1.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
2.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
3.
University of Maine
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The University of Maine is a public research university in Orono, Maine, United States. The university was established in 1865 as a land grant college and is the university of the University of Maine System. The University of Maine is one of only nine land, sea, the University of Maines athletic teams, nicknamed the Black Bears, are Maines only Division I athletics program. The University of Maine was founded in 1862 as a function of the Morrill Act, established in 1865 as the Maine College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, the Maine College opened on September 21,1868 and changed its name to the University of Maine in 1897. By 1871, curricula had been organized in Agriculture, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, the Maine Agricultural and Forest Experiment Station was founded as a division of the university in 1887. Gradually the university developed the Colleges of Life Sciences and Agriculture, Engineering and Science, in 1912 the Maine Cooperative Extension, which offers field educational programs for both adults and youths, was initiated. The School of Education was established in 1930 and received college status in 1958, the School of Business Administration was formed in 1958 and was granted college status in 1965. Women have been admitted into all curricula since 1872, the first masters degree was conferred in 1881, the first doctors degree in 1960. Since 1923 there has been a graduate school. Near the end of the 19th century, the university expanded its curriculum to place emphasis on liberal arts. As a result of this shift, faculty hired during the early 20th century included Caroline Colvin, chair of the history department and the nations first woman to head a major university department. On April 16,1925,80 women met in Balentine Hall — faculty, alumnae and this organization was called The All Maine Women because only those women closely connected with the University of Maine were elected as members. On April 22,1925, the new members were inducted into the honor society, when the University of Maine System was incorporated, the school was renamed by the legislature over the objections of the faculty to the University of Maine at Orono. This was changed back to the University of Maine in 1986, the University of Maine is the flagship of the University of Maine System. The president of the university is Susan J. Hunter, the senior administration governs cooperatively with the Chancellor of the University of Maine system, James H. Page and the sixteen members of the University of Maine Board of Trustees. The Board of Trustees has full responsibility and authority for the university system. It appoints the Chancellor and each university President, approves the establishment and elimination of programs, confers tenure on faculty members. UMaine is also one of a handful of colleges in the United States whose Student Government is incorporated, Student Government was formed in 1978 and incorporated in 1987
4.
National Medal of Science
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The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation. The National Medal of Science was established on August 25,1959, the medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences. The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23,1961, on January 7,1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7,1979, President Jimmy Carters signature enacted this change as Public Law 96-516 on December 12,1980. The first National Medal of Science was awarded on February 18,1963, the first woman to receive a National Medal of Science was Barbara McClintock, who was awarded for her work on plant genetics in 1970. Although Public Law 86-209 provides for 20 recipients of the medal per year, it is typical for approximately 8–15 accomplished scientists, there have been a number of years where no National Medals of Science were awarded. Those years include,1985,1984,1980,1978,1977,1972 and 1971, the awards ceremony is organized by the Office of Science and Technology Policy. It takes place at the White House and is presided by the sitting United States president, each year the National Science Foundation sends out a call to the scientific community for the nomination of new candidates for the National Medal of Science. Individuals are nominated by their peers with each nomination requiring three letters of support from individuals in science and technology, the nomination of a candidate is effective for three years, at the end of three years, the candidates peers are allowed to renominate the candidate. The Committee makes their recommendations to the President for the final awarding decision, the National Medal of Science depicts Man, surrounded by earth, sea, and sky, contemplating and struggling to understand Nature. The crystal in his hand represents the order and also suggests the basic unit of living things. The formula being outlined in the sand symbolizes scientific abstraction
5.
Microbiology
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Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, those being unicellular, multicellular, or acellular. Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, mycology, parasitology, microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on extraction or detection of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA sequences, viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. As an application of microbiology, medical microbiology is often introduced with medical principles of immunology as microbiology and immunology, otherwise, microbiology, virology, and immunology as basic sciences have greatly exceeded the medical variants, applied sciences. The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery, the existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission. However, early claims about the existence of microorganisms were speculative, actual observation and discovery of microbes had to await the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. In 1676, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made the first recorded microscopic observation, of the bodies of moulds. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms and he was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. One of his books contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation – Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, here, he wrote who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms. He also noted that material is full of innumerable creeping animalcule. These observations antedate Robert Hookes Micrographia by nearly 20 years and were published some 29 years before van Leeuwenhoek saw protozoa and 37 years before he described having seen bacteria. Joseph Lister was the first person who said infectious diseases are caused by micro-organism and was first person who used phenol as disinfectant on the wounds of patients. Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the classification of bacteria. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn’s and are considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the widely held theory of spontaneous generation
6.
Immunology
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Immunology is a branch of biology that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. It was the Russian biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov who boosted studies on immunology and he jabbed the thorn of a rose on a starfish and noted that,24 hours later, cells were surrounding the tip. It was a response of the body, trying to maintain its integrity. It was Mechnikov who first observed the phenomenon of phagocytosis, in which the body defends itself against a foreign body, Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. The important lymphoid organs of the system are the thymus and bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids. Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine and it studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE, thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, the immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is divided into humoral and cell-mediated components. The humoral response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens, antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies. Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of two biological entities and the cellular response to both. Immunological research continues to more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs. Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system and it also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features. Other immune system include various hypersensitivities that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune systems attempts to destroy allografts, the body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a persons age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus, in neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited
7.
Stanford University School of Medicine
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Stanford University School of Medicine is the medical school of Stanford University and is located in Stanford, California. Due to this descent, it ranks as the oldest medical school in the Western United States, the medical school moved to the Stanford campus near Palo Alto, California in 1959. The School of Medicine, along with Stanford Health Care and Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital, is part of Stanford Medicine and it is a research-intensive institution that emphasizes medical innovation, novel methods, discoveries, and interventions in its integrated curriculum. In 1855, Illinois physician Elias Samuel Cooper moved to San Francisco in the wake of the California Gold Rush, Lane also built a hospital and a nursing school and made provision for the creation of Lane Medical Library. In 1908, Cooper Medical College was deeded to Stanford University as a gift and it became Stanfords medical institution, initially called the Stanford Medical Department and later the Stanford University School of Medicine. The school expanded and built up a reputation for excellence and providing cutting edge clinical care, in the 1950s, the Stanford Board of Trustees decided to move the school to the Stanford main campus near Palo Alto. The move was completed in 1959, in the 1980s the Medical Center launched a major expansion program. A new hospital was added in 1989 with 20 new operating rooms, state of the art intensive care and inpatient units, the Beckman Center for Molecular and Genetic Medicine opened in May 1989 as an interdisciplinary center focusing on the molecular and genetic basis of disease. The Lucile Packard Childrens Hospital was completed in 1991, adding even more diversity to Stanford Medicine, in the early years of the 21st century the School of Medicine underwent rapid construction to further expand teaching and clinical opportunities. Lokey Stem Cell Research Building also opened in 2010, it is the largest stem cell, the Stem Cell Research Building is the first of the planned Stanford Institutes of Medicine. In addition to research facilities it houses offices for faculty from the Stanford Cancer Center and hotel space offices for visiting researchers. The School of Medicines programs include more than 1,250 enrolled students, matriculating in MD, MD/PhD, PhD, and master’s programs, most Stanford medical students elect to extend their training over five or more years in order to pursue more in-depth research. Approximately 19 percent of its MD students graduate with a joint MD/PhD degree while at Stanford, the School of Medicine is currently in midst of a process to transform its medical curriculum. The School of Medicine also has a Physician Assistant program that was added in 1971 and it was one of the first accredited physician assistant programs in California. It is offered in association with Foothill College, the program has graduated more than 1,300 physician assistants since its opening. Most graduates fulfill the mission of serving underserved medical communities. In the 2018 U. S. News & World Report rankings, Stanford was ranked 2nd in the nation for research, admissions to Stanford is highly competitive. The acceptance rate is the second-lowest in the country at 2. 5%, in 2016,7,512 people applied, and 516 were interviewed
8.
Microorganism
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A microorganism or microbe is a microscopic organism, which may be single-celled or multicellular. The study of microorganisms is called microbiology, a subject that began with the discovery of microorganisms in 1674 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, microorganisms are very diverse and include all bacteria, archaea and most protozoa. This group also contains some fungi, algae, and some such as rotifers. Many macroscopic animals and plants have microscopic juvenile stages, some microbiologists classify viruses and viroids as microorganisms, but others consider these as nonliving. In July 2016, scientists identified a set of 355 genes from the last universal ancestor of all life, including microorganisms. Microorganisms, under certain test conditions, have observed to thrive in the vacuum of outer space. Microorganisms likely far outweigh all other living things combined, the mass of prokaryote microorganisms including the bacteria and archaea may be as much as 0.8 trillion tons of carbon, out of the total biomass of between 1 and 4 trillion tons. Microorganisms appear to thrive in the Mariana Trench, the deepest spot in the Earths oceans, in August 2014, scientists confirmed the existence of microorganisms living 800 m below the ice of Antarctica. According to one researcher, You can find microbes everywhere — theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, microorganisms are crucial to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as they act as decomposers. As some microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a part of the nitrogen cycle. Microorganisms are also exploited in biotechnology, both in food and beverage preparation, and in modern technologies based on genetic engineering. A small proportion of microorganisms are pathogenic, causing disease and even death in plants, Robert Hooke coined the term cell after viewing plant cells under his microscope. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe microorganisms in 1673, later, in the 19th century, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In 1876 Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms cause diseases, single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth, approximately 3–4 billion years ago. Further evolution was slow, and for about 3 billion years in the Precambrian eon, so, for most of the history of life on Earth, the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in amber that is 220 million years old, microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are able to freely exchange genes through conjugation, transformation and transduction. This rapid evolution is important in medicine, as it has led to the development of multidrug resistant pathogenic bacteria, superbugs, the possible existence of microorganisms was discussed for many centuries before their discovery in the 17th century
9.
Brown University
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Brown is the seventh-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and one of the nine Colonial Colleges established before the American Revolution. At its foundation, Brown was the first college in the United States to accept students regardless of their religious affiliation and its engineering program was established in 1847 and was the first in the Ivy League. It was one of the early doctoral-granting U. S. institutions in the late 19th century, adding master, Browns New Curriculum is sometimes referred to in education theory as the Brown Curriculum and was adopted by faculty vote in 1969 after a period of student lobbying. In 1971, Browns coordinate womens institution Pembroke College was fully merged into the university, Pembroke Campus now operates as a place for dorms and classrooms. Undergraduate admissions is very selective, with a rate of 8.3 percent for the class of 2021. The University comprises The College, the Graduate School, Alpert Medical School, the School of Engineering, the School of Public Health, and the School of Professional Studies. The Brown/RISD Dual Degree Program, offered in conjunction with the Rhode Island School of Design, is a course that awards degrees from both institutions. Browns main campus is located in the College Hill Historic District in the city of Providence, the Universitys neighborhood is a federally listed architectural district with a dense concentration of Colonial-era buildings. On the western edge of the campus, Benefit Street contains one of the finest cohesive collections of restored seventeenth-, Browns faculty and alumni include eight Nobel Prize laureates, five National Humanities Medalists, and ten National Medal of Science laureates. Other notable alumni include eight billionaire graduates, a U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice, to erect a public Building or Buildings for the boarding of the youth & the Residence of the Professors. Stiles and Ellery were co-authors of the Charter of the College two years later, there is further documentary evidence that Stiles was making plans for a college in 1762. On January 20, Chauncey Whittelsey, pastor of the First Church of New Haven, answered a letter from Stiles, should you make any Progress in the Affair of a Colledge, I should be glad to hear of it, I heartily wish you Success therein. Isaac Backus was the historian of the New England Baptists and an inaugural Trustee of Brown, Mr. James Manning, who took his first degree in New-Jersey college in September,1762, was esteemed a suitable leader in this important work. Manning arrived at Newport in July 1763 and was introduced to Stiles, stiless first draft was read to the General Assembly in August 1763 and rejected by Baptist members who worried that the College Board of Fellows would under-represent the Baptists. A revised Charter written by Stiles and Ellery was adopted by the Assembly on March 3,1764, in September 1764, the inaugural meeting of the College Corporation was held at Newport. Governor Stephen Hopkins was chosen chancellor, former and future governor Samuel Ward was vice chancellor, John Tillinghast treasurer, the Charter stipulated that the Board of Trustees be composed of 22 Baptists, five Quakers, five Episcopalians, and four Congregationalists. Of the 12 Fellows, eight should be Baptists—including the College president—and the rest indifferently of any or all Denominations, the Charter was not the grant of King George III, as is sometimes supposed, but rather an Act of the colonial General Assembly. In two particulars, the Charter may be said to be a uniquely progressive document, the oft-repeated statement is inaccurate that Browns Charter alone prohibited a religious test for College membership, other college charters were also liberal in that particular
10.
Walter Reed Army Institute of Research
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This article is about the U. S. Army medical research institute. The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research is the largest biomedical research facility administered by the U. S. Department of Defense. At Forest Glen, the WRAIR has shared a laboratory and administrative facility — the Sen Daniel K. Inouye Building, today, the WRAIR fosters and performs biomedical research for the DoD and the US Army. It has recently developed two modern Centers of Excellence in the fields of military psychiatry/neuroscience and infectious disease research, basic and applied medical research supporting U. S. military operations is the focus of WRAIR leaders and scientists. Despite the focus on the military, however, the institute has also addressed and solved a variety of non-military medical problems prevalent in the United States. Advanced courses in subsequent years build upon prior experience, science & Engineering Apprentice Program A cooperative education program for high school students looking at a possible career in science and engineering. The program offers hands-on experience and mentoring in Army research and development activities in an actual Army laboratory, science & Engineering Apprentice Program-College Qualified Leaders Paid internships for undergraduates seeking experience in Army research. The PBF mission is research, development, production, and testing of vaccines for human use, the PBF at the Forest Glen Annex is a multi-use facility designed and operated for production of vaccines in compliance with the current Good Manufacturing regulations. Compliance with cGMP ensures that products prepared in the facility will be safe, potent, since inception, the PBF has specialized in developing vaccines for Department of Defense mission-related disease threats. The PBF follows all regulations that apply to biological products and has expertise in the development. Projects for public and private partners are accomplished through inter-agency and cooperative agreements, vaccines are produced that will protect Soldiers against diseases that they might encounter in areas of deployment. These include vaccines to prevent dengue fever, malaria, meningitis, cholera, shigellosis, hepatitis A, the PBF places compliance, cleanliness, and safety as top priorities in the production process of a vaccine. Once the vaccine is tested for safety, potency, and identity, several of the PBFs experimental vaccines have progressed on to advanced clinical testing. The organization name was changed to the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research in 1953. Hubel, Neuropsychiatry Division Edward Perl, Neuropsychiatry Division James S. S
11.
Shigella
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Shigella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, nonspore-forming, nonmotile, rod-shaped bacteria genetically closely related to E. coli. The genus is named after Kiyoshi Shiga, who first discovered it in 1897, the causative agent of human shigellosis, Shigella causes disease in primates, but not in other mammals. It is only found in humans and gorillas. During infection, it typically causes dysentery, Shigella is one of the leading bacterial causes of diarrhea worldwide, causing an estimated 80-165 million cases. The number of deaths it causes each year is estimated at between 74,000 and 600,000 deaths and it is in the top four pathogens that cause moderate-to-severe diarrhea in African and South Asian children. Each of the Shigella genomes includes a virulence plasmid that encodes conserved primary virulence determinants, the Shigella chromosomes share most of their genes with those of E. coli K12 strain MG1655. Shigella infection is typically by ingestion, depending on the health of the host, fewer than 100 bacterial cells can be enough to cause an infection. Shigella species generally invade the epithelial lining of the colon, causing severe inflammation and this inflammation results in the diarrhea and even dysentery that are the hallmarks of Shigella infection. Some strains of Shigella produce toxins which contribute to disease during infection, S. flexneri strains produce ShET1 and ShET2, which may contribute to diarrhea. S. dysenteriae strains produce the enterotoxin Shiga toxin, which is similar to the produced by enterohemorrhagic E. coli. Both Shiga toxin and verotoxin are associated with causing potentially fatal hemolytic uremic syndrome, Shigella uses a type-III secretion system, which acts as a biological syringe to translocate toxic effector proteins to the target human cell. For instance, the IcsA effector protein triggers actin reorganization by N-WASP recruitment of Arp2/3 complexes, after invasion, Shigella cells multiply intracellularly and spread to neighboring epithelial cells, resulting in tissue destruction and characteristic pathology of shigellosis. The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps and it is also commonly known to cause large and painful bowel movements. The stool may contain blood, mucus, or pus, hence, Shigella cells may cause dysentery. In rare cases, young children may have seizures, symptoms can take as long as a week to appear, but most often begin two to four days after ingestion. Symptoms usually last for days, but can last for weeks. Shigella is implicated as one of the causes of reactive arthritis worldwide. The diagnosis of shigellosis is made by isolating the organism from diarrheal fecal sample cultures, Shigella species are negative for motility and are generally not lactose fermenters, but S. sonnei can ferment lactose
12.
Plasmid
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A plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. They are most commonly found in bacteria as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules, however, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea, in nature, plasmids often carry genes that may benefit the survival of the organism, for example antibiotic resistance. Artificial plasmids are used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNA sequences within host organisms. Plasmids are considered replicons, a unit of DNA capable of replicating autonomously within a suitable host, however, plasmids, like viruses, are not generally classified as life. Plasmids can be transmitted from one bacterium to another via three mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation. This host-to-host transfer of material is called horizontal gene transfer. Unlike viruses, plasmids are naked DNA and do not encode genes necessary to encase the genetic material for transfer to a new host, however, some classes of plasmids encode the conjugative sex pilus necessary for their own transfer. The size of the plasmid varies from 1 to over 200 kbp, rather, plasmids provide a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer within a population of microbes and typically provide a selective advantage under a given environmental state. In order for plasmids to replicate independently within a cell, they must possess a stretch of DNA that can act as an origin of replication, the self-replicating unit, in this case the plasmid, is called a replicon. Smaller plasmids make use of the host replicative enzymes to make copies of themselves, a few types of plasmids can also insert into the host chromosome, and these integrative plasmids are sometimes referred to as episomes in prokaryotes. Plasmids almost always carry at least one gene, many of the genes carried by a plasmid are beneficial for the host cells, for example, enabling the host cell to survive in an environment that would otherwise be lethal or restrictive for growth. Plasmids can also provide bacteria with the ability to fix nitrogen, some plasmids, however, have no observable effect on the phenotype of the host cell or its benefit to the host cells cannot be determined, and these plasmids are called cryptic plasmids. Naturally occurring plasmids vary greatly in their physical properties and their size can range from very small mini-plasmids of less than a 1 kilobase pairs, to very large megaplasmids of several megabase pairs. At the upper end, little can differentiate between a megaplasmid and a minichromosome, Plasmids are generally circular, however examples of linear plasmids are also known. These linear plasmids require specialized mechanisms to replicate their ends, Plasmids may be present in an individual cell in varying number, ranging from one to several hundreds. The normal number of copies of plasmid that may be found in a cell is called the copy number, and is determined by how the replication initiation is regulated. Larger plasmids tend to have lower copy numbers, low-copy-number plasmids that exist only as one or a few copies in each bacterium are, upon cell division, in danger of being lost in one of the segregating bacteria. Such single-copy plasmids have systems that attempt to distribute a copy to both daughter cells
13.
Georgetown University School of Medicine
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Georgetown University School of Medicine, a medical school opened in 1851, is one of Georgetown Universitys five graduate schools. It is located on Reservoir Road in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, DC, Georgetown is the oldest Catholic medical school in the United States. The School is part of the Georgetown University Medical Center, which comprises roughly 80% of the research initiatives occurring at Georgetown University as a whole and it is the closest academic medical center in proximity to the National Institutes of Health. Georgetown and the NIH offer a combined GU-NIH PhD program in research to foster direct collaboration between the neighboring institutions. Technology leading to the introduction of the HPV vaccine, was developed at Georgetown Medical Center by Dr. Richard Schlegel, classes commenced in May 1851 and were only held at night until 1895. In 1898 the Georgetown University Hospital was established, in 1930, classes moved to the main campus. The School of Medicine offers an MD with a Research Track where MD students spend time in the laboratory and this is different from the MD/PhD program, which is longer and requires a PhD thesis. The School of Medicine and the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences cooperate to offer a program that leads to an MD. Research at Georgetown is especially strong in the areas of cancer, other combined degree programs include BA/MD, MD/MBA, and MD/MS. Georgetown University Medical Center comprises the School of Medicine, School of Nursing & Health Studies, Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, in 2008, GUMC brought in $132 million in sponsored research funds, most of which was federally funded. Clinical care is provided at Georgetown University Hospital and satellite locations through a partnership with MedStar Health, Georgetown University Hospital Georgetown University School of Medicine Georgetown University Medical Center MedStar Health
14.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
15.
University of Washington School of Medicine
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The University of Washington School of Medicine is a public medical school in the northwest United States, located in Seattle and affiliated with the University of Washington. UWSOM is the first public school in the states of Washington, Wyoming, Alaska, Montana. The school maintains a network of teaching facilities in more than 100 towns, as part of this WWAMI partnership, medical students from Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming spend their first year and a half at state universities in their home states. In addition, sixty students and forty second-year students from Washington are based in Spokane. In 2014, the UW School of Medicine was ranked #10 in research and #1 in primary care and in medicine by U. S. News. Only Harvard Medical School was awarded federal funding. In May 2013, it was announced that UW Medicine and PeaceHealth were coming together in a strategic affiliation, the American Civil Liberties Union criticized the merger as PeaceHealth is directed by the Catholic Ethical and Religious Directives and UW Medicine is taxpayer-funded. List of medical schools in the United States WWAMI Regional Medical Education Program Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine Official website
16.
Penicillin
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Penicillin is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G, penicillin V, procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin. Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci, penicillins are still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance following extensive use. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming, people began using it to treat infections in 1942. There are several enhanced penicillin families which are effective against additional bacteria, these include the penicillins, aminopenicillins. They are derived from Penicillium fungi, the term penicillin is often used generically to refer to benzylpenicillin, procaine benzylpenicillin, benzathine benzylpenicillin, and phenoxymethylpenicillin. Procaine penicillin and benzathine penicillin have the same activity as benzylpenicillin. Phenoxymethylpenicillin is less active against gram-negative bacteria than benzylpenicillin, infrequent adverse effects include fever, vomiting, erythema, dermatitis, angioedema, seizures, and pseudomembranous colitis. About 10% of people report that they are allergic to penicillin, however, serious allergies only occur in about 0. 03%. Penicillin can also induce serum sickness or a serum sickness-like reaction in some individuals, serum sickness is a type III hypersensitivity reaction that occurs one to three weeks after exposure to drugs including penicillin. It is not a drug allergy, because allergies are type I hypersensitivity reactions. Pain and inflammation at the site is also common for parenterally administered benzathine benzylpenicillin, benzylpenicillin. Significantly, there is a reaction to Streptolysin S, a toxin released by certain killed bacteria and associated with Penicillin injection. Allergic reactions to any β-lactam antibiotic may occur in up to 1% of patients receiving that agent, the allergic reaction is a Type I hypersensitivity reaction. Anaphylaxis will occur in approximately 0. 01% of patients and it has previously been accepted that there was up to a 10% cross-sensitivity between penicillin-derivatives, cephalosporins, and carbapenems, due to the sharing of the β-lactam ring. Assessments in 2006 found no risk for cross-allergy for second-generation or later cephalosporins than the first generation. However, as a risk, research shows that all beta lactams have the intrinsic hazard of very serious hazardous reactions in susceptible patients. Only the frequency of these reactions vary, based on the structure, bacteria constantly remodel their peptidoglycan cell walls, simultaneously building and breaking down portions of the cell wall as they grow and divide
17.
Antibiotics
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Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
18.
Escherichia coli
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Escherichia coli is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped, coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some serotypes can cause food poisoning in their hosts. The harmless strains are part of the flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2. E. coli is expelled into the environment within fecal matter, the bacterium grows massively in fresh fecal matter under aerobic conditions for 3 days, but its numbers decline slowly afterwards. E. coli and other facultative anaerobes constitute about 0. 1% of gut flora, cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them potential indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. A growing body of research, though, has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended periods outside of a host, the bacterium can be grown and cultured easily and inexpensively in a laboratory setting, and has been intensively investigated for over 60 years. E. coli is a chemoheterotroph whose chemically defined medium must include a source of carbon, under favorable conditions, it takes only 20 minutes to reproduce. E. coli is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and nonsporulating bacterium, cells are typically rod-shaped, and are about 2.0 μm long and 0. 25–1.0 μm in diameter, with a cell volume of 0. 6–0.7 μm3. E. coli stains Gram-negative because its cell wall is composed of a peptidoglycan layer. During the staining process, E. coli picks up the color of the counterstain safranin, the outer membrane surrounding the cell wall provides a barrier to certain antibiotics such that E. coli is not damaged by penicillin. Strains that possess flagella are motile, the flagella have a peritrichous arrangement. E. coli can live on a variety of substrates and uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate. Optimum growth of E. coli occurs at 37 °C, and it uses oxygen when it is present and available. It can, however, continue to grow in the absence of oxygen using fermentation or anaerobic respiration, the ability to continue growing in the absence of oxygen is an advantage to bacteria because their survival is increased in environments where water predominates. The bacterial cell cycle is divided into three stages, the B period occurs between the completion of cell division and the beginning of DNA replication. The C period encompasses the time it takes to replicate the chromosomal DNA, the D period refers to the stage between the conclusion of DNA replication and the end of cell division. The doubling rate of E. coli is higher when more nutrients are available, However, the length of the C and D periods do not change, even when the doubling time becomes less than the sum of the C and D periods. At the fastest growth rates, replication begins before the round of replication has completed, resulting in multiple replication forks along the DNA
19.
Stanley Norman Cohen
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Stanley Norman Cohen is an American geneticist and the Kwoh-Ting Li Professor in the Stanford University School of Medicine. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer were the first scientists to transplant genes from one living organism to another, thousands of products have been developed on the basis of their work, including human growth hormone and hepatitis B vaccine. According to microbiologist Hugh McDevitt, Cohens DNA cloning technology has helped biologists in virtually every field, without it, the face of biomedicine and biotechnology would look totally different. Cohen graduated from Rutgers University with a B. S. in 1956, during a residency at the National Institute for Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, he decided to combine basic research with a clinical practice. In 1967 he was a researcher at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Cohen joined the faculty of Stanford University in 1968 and he was appointed as a professor of medicine in 1975, and as a professor of genetics in 1977. In 1993, he became the Kwoh-Ting Li professor of genetics, at Stanford he began to explore the field of bacterial plasmids, seeking to understand how the genes of plasmids could make bacteria resistant to antibiotics. At a conference on plasmids in 1972, he met Herbert W. Boyer and discovered that their interests, plasmids were sent back and forth between Stanley Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, and others at Stanford, and Herbert Boyer and Robert B, helling at the University of California, San Francisco. The Stanford researchers isolated the plasmids, and sent them to the San Francisco team, the fragments were analyzed and sent back to Stanford, where Cohens team joined them and introduced them into Escherichia coli. Both laboratories then isolated and analyzed the newly created recombinant plasmids, not only were different plasmids from E. coli successfully joined and inserted back into E. coli cells, but those cells replicated and carried forward the new genetic information. Subsequent experiments that transferred Staphylococcus plasmid genes into E. coli demonstrated that genes could be transplanted between species, in 1976, Cohen co-authored a proposal for uniform nomenclature for bacterial plasmids. From 1978 to 1986, Cohen served as chair of the Department of Genetics at Stanford, during the 1970s and 1980s, Cohen was an active proponent of the potential benefits of DNA technology. He was a signatory of the Berg letter in 1974, which called for a moratorium on some types of research pending an evaluation of risk. He also attended the Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA in 1975 and he was vocal in the recombinant DNA controversy as the United States government attempted to develop policies for DNA research. Government efforts resulted in the creation of the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee and he has continued to study plasmid involvement in antibiotic resistance. In particular, he studies mobile genetic elements such as transposons which can jump between strains of bacteria and he has developed techniques for studying the behavior of genes in eukaryotic cells using reporter genes. Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer made what would be one of the first genetic engineering experiments and they demonstrated that the gene for frog ribosomal RNA could be transferred into bacterial cells and expressed by them
20.
Naomi Datta
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Naomi Datta, FRS was a distinguished British geneticist. Working at Hammersmith Hospital in the 1950s and early 1960s she identified horizontal gene transfer as a source of resistance in bacteria. After qualifying in medicine in 1946, Datta joined the Public Health Laboratory Service as a bacteriologist and she then worked at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at Hammersmith Hospital for almost three decades, joining as a lecturer in 1957 and later becoming Professor of Microbial Genetics. It was here that she made a significant breakthrough by demonstrating that antibiotic resistance could be transmitted between bacteria, the first time this had been shown outside Japan. 25 of the 309 were found to be drug-resistant, eight of which were resistant to Streptomycin which had used to treat the patients. Notably, Datta observed that earlier cultures of the salmonella typhimurium infection were not drug-resistant, in later years she published many important studies on the occurrence and significance of drug resistance plasmids in enterobacterial infections. For example, Dr. Datta co-authored a proposal for uniform nomenclature for bacterial plasmids and she also made distinguished contributions to research on the molecular biology of R factors, and she pioneered the classification of R factors and other plasmids by their incompatibilities. She found that some genes, including those for gentamycin resistance, are located on transposons and are readily transferred between replicons. Born Naomi Goddard in London, she was educated at St Marys School, Wantage in Oxfordshire, at the outbreak of the World War II she returned to England to study medicine at University College London. She married her husband, Prakash Datta, in 1943, having met him in Leatherhead, Surrey and she qualified as a doctor in 1946 and the following year worked as a junior doctor in various hospitals. Datta retired in 1984 and became Emeritus Professor of Microbial Genetics at the University of London, the year after her retirement, in 1985, she was elected to fellowship of the Royal Society. At 75, she was the oldest in the group, known for her cooking and hospitality, Datta contributed to the Royal Societys anthology on food But the crackling is superb
21.
Gene
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A gene is a locus of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity. The transmission of genes to an offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes, genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes as well as gene–environment interactions, genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotypical traits, usage of the term having a gene typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles, the concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel, from 1857 to 1864, in Brno, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas, although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype and phenotype, charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan and genesis / genos. Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction, de Vries called these units pangenes, after Darwins 1868 pangenesis theory. In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to gene, advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid was shown to be the repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination, collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics, in 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene, the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing, an automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project. The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the evolutionary synthesis
22.
Howard Taylor Ricketts
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Howard Taylor Ricketts was an American pathologist after whom the Rickettsiaceae family and the Rickettsiales are named. He was born in Findlay, Ohio, in the early part of his career, Ricketts undertook research at Northwestern University on blastomycosis. He later worked in the Bitterroot Valley of Montana and at the University of Chicago on Rocky Mountain spotted fever and this early pathology, entomology and epidemiology research in Hamilton, Montana lead to the eventual formation of the Rocky Mountain Laboratory there. While in Montana, Ricketts and his assistant discovered that the vector that carried the pathogen for Rocky Mountain spotted fever is a tick, the Rocky Mountain wood tick. It was not at once clear what kind of organism the pathogen was, eventually it was named Rickettsia, however, for decades, until electron microscopy and other technologies became sufficiently advanced, it was not known whether Rickettsiales were bacteria, viruses, or something in between. They now are known to be specialised for intracellular parasitism. Ricketts was devoted to his research and, on several occasions, the pathogen causing Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii was named after him. After this eponymous genus, the family and order were given their names. In 1910, Ricketts became interested in a strain of murine-carried typhus known as tabardillo due to an outbreak in Mexico City. Days after isolating the organism that he believed caused typhus, he died of the disease. Ricketts was survived by his wife, Myra Tubbs Ricketts, and his family established an annual student research prize, the Howard Taylor Ricketts Prize, at the University of Chicago in 1912. 100th Anniversary of the death of Ricketts, Howard Taylor Ricketts, the namesake of the Rickettsiaceae family. Works by or about Howard Taylor Ricketts at Internet Archive Howard Taylor Ricketts, a summary of investigations of the nature and means of transmission of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
23.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
24.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
25.
University of Guelph
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The University of Guelph is a comprehensive public research university in Guelph, Ontario, Canada. It offers over 94 undergraduate degrees,48 graduate programs, and 6 associate degrees in different disciplines. The Veterinary medicine program at the University of Guelph has ranked 4th in the world and it is given top marks for student satisfaction among medium-sized universities in Canada by The Globe and Mail. It has held these rankings with its reputation, innovative research-intensive programs, according to Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, the universitys Hospitality and Tourism Management program has Canadas highest research index. The University of Guelph has also been ranked 50th by Times Higher Education in their list of the top 100 universities under 50 years old, the university has a key focus on life science and has ranked 76-100 in the world by ARWU. The faculty at the University of Guelph hold 39 Canada Research Chair positions in the areas of natural sciences, engineering, health sciences. Its first building was Moreton Lodge, located where Johnston Hall now stands, which included classrooms, residences, a library, the Macdonald Institute was established in 1903 to house womens home economics programs, nature studies, and some domestic art and science. It was named after its financier, Sir William Macdonald, who worked to promote domestic sciences in rural Canada, the Ontario Veterinary College, founded in Toronto in 1862, was moved to Guelph in 1922. Famous economist John Kenneth Galbraith was an undergraduate at the college, the Ontario Legislature amalgamated the three colleges into the single body of the University of Guelph on May 8,1964. The University of Guelph Act also brought about the Board of Governors to oversee operations and financial management. The non-denominational graduate and undergraduate institution was, and remains known especially for the agricultural, the Macdonald Institute would also be renamed the College of Family and Consumer Studies during the split. After this split, the University of Guelph started reorganizing into its present-day form, the College of Physical Science would be married to the OACs School of Engineering in 1989, creating the College of Physical and Engineering Sciences. The College of Social Science and the College of Family and Consumer Studies were joined to create the College of Social, finally, the College of Management and Economics would be established from the segregation of offered business, management and economic degrees and courses in 2006. The university is named after the city, Guelph comes from the Italian Guelfo and the Bavarian-Germanic Welf also known as Guelf. The main university campus spans 412 hectares, including the 165-hectare University of Guelph Arboretum, the campus also has a number of notable midcentury modernist buildings, mostly in the Brutalism style, which were constructed in the 1960s as part of the schools expansion plan. Complexes such as the MacKinnon arts building and the McLaughlin library, overseen by architect Josep Lluis Sert, the campus is well-populated with trees which line the main walkways, many of which are paved with red clay brick. Campus safety is provided by the University of Guelph Campus Community Police, First Response Team, at one time, courses were offered in English in Guelph, Kemptville and Ridgetown, and in French at Campus dAlfred near Ottawa. In 2014, the University of Guelph announced that academic programmes at the Alfred, in early 2017, the University of Guelph web site clearly indicated that this institution was no longer offering programs at either location
26.
Guelph
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Guelph is a city in southwestern Ontario, Canada. Known as The Royal City, Guelph is roughly 28 kilometres east of Waterloo and 100 kilometres west of Downtown Toronto, at the intersection of Highway 6 and it is the seat of Wellington County, but is politically independent of it. The population in 2016 was 131,794, the current Guelph began as a settlement in the 1820s, started by John Galt, originally from Scotland, the first Superintendent of the Canada Company. He who based the headquarters, and his home, in the community, the area - much of what became Wellington County - had previously been part of the Halton Block, a Crown Reserve for the Six Nations Iroquois. Galt would later be considered as the founder of Guelph, because of its low crime rates, clean environment and generally high standard of living, Guelph is consistently rated as one of Canadas best places to live. Guelph has been noted as having one of the lowest unemployment rates in the country throughout the Great Recession, for many years, the city ranked at the bottom of Canadas crime severity list. Even after an increase, it had the second lowest crime rate in Canada in 2014, at 43. Before colonization, the area was considered by the indigenous communities to be a neutral zone. On selected dates, members from these communities would meet and trade goods by the Speed River. The street plan was out in a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown. John Galt of the Canada Company established Guelph in 1827 to serve as the headquarters during the development of the Huron Tract. In later years, the town came into its own as a prosperous railway, Guelph was founded by the symbolic felling of a tree on St. Georges Day, April 23,1827, the feast day of the patron saint of England. The directors of the Canada Company had actually wanted the city to be named Goderich, the building later became the first CPR station in the city. A historical plaque commemorates his role with the Canada Company in populating Upper Canadas Huron Tract, in addition to many tradesmen, the community had 15 stores, seven taverns, and some industry, tanneries, breweries, distilleries and a starch factory. The Post Office was receiving mail daily, Guelph was incorporated as a city in 1879. Despite optimism, the growth was very slow until the Grand Trunk Railroad reached it from Toronto in 1856, in that year. A few years later, George Sleeman Sr, the Canadian Communist Party began as an illegal organization in a rural barn near the town of Guelph, Ontario, on May 28 and 29,1921. Guelph was the home of North Americas first cable TV system, fredrick T. Metcalf created MacLean Hunter Television and their first broadcast was Queen Elizabeths Coronation in 1953
27.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
28.
National Academy of Medicine
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The National Academy of Medicine, formerly called the Institute of Medicine, is an American nonprofit, non-governmental organization. The National Academy of Medicine provides national advice on issues relating to science, medicine, and health. Operating outside the framework of the U. S. federal government, it relies on a volunteer workforce of scientists and other experts, the institute was founded in 1970, under the congressional charter of the National Academy of Sciences as the Institute of Medicine. These changes took effect on July 1,2015, the National Academies attempt to obtain authoritative, objective, and scientifically balanced answers to difficult questions of national importance. The work is conducted by committees of volunteer scientists—leading national and international experts—who serve without compensation, committees are composed in an attempt to assure the requisite expertise and to avoid bias or conflict of interest. Victor Dzau is President and Chairman of the Council and his six-year term began on July 1,2014. The Interim Leonard D. Schaeffer Executive Officer is Clyde J. Behney, the majority of studies and other activities are requested and funded by the federal government. Private industry, foundations, and state and local governments also initiate studies, reports are made available online for free by the publishing arm of the United States National Academies, the National Academies Press, in multiple formats. The academy is both an honorific membership organization and a research organization. Election to active membership is both an honor and a commitment to serve in Institute affairs, the bylaws specify that no more than 80 new members shall be elected annually, including 10 from outside the United States. The announcement of newly elected members occurs at the Annual Meeting in October, as of October 20,2015, the number of regular members plus international and emeritus members is 2,012. The Food and Nutrition Board is body within the NAM set up to study the safety and it publishes principles and guidelines for good nutrition. It judges the relationship between nutrition, good health and disease prevention, the New York Times called the IOM the United States most esteemed and authoritative adviser on issues of health and medicine, and its reports can transform medical thinking around the world. It is accompanied by a medal and $20,000
29.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
30.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
31.
William Thompson Sedgwick
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William Thompson Sedgwick was a teacher, epidemiologist, bacteriologist, and a key figure in shaping public health in the United States. He was president of scientific and professional organizations during his lifetime including president of the American Public Health Association in 1915. He was one of three founders of the joint MIT-Harvard School of Public Health in 1913, Sedgwick was born on December 29,1855 in West Hartford, CT. He was the son of William Sedgwick and Anne Thompson Sedgwick, in 1877, he received his undergraduate degree from the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale University. He studied for two years at the Yale School of Medicine where he was also an instructor in physiological chemistry and he left Yale to take up studies at Johns Hopkins University in physiology. He became interested in biology and changed his course of study graduating with a PhD in biology in 1881 and he remained at Hopkins for two years as an associate in biology. In 1883, Sedgwick was appointed to the faculty at MIT and he was promoted to associate professor in 1884 and to full professor in 1891. He became head of what became known as the Department of Biology at MIT. In 1888, Sedgwick began giving lectures in bacteriology to students in the engineering curriculum. His students became the spokesmen and practitioners who brought the principles of health into the practice of engineering beginning in the 1890s. While he has been hailed as the first scientific American epidemiologist and he taught ideas and principles to his students. Sedgwick influenced many practitioners in the field of public health, Sedgwick’s courses at MIT and his influence on civil engineering students there can be considered the first instructions in the field of public health. However, he and two colleagues felt that a formal academic structure was needed. In 1913, he joined with George C. Whipple and Milton J. Rosenau to establish the Harvard-MIT School for Public Health Officers and this was the first formal academic program designed to train public health professionals. The joint program lasted until 1922 when Harvard University decided to launch the Harvard School of Public Health, beginning in 1888, Sedgwick was appointed as consulting biologist to the Massachusetts State Board of Health. He directed bacteriological research at the Lawrence Experiment Station and sent his brightest engineering students to work there—including George W. Fuller, the Sedgwick-Rafter counting cell is still in use today. The Lawrence Experiment Station annual reports highlighted Sedgwick’s role as an epidemiologist. “In epidemiology, Sedgwick played a direct and personal role and he was, indeed, the first scientific American epidemiologist. ”Sedgwick used the annual report covering the work done in 1891 as a vehicle to publish his epidemiological studies of typhoid fever. ”At the end of the 19th century, the water supply for Jersey City, New Jersey was contaminated with sewage
32.
William H. Welch
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William Henry Welch was an American physician, pathologist, bacteriologist, and medical school administrator. He was one of the Big Four founding professors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. He was the first dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and was also the founder of the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health, Welch was more known for his cogent summations of current scientific work, than his own scientific research. The Johns Hopkins medical school library is named after Welch. In his lifetime he was called the Dean of American Medicine and received awards and honors throughout his lifetime. He was born on April 8,1850 to William Wickham Welch and Emeline Collin Welch in Norfolk and he had a long family history of physicians and surgeons, starting with his grandfather Benajmin Welch. Benjamin was also on the forefront of his time, establishing his countys medical association. William H. Welch was educated at Norfolk Academy and the Winchester Institute and his father as well as a grandfather and four of his uncles were all physicians. William Henry entered Yale University in 1866, where he studied Greek, initially, Welch was not interested in becoming a physician, his primary ambition was to teach the Greek language. He received an A. B. degree in 1870, as an undergraduate, he joined the Skull and Bones fraternity. After a short period of teaching school students in Norwich, New York, Welch went to study medicine at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. In 1875, he received his MD, from 1876 to 1877, he studied at several German laboratories to work with, among others, Julius Cohnheim. This experience abroad prompted Welch to model his plans for a new institute on the Institute of the History of Medicine at the University of Leipzig. He returned to America in 1877 and opened a lab at Bellevue Medical College, in 1884, he was the first physician recruited to be a professor at the newly-forming Johns Hopkins Hospital and Medical School at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore. By 1886 he had sixteen graduate physicians working in his laboratory – the first postgraduate training program for physicians in the country and he helped the trustees recruit the other founding physicians for the hospital – William Stewart Halsted, William Osler, and Howard Kelly. Welch became head of the Department of Pathology when the hospital opened in 1889, during this time, Welch was also involved in creating a new medical library for Johns Hopkins. He embarked on a sabbatical in Europe, where he visited the University of Leipzigs Institute and various other universities and these German institutions influenced Welchs design for the Institute of the History of Medicine at Johns Hopkins, which was established in October 1929. The new institute also built on the already existing Johns Hopkins Hospital Historical Club, Welch is also the founding editor-in-chief of the American Journal of Epidemiology
33.
Herbert William Conn
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Herbert William Conn was an American bacteriologist and educator. Instead, he was educated at Cushing Academy, a school in Ashburnham, Massachusetts. In August,1885, he was married to Julia M. Joel, following his graduation, Dr. Conn joined the staff of Wesleyan University as a biology instructor, becoming a biology professor in 1887 and founder of the Universitys biology department. He would hold the chair of biology for the remainder of his career, the same year he was named acting director of the department of zoology at Marthas Vineyard Summer Institute. From 1889–90 he taught biology at Trinity College, then was director of the Cold Springs Biological Laboratory from 1890–97, beginning in December,1898, he helped to found the American Society for Microbiology, serving as its secretary for three years then as its president in 1902. In 1901 he became a lecturer at the Connecticut Agricultural College. He was chosen as the Connecticut State Bacteriologist in 1905, and helped to organize, in March 1911, the New York Milk Committee appointed him to be a member of the National Commission on Milk Standards. During his career, Conn published more than 150 papers, as well as a series of school textbooks and he is notable for discovering that typhoid fever can be distributed by oysters, and was a recognized specialist in the bacteriology of dairy products. Dr. Conn was a proponent of home economics, and his text bacteria, yeasts, Works by Herbert William Conn at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Herbert William Conn at Internet Archive Conn, Herbert W. American Society for Microbiology, retrieved 2013-04-09
34.
Theobald Smith
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Theobald Smith ForMemRS was a pioneering epidemiologist and pathologist and is widely considered to be Americas first internationally significant medical research scientist. Smith was born in Albany, New York, and received a Bachelor of Philosophy degree from Cornell University in 1881, after his graduation from medical school, Smith held a variety of temporary positions which might broadly be considered under the modern heading of medical laboratory technician. Smith became the Inspector of the newly created Bureau of Animal Industry in 1884, after two years of work studying the efficacy of bacterial vaccination in pigs, Smith erroneously believed he had found the causative agent of hog cholera. Smith turned his attention to Texas fever, a cattle disease. In 1889, he along with the veterinarian F. L, kilbourne discovered Babesia bigemina, the tick-borne protozoan parasite responsible for Texas fever. Smith also taught at Columbian University in Washington, D. C. from 1886–1895, in 1887, Smith began research on water sanitation in his spare time, investigating the level of fecal coliform contamination in the Potomac River. Over the next five years, Smith expanded his studies to include the Hudson River, while Smiths work at the BAI had been highly productive, he chafed against the federal government bureaucracy and the lack of leadership from his supervisor. Smith joined the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research as Director of the Department of Animal Pathology in 1915, in 1933, Smith was awarded the Royal Societys prestigious Copley Medal For his original research and observation on diseases of animals and man. Observed differences between human and bovine tuberculosis, discussed the possibility of mosquitos as a malaria transmission vector. Brucellosis infections Smith used toxin/antitoxin as a vaccine for diphtheria, in the process of investigating an epidemic of infectious abortions of cattle in 1919, Smith described the bacteria responsible for fetal membrane disease in cows now known as Campylobacter fetus
35.
Edwin Oakes Jordan
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Edwin Oakes Jordan was a prominent American bacteriologist and public health scientist. Jordan’s scientific work began in 1888 right after his graduation from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and he built the Department of Bacteriology at the University of Chicago. He was a researcher who produced data of indisputable accuracy. His analytic mind and unwillingness to draw conclusions except from sufficient data are prominent in his reports on epidemics and he co-founded the Journal of Infectious Diseases, and was editor of the Journal of Preventive Medicine. He won the Sedgwick Memorial Medal in 1934 and his textbook of bacteriology has gone through many editions. Perhaps his most lasting contribution of continuing interest today is the 1925 book Epidemic Influenza, Jordan married Elsie Fay Pratt Jordan in 1893, and they had two sons, Henry Donaldson and Edwin Pratt, and a daughter Lucia Elizabeth Dunham. National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir Works by Edwin Oakes Jordan at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Edwin O. Jordan at Internet Archive
