with the strict Puritan rule in Massachusetts settled in Dover, because of a general lack of government, the New Hampshire settlements sought the protection of their larger neighbor to the south, the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1641, they agreed to be governed from Massachusetts, provided the towns retained self-rule
Province of New Hampshire
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Map depicting territorial claims related to the province
39.
Benning Wentworth
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Benning Wentworth was the colonial governor of New Hampshire from 1741 to 1766. The eldest child of Lieutenant Governor John Wentworth, he was a great-grandson of Elder William Wentworth, Benning was born and died in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Under his fathers leadership, the Wentworths had become one of the most prominent political, Benning Wentworth graduated from Harvard College in 1715. He became a merchant at Portsmouth, and frequently represented the town in the provincial assembly and he was appointed as a Kings Councillor,12 October 1734. A series of twists of fate brought Wentworth to the chair in 1741. His father, a relation of Charles Watson-Wentworth, the Marquis of Rockingham, had lobbied colonial officials to establish a separate governorship for New Hampshire, until then it had been under the oversight of the governor of the neighboring Province of Massachusetts Bay. There were claims that he was biased in his awards, the dispute finally reached the highest levels of King George IIs government by the late 1730s, and the Board of Trade decided to separate the two governorships. At the time, Wentworth was in London dealing with a financial crisis. He had delivered a shipment of timber to Spain in 1733, Wentworth had had to borrow money to pay his own creditors, and had lobbied London to secure payment from Spain. The diplomatic moves were unsuccessful, and Wentworth was forced into bankruptcy, as part of the bankruptcy, he claimed £11,000 were owed him by the British government due to the Spanish failure to pay. His London creditors agreed to forgo immediate repayment of the if the government gave him the governorship of New Hampshire. This was agreed, on the condition that Wentworth abandon his claim against the British government, Wentworths commission as governor of New Hampshire was issued in June 1741, he was also later be appointed the kings surveyor general. On 13 December 1741 Wentworth assumed the office, Wentworth was authorised by the Crown to grant patents of unoccupied land, and in 1749 began making grants in what is now southern Vermont. He enriched himself by a scheme of selling land to developers in spite of jurisdictional claims for this region by the Province of New York. He often named the new townships after famous contemporaries in order to support for his enterprises. In each of the grants, he stipulated the reservation of a lot for an Anglican church, ultimately, this scheme led to a great deal of contention between New York, Massachusetts, and the settlers in Vermont. The dispute outlived Wentworths administration, lasting until Vermont was admitted as a state in 1791, the Wentworth grants created modern towns in this sense, unlike New Netherland and New York, for example. The grants were all similar, the towns were 6 miles square, the charters required set-asides to support the school, the settled minister, the Glebe, and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
Benning Wentworth
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Portrait of Governor Benning Wentworth (1760) by
Joseph Blackburn
Benning Wentworth
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Wentworth-Coolidge Mansion
Benning Wentworth
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Council Chambers in the Wentworth mansion where Wentworth presided over provincial council meetings. He married his second wife in front of the fireplace.
40.
Province of North Carolina
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The Province of North Carolina was originally part of the Province of Carolina, which was chartered by eight Lords Proprietor. The province later became the U. S. states of North Carolina and Tennessee, and parts of the province combined with other territory to form the states of Georgia, Alabama, for history prior to 1729, see Province of Carolina. King Charles II of England granted the Carolina charter in 1663 for land south of Virginia Colony, Charles II granted the land to eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. The first Governor of the separate North Carolina Province was Edward Hyde, in 1729, after nearly a decade-long attempt by the British government to locate and buy out seven of the eight Lords Proprietors, both Carolinas became royal colonies. The remaining one-eighth share of the Province was retained by members of the Carteret family until 1776 and this included several North Carolina rivers, including the French Broad and Watauga. Settlers continued to flow westwards in smaller numbers, despite the prohibition against doing so, most prominently, the Watauga Association formed in 1772 as an ostensibly-independent territory within the bounds of North Carolina, which adopted its own written constitution. Two important maps of the province were reproduced, one by Edward Moseley in 1733, and another by John Collet in 1770. Other maps exist dating to the period of the Age of Discovery that depict portions of the province, or, more specifically. The Court Act of 1746 established a court, initially known as the General Court. List of Chief Justices for 1818 onwards see List of Justices of the North Carolina Supreme Court History of North Carolina A Complete map of North-Carolina from an actual survey, John Collets 1770 map of the colony of North Carolina
Province of North Carolina
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The dividing line showing the area managed by the descendants of
George Carteret
Province of North Carolina
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Flag
Province of North Carolina
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New Bern courthouse
41.
William Tryon
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William Tryon was a British soldier and colonial administrator who served as the eighth Governor of North Carolina and the Governor of New York. Tryon was born 8 June 1729 at the seat at Norbury Park, Surrey, England the son of Charles Tryon. In 1751, he entered the military as a lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of Foot Guards and was promoted to Captain in later that year and he had a daughter by Mary Stanton, whom he never married. In 1757, he married Margaret Wake, a London heiress with a dowry of 30,000 pounds. Her father, William Wake, had been the Honourable East India Companys Governor in Bombay from 1742 to 1750, in 1758, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Margaret was later the namesake of Wake County, North Carolina, during the Seven Years War, he and his regiment were involved in the Cherbourg-St. They landed at Cherbourg and destroyed all war making facilities, in September, they reembarked for St. Malo where the operation went smoothly until the withdrawal when they came under intense fire from the French at the Battle of St Cast. Tryon was wounded in the thigh and in the head, on 26 April 1764, through family connections, he obtained the position of acting lieutenant governor of the Province of North Carolina. He arrived in North Carolina with his family, including a young daughter and he said that he would not be leaving until May. Tryon found himself with no income, in 1765, a house called Russelborough on the Cape Fear River near Brunswick Town was renovated to serve as Tryons residence while he acted as Lieutenant Governor. Tryon assumed his position as acting governor when Dobbs died on 28 March 1765, on 10 July, the King promoted him to governor. After assuming the office of governor, Tryon worked to expand the Church of England in North Carolina, there were only five Anglican clergy members in North Carolina at that time. Tryon pushed for the completion of abandoned construction projects of Anglican churches in Brunswick Town, Wilmington, Edenton, Tryon appointed members of the clergy for these churches and encouraged the construction of new churches, especially in rural areas. There was an opposition in North Carolina to the Stamp Act of 1765. When the Stamp Act Congress was held, the assembly was not in session. Tryon refused to allow meetings of the Assembly from 18 May 1765 to 3 November 1766 to prevent the Assembly from passing a resolution in opposition to the Stamp Act. Tryon said that he was opposed to the Stamp Act. Tryon requested troops to enforce the act, but instead he was informed on 25 June 1766 that the act was repealed, in December 1766, the North Carolina legislature authorized £5,000 for the building of Tryons mansion
William Tryon
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Alleged portrait, 1767. This portrait depicts incorrect regimental uniform and ornamentation.
42.
Nova Scotia
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Nova Scotia is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces, and one of the four provinces which form Atlantic Canada. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province, with an area of 55,284 square kilometres, including Cape Breton, as of 2016, the population was 923,598. Nova Scotia is the second most-densely populated province in Canada with 17.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, Nova Scotia means New Scotland in Latin and is the recognized English language name for the province. In Scottish Gaelic, the province is called Alba Nuadh, which simply means New Scotland. Nova Scotia is Canadas second-smallest province in area after Prince Edward Island, the provinces mainland is the Nova Scotia peninsula surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, including numerous bays and estuaries. Nowhere in Nova Scotia is more than 67 km from the ocean, Nova Scotia has many ancient fossil-bearing rock formations. These formations are rich on the Bay of Fundys shores. Blue Beach near Hantsport, Joggins Fossil Cliffs, on the Bay of Fundys shores, has yielded an abundance of Carboniferous age fossils, wassons Bluff, near the town of Parrsboro, has yielded both Triassic and Jurassic age fossils. Nova Scotia lies in the mid-temperate zone, since the province is almost surrounded by the sea, the climate is closer to maritime than to continental climate. The winter and summer temperature extremes of the climate are moderated by the ocean. However, winters are cold enough to be classified as continental – still being nearer the freezing point than inland areas to the west. The Nova Scotia climate is in ways similar to the central Baltic Sea coast in Northern Europe. This is in spite of Nova Scotia being some fifteen parallels south, areas not on the Atlantic coast experience warmer summers more typical of inland areas, and winter lows a little colder. The province includes regions of the Mikmaq nation of Mikmaki, the Mikmaq people inhabited Nova Scotia at the time the first European colonists arrived. In 1605, French colonists established the first permanent European settlement in the future Canada at Port Royal, the British conquest of Acadia took place in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 formally recognized this and returned Cape Breton Island to the French, present-day New Brunswick then still formed a part of the French colony of Acadia. The British changed the name of the capital from Port Royal to Annapolis Royal, in 1749, the capital of Nova Scotia moved from Annapolis Royal to the newly established Halifax. In 1755 the vast majority of the French population were removed in the Expulsion of the Acadians
Nova Scotia
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Fort Edward – The oldest
blockhouse in North America (1750).
Nova Scotia
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Flag
Nova Scotia
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Sambro Island Lighthouse – oldest lighthouse in
North America (1758)
Nova Scotia
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Statue of
Joseph Howe,
Province House, created by famed Quebec sculptor
Louis-Philippe Hébert
43.
Prince Edward Island
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Prince Edward Island is a province of Canada consisting of the island of the same name, as well as several much smaller islands. It is one of the three Maritime Provinces and is the smallest province in land area and population. It is the only jurisdiction of North America outside the Caribbean to have no mainland territory. The backbone of the economy is farming, it produces 25% of Canadas potatoes, historically, PEI is one of Canadas older settlements and demographically still reflects older immigration to the country, with Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and French surnames being dominant to this day. According to the 2011 census, the province of Prince Edward Island has 140,204 residents and it is located about 200 kilometres north of Halifax, Nova Scotia and 600 kilometres east of Quebec City. It consists of the island and 231 minor islands. Altogether, the province has a land area of 5,685.73 km2. The main island is 5,620 km2 in size, slightly larger than the U. S. state of Delaware and it is the 104th-largest island in the world and Canadas 23rd-largest island. The island is named for Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the son of King George III. Prince Edward has been called Father of the Canadian Crown, Prince Edward Island is located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west of Cape Breton Island, north of the Nova Scotia peninsula, and east of New Brunswick. Its southern shore bounds the Northumberland Strait, the island has two urban areas. A much smaller urban area surrounds Summerside Harbour, situated on the southern shore 40 km west of Charlottetown Harbour, as with all natural harbours on the island, Charlottetown and Summerside harbours are created by rias. Rolling hills, woods, reddish white sand beaches, ocean coves, under the Planning Act of the province, municipalities have the option to assume responsibility for land-use planning through the development and adoption of official plans and land use bylaws. Thirty-one municipalities have taken responsibility for planning, in areas where municipalities have not assumed responsibility for planning, the Province remains responsible for development control. The islands lush landscape has a bearing on its economy. The author Lucy Maud Montgomery drew inspiration from the land during the late Victorian Era for the setting of her classic novel Anne of Green Gables, today, many of the same qualities that Montgomery and others found in the island are enjoyed by tourists who visit year-round. The smaller, rural communities as well as the towns and villages throughout the province, retain a slower-paced, Prince Edward Island has become popular as a tourist destination for relaxation. The economy of most rural communities on the island is based on small-scale agriculture, industrial farming has increased as businesses buy and consolidate older farm properties
Prince Edward Island
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1834 Edward Scriven engraving of
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, after W. Beechey's portrait
Prince Edward Island
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Flag
Prince Edward Island
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A wooden
boardwalk in
Prince Edward Island National Park in
Greenwich
Prince Edward Island
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The landward side of sand dunes in
Cavendish
44.
New Brunswick
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New Brunswick is one of Canadas three Maritime provinces and is the only constitutionally bilingual province. In the Canada 2016 Census, Statistics Canada estimated the population to have been 747,101, down very slightly from 751,171 in 2011. The majority of the population is English-speaking of Anglo and Celtic heritage and it was created as a result of the partitioning of the British colony of Nova Scotia in 1784 and was originally named New Ireland with the capital to be in Saint John. The name was replaced with New Brunswick by King George II. The provincial flag features a ship superimposed on a background with a yellow lion passant guardant on red pennon above it. The province is named for the city of Braunschweig, known in English and Low German as Brunswick, located in modern-day Lower Saxony in northern Germany. The then-colony was named in 1784 to honour the reigning British monarch, George III, the original First Nations inhabitants of New Brunswick were members of three distinct tribes. The largest tribe was the Mikmaq, and they occupied the eastern and they were responsible for the Augustine Mound, a burial ground built about 800 BCE near Metepnákiaq. The western portion of the province was the home of the Wolastoqiyik people. The smaller Passamaquoddy tribe occupied lands in the southwest of the province. The next French contact was in 1604, when a party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain set up camp for the winter on St. Croix Island, the colony relocated the following year across the Bay of Fundy to Port Royal, Nova Scotia. The whole maritime region was at that time claimed by France and was designated as the colony of Acadia, one of the provisions of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 was the surrender of Acadia to Queen Anne. The bulk of the Acadian population thus found themselves residing in the new British colony of Nova Scotia, the remainder of Acadia was only lightly populated and poorly defended. The Maliseet from their headquarters at Meductic on the Saint John River, participated in guerilla raids and battles against New England during Father Rales War. About 1750, to protect his interests in New France, Louis XV caused three forts to be built along the Isthmus of Chignecto and this caused what is known to historians as Father Le Loutres War. During the French and Indian War, the British completed their displacement of the Acadians over all of present-day New Brunswick, Fort Beauséjour, Fort Menagoueche and Fort Gaspareaux were captured by a British force commanded by Lt. Col. Robert Monckton in 1755. Inside Fort Beauséjour, the British forces found not only French regular troops, Governor Charles Lawrence of Nova Scotia used the discovery of Acadian civilians helping in the defence of the fort to order the expulsion of the Acadian population from Nova Scotia. The Acadians of the recently captured Beaubassin and Petitcodiac regions were included in the expulsion order, other actions in the war included British expeditions up the Saint John River in the St. John River Campaign
New Brunswick
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The Coming of the Loyalists, painting by
Henry Sandham showing a romanticised view of the Loyalists' arrival in New Brunswick.
New Brunswick
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Flag
New Brunswick
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Current
licence plate.
New Brunswick
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Acadians celebrating the
Tintamarre and
National Acadian Day in
Caraquet, New Brunswick
45.
Province of Quebec (1763-1791)
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The Province of Quebec was a colony in North America created by Great Britain after the Seven Years War. Great Britain acquired French Canada by the Treaty of Paris in which France negotiated to keep the small, by Britains Royal Proclamation of 1763, Canada was renamed the Province of Quebec. Portions of its southwest were later ceded to the United States in a later Treaty of Paris at the conclusion of the American Revolution. Under the Proclamation, Quebec included the cities of Quebec and Montreal, as well as a zone surrounding them, but did not extend as far west as the Great Lakes or as far north as Ruperts Land. Through Quebec, the British Crown retained access to the Ohio and Illinois Countries even after the Treaty of Paris, Quebec retained its seigneurial system after the conquest. These United Empire Loyalists settled mainly in the Eastern Townships, Montreal, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the colony in two at the Ottawa River, so that the western part could be under the British legal system, with English speakers in the majority. The eastern part was named Lower Canada, after the capitulation of Montreal in 1760, New France was placed under military government. Civil government was instituted in 1764, a council responsible to advise the governor on all affairs of state was created in 1764. In 1774, the Quebec Act created a Council for the Affairs of the Province of Quebec to advise the governor on legislative affairs, the Legislative Council served as an advisory council to the governor until a legislative assembly was established after 1791. Former colonies and territories in Canada Territorial evolution of Canada after 1867 Burt, Toronto, Ryerson Press, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press,1933. Reprinted Toronto, McClelland and Stewart,1968, le Québec sous le régime anglais, les Canadiens français, la colonisation britannique et la formation du Canada continental
Province of Quebec (1763-1791)
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Flag
46.
Colony of Newfoundland
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This followed decades of sporadic English settlement on the island, at first seasonal rather than permanent. It was made a Crown colony in 1854 and a Dominion of the British Empire in 1907, in 1949 it joined the Canadian confederation as the Province of Newfoundland. In 2001 that was changed to the current jurisdiction, the English encountered the Beothuk indigenous people on the island of Newfoundland and in the region. From 1610 to 1728, proprietary governors were appointed to establish settlements on the island. John Guy was governor of the first settlement at Cupers Cove, other settlements were Bristols Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, which was organized as a province in 1623. The first governor given jurisdiction over all of Newfoundland was Sir David Kirke in 1638, during this period, France had also established settlements in the region, particularly to the west in what is now Quebec. It had strong trading ties to many of the First Nations along the Atlantic Coast, including the Mikmaq, the rivalry between England and France in Europe was played out in conflicts in North America, where they struggled for predominance. The Newfoundland colony was nearly obliterated during the Avalon Peninsula Campaign of King Williams War, in 1696 the French and allied Mikmaq armed forces wiped out all but a handful of English settlements on the island of Newfoundland. Over the next year, the English repopulated and rebuilt the colony, the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 ceded all of Newfoundland to the British Crown. Given the Newfoundland colonys isolation from the more southern British Thirteen Colonies in North America, after the American Revolutionary War ended in 1783 with the independence of the United States, Newfoundland Colony became part of British North America. The Crown resettled some Loyalists in Newfoundland, but most were given land in Nova Scotia and it became an official Crown colony in 1825, and Thomas John Cochrane, an officer of the Royal Navy, was appointed as its first governor. He directed the construction of Government House, which is located between Fort William and Fort Townshend and it has been designated as a National Historic Site of Canada. The colony was granted a constitution in 1832, and Cochrane became its first civil governor, the colony was granted self-governing status in 1854. Philip Francis Little was the first Premier of Newfoundland Colony between 1855 and 1858, the colony rejected confederation with Canada in the period of 1864-69. In 1907, Newfoundland became the Dominion of Newfoundland, a Dominion of the British Empire, due to economic hardship in 1934 it suspended its self-government and accepted temporary rule by a royal commission. Together with Labrador, an area on the mainland, it confederated with Canada in 1949 as the province of Newfoundland, in 2001 that was amended to rename the province Newfoundland and Labrador. British Empire Dominion of Newfoundland History of Newfoundland and Labrador Newfoundland Newfoundland and Labrador List of lieutenant governors of Newfoundland and Labrador
Colony of Newfoundland
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Flag (1862-1870)
47.
East Florida
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East Florida was a colony of Great Britain from 1763 to 1783 and a province of Spanish Florida from 1783 to 1821. East Florida was established by the British colonial government in 1763, it consisted of peninsular Florida and its capital was St. Augustine, which had been the capital of Spanish Florida. Britain formed East and West Florida out of territory it had received from Spain and France following the French, finding its new acquisitions in the southeast too large to administer as a single unit, the British divided them into two colonies separated by the Apalachicola River. East Florida comprised the bulk of what had previously been the Spanish territory of Florida, Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain following the American Revolutionary War. Spain maintained them as separate colonies, although the majority of West Florida was gradually occupied and annexed by the United States from 1810 to 1813, Spain ceded East Florida and the remainder of West Florida to the US in the Adams–Onís Treaty. In 1822 the United States organized them as a single unit, under the terms of the 1763 Treaty of Paris, which ended the Seven Years War, Spain ceded Spanish Florida to Britain. At the same time, Britain received all of French Louisiana east of the Mississippi River, with the exception of New Orleans, Augustine, and West Florida, with its capital at Pensacola. The settlement of East Florida was heavily linked in London with the interests that controlled Nova Scotia. Perhaps it is strange to think of such dissimilar geographic areas with such opposing climates as having much in common, but if one considers naval and military strategy, one can see that these areas have a common significance, especially when viewed from London by the ministry. Halifax was the command post for both the admiral and general in charge of the American forces, St. Augustine evoked the same strategic considerations. These posts have described as the two centers of strength to which the British army was withdrawn in the late 1760s. A list of the grantees in both Florida and Canada show that the fell to a well-connected—and inter-connected—group. Lincolns Inn barrister Levett Blackborne, grandson of Sir Richard Levett, other aristocrats, nobles and merchants did the same. The most powerful lubricant between the East Florida speculators and the Nova Scotia speculators was Col. Thomas Thoroton of Flintham and it was not until March 1781 that the Governor of East Florida, Patrick Tonyn, called elections for a provincial legislature. Both Floridas remained loyal to Great Britain during the American War of Independence, Spain participated indirectly in the war as an ally of France and captured Pensacola from the British in 1781. In the 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, the same treaty recognized the independence of the United States, directly to the north. Spain continued to administer East and West Florida as separate provinces, the Spanish offered favorable terms for acquiring land, which attracted many settlers from the newly formed United States. There were several disputes between the US and Spain, some resulting in military action
East Florida
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East Florida and West Florida in British period, (1767).
48.
West Florida
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West Florida was a region on the north shore of the Gulf of Mexico, which underwent several boundary and sovereignty changes during its history. The province was established by the British in 1763 out of lands ceded from the Spanish, as its name suggests, it was formed out of the Western part of formerly Spanish Florida, along with lands taken from French Louisiana, West Floridas capital was Pensacola. The colony included most of what is now the Florida Panhandle, plus parts of the modern U. S. states of Louisiana, Mississippi, Great Britain established West and East Florida out of land taken from France and Spain after the French and Indian War. As the newly acquired territory was too large to govern from one administrative center, British West Floridas government was based in Pensacola, and the colony included the part of formerly Spanish Florida which lay west of the Apalachicola, plus parts of formerly French Louisiana. It thus comprised all territory between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with a boundary which shifted several times over the subsequent years. Both West and East Florida remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolution, Spain invaded West Florida and captured Pensacola in 1781, and after the war Britain ceded both Floridas to Spain. However, the lack of defined boundaries led to a series of disputes between Spanish West Florida and the fledgling United States known as the West Florida Controversy. Disagreements with the Spanish government led American and English settlers between the Mississippi and Perdido Rivers to declare that area the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, within months it was annexed by the United States, which claimed the region as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1819 the United States negotiated the purchase of the remainder of West Florida and all of East Florida in the Adams–Onís Treaty, and in 1822 both were merged into the Florida Territory. The area known as West Florida was originally claimed by Spain as part of La Florida, in 1698 the settlement of Pensacola was established in order to check French expansion into the area. Beginning in the late 17th century the French established settlements in the region as part of colonial Louisiana, notably including Mobile, after years of contention the Perdido River was agreed upon as the boundary between French Louisiana and Spanish Florida. Before 1762 France had owned and administered the land west of the Perdido River as part of La Louisiane. A secret treaty in 1762 had effectively, upon being revealed in 1764, ceded to Spain all of French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, notably, Spain failed to make good by occupancy its title to Louisiana until 1769, when it took formal possession. Spain also ceded to Great Britain its territory of La Florida, in exchange for Cuba, as a result, for the next two decades, the British controlled nearly all of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi River. Most of the Spanish population left Florida at that time, and its colonial government records were relocated to Havana, East Florida consisted of most of the formerly Spanish Florida, and retained the old Spanish capital of St. Augustine. West Florida comprised the land between the Mississippi and Apalachicola Rivers, with Pensacola designated as its capital, the northern boundary was arbitrarily set at the 31st parallel north. Many English Americans and Scotch-Irish Americans moved to the territory at this time, the Governor of West Florida in November 1763 was George Johnstone, his lieutenant governor, Montfort Browne, was a major landowner in the province who heavily promoted its development. Seven General Assemblies were convoked between 1766 and 1778, in 1764, the British moved the northern boundary to the 32° 22′ north latitude, extending from the Yazoo to the Chattahoochee River, which included the Natchez District and the Tombigbee District
West Florida
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British West Florida in 1767.
West Florida
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The
Bonnie Blue Flag of the Republic of West Florida.
West Florida
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A 1903 map showing the territorial changes of "West Florida"
49.
Board of Trade
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The Board of Trade, originally the Lords of Trade and Plantations or Lords of Trade, is a committee of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. It was first established as a committee of Englands Privy Council to advise on colonial questions in the early 17th century. Between 1696 and 1782 the Board of Trade, in partnership with the secretaries of state over that time, held responsible for colonial affairs. The Home Secretary held colonial responsibility until 1801 when the Secretary of State for War, the committee has been known as the Board of Trade since 1786, but this name was only officially adopted by an act of 1861. The new Boards first functions were consultative like earlier iterations, and its concern with plantations, in such as the approval of colonial laws. This department was merged with the Ministry of Technology in 1970 to form the Department of Trade, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry was also President of the Board of Trade. The full Board has met only once since the mid-20th century, in 2016, the role of President of the Board of Trade was transferred to the Secretary of State for International Trade. This would be followed by a number of committees and councils to regulate the colonies. The Boards formal title remains The Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to Trade, in 1634, Charles I appointed a new commission for regulating plantations. Soon after however, the English Civil Wars erupted and initiated a period of political instability in England. Between 1643 and 1648 the Long Parliament would establish a parliamentary Commission for Plantations to take the lead in colonial and commercial affairs and this period also saw the first regulation of Royal tonnage and poundage and begin the modernization of customs and excise as growing sources of government revenue. During the Interregnum and Commonwealth three acts of the Rump Parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the development of Englands commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650. It was the Lords of Trade who, in 1675, originated the idea of transforming all of the colonies in America into Royal Colonies for the purpose of securing English trade against the French. In 1696, King William III appointed eight paid commissioners to promote trade in the American plantations, the board carried on this work but also had long periods of inactivity, devolving into chaos after 1761 and dissolved in 1782 by an act of Parliament by the Rockingham Whigs. William Pitt the Younger re-established the committee in 1784, and an Order in Council of 23 August 1786 provided the basis that still remains in force. A secretariat was established included the president, vice president. By 1793, the board remained in its old structure
Board of Trade
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The Board of Trade circa 1808.
50.
Cadwallader Colden
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Cadwallader Colden was a physician, natural scientist, and a lieutenant governor for the Province of New York. He was born in Ireland, of Scottish parents, while his mother Janet Hughes was visiting there and his father, Rev. Alexander Colden A. B. of Duns, Berwickshire, sent him to the Royal High School and Edinburgh University to become a minister. When he graduated in 1705, he continued his studies in medicine, anatomy, physics, chemistry, in 1710, his aunt Elizabeth Hill invited him to Philadelphia where he started his practice in medicine. He briefly returned to Scotland to marry Alice Chryste in 1715, in 1717, he was invited by Governor Robert Hunter to relocate to New York, and in 1720 he became a surveyor general of New York. Colden entered political life in 1720, when Governor William Burnett chose him for provincial council and he served as lieutenant governor and as acting governor in 1760-1761, 1763-1765, 1769-1770, and 1774-1775. He was acting governor of New York from 1760 to 1762 and again from 1763 to 1765 and he was likely one of the oldest acting British governors in New York. He was replaced by John Murray after his last term and he served as the first colonial representative to the Iroquois Confederacy, an experience that resulted in his writing The History of the Five Indian Nations, the first book on the subject. On 1 November 1765 Cadwallader Colden was confronted by a crowd carrying an effigy of him in a parade to protest the Stamp Act. He seemed to enjoy confrontation and had gone out of his way to royal prerogative. In 1769 at his request the New York Assembly led by James Delancey passed a bill providing funds for British troops garrisoned New York City, the Livingston family voted against as they opposed a standing army in times of peace. In summer 1775, the British authority in New York came to its end as America entered into Revolutionary era, on 24 September 1776, the British occupied the city, Colden died four days prior to that. Cadwallader Colden was a slave owner, in 1721 he ventured to purchase three slaves. He bought two slaves who were about eighteen years of age for manual labor and one female slave who was about thirteen years old to assist his wife with raising the children. In 1743, he published a series of essays noting the correlation between filthy living conditions and high rates of disease in New York City and this was particularly prompted by an epidemic of yellow fever at the time. Coldens essays were critical for establishing the sanitation efforts of New York City, in May 1743, while serving as surveyor general of New York, Cadwallader began a correspondence with Benjamin Franklin encouraging Franklin to create the American Philosophical Society. Franklin knew Colden by reputation and was flattered to hear from him and he replied at once, I cannot be but fond of engaging in a correspondence so advantageous to me as yours must be. I shall always receive your favours as such, and with great pleasure, Colden refused to be intimidated by the awesome reputation of Isaac Newton, convincing himself that Newton had erred on certain important points. He devoted much of his life to correcting the alleged mistakes and in 1751 published in London his views on the subject
Cadwallader Colden
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Cadwallader Colden
