1.
Starter solenoid
–
A starter solenoid is the part of an automobile which switches a large electric current to the starter motor, in response to a small control current, and which in turn sets the engine in motion. Its function is identical to that of a transistor. In many vehicles the solenoid also engages the starter pinion with the gear of the engine. An idle starter solenoid can receive an electric current from the car battery. When the ignition switch is turned on, an electric current is sent through the starter solenoid. This causes the starter solenoid to close a pair of contacts, thus relaying a large electric current through the starter motor. The starter motor is a series, compound, or permanent magnet type electric motor with a solenoid and solenoid operated switch mounted on it, once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened and the solenoid opens the contacts to the starter motor. All modern starters rely on the solenoid to engage the starter drive with the gear of the flywheel. When the solenoid is energized, it operates a plunger or lever which forces the pinion into mesh with the ring gear, the pinion incorporates a one way clutch so that when the engine starts and runs it will not attempt to drive the starter motor at excessive RPM. If a starter solenoid receives insufficient power from the battery, it fail to start the motor. The lack of power can be caused by a low battery, by corroded or loose connections in the battery cable, or by a damaged positive cable from the battery
2.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
3.
Electric motor
–
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
4.
Pneumatic motor
–
A pneumatic motor or compressed air engine is a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding compressed air. Pneumatic motors generally convert the compressed air energy to work through either linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can come from either a diaphragm or piston actuator, while rotary motion is supplied by either a vane type air motor, piston air motor, air turbine or gear type motor. Pneumatic motors have existed in many forms over the past two centuries, ranging in size from hand-held motors to engines of up to several hundred horsepower, some types rely on pistons and cylinders, others on slotted rotors with vanes and other uses turbines. Many compressed air engines improve their performance by heating the air or the engine itself. Pneumatic motors have found success in the hand-held tool industry. Continual attempts are being made to expand their use to the transportation industry, however, pneumatic motors must overcome inefficiencies before being seen as a viable option in the transportation industry. In order to linear motion from compressed air, a system of pistons is most commonly used. The compressed air is fed into a chamber that houses the shaft of the piston. Also inside this chamber a spring is coiled around the shaft of the piston in order to hold the chamber completely open when air is not being pumped into the chamber. As air is fed into the chamber the force on the shaft begins to overcome the force being exerted on the spring. As more air is fed into the chamber, the pressure increases, when it reaches its maximum length the air pressure is released from the chamber and the spring completes the cycle by closing off the chamber to return to its original position. Piston motors are the most commonly used in hydraulic systems, essentially, piston motors are the same as hydraulic motors except they are used to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Piston motors are used in series of two, three, four, five, or six cylinders that are enclosed in a housing. A type of motor, known as a rotary vane motor. The rotating element is a rotor which is mounted on a drive shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with a freely sliding rectangular vane, the vanes are extended to the housing walls using springs, cam action, or air pressure, depending on the motor design. Air is pumped through the input which pushes on the vanes creating the rotational motion of the central shaft
5.
Hydraulic motor
–
A hydraulic motor is a mechanical actuator that converts hydraulic pressure and flow into torque and angular displacement. The hydraulic motor is the counterpart of the hydraulic cylinder. However, most hydraulic pumps cannot be used as hydraulic motors because they cannot be backdriven, also, a hydraulic motor is usually designed for working pressure at both sides of the motor. Hydraulic pumps, motors, and cylinders can be combined into hydraulic drive systems, one or more hydraulic pumps, coupled to one or more hydraulic motors, constitute a hydraulic transmission. One of the first rotary hydraulic motors to be developed was that constructed by William Armstrong for his Swing Bridge over the River Tyne, two motors were provided, for reliability. Each one was a three-cylinder single-acting oscillating engine, Armstrong developed a wide range of hydraulic motors, linear and rotary, that were used for a wide range of industrial and civil engineering tasks, particularly for docks and moving bridges. The first simple fixed-stroke hydraulic motors had the disadvantage that they used the volume of water whatever the load. Unlike steam engines, as water is incompressible, they could not be throttled or their valve cut-off controlled, to overcome this, motors with variable stroke were developed. Adjusting the stroke, rather than controlling admission valves, now controlled the power and water consumption. One of the first of these was Arthur Riggs patent engine of 1886 and this used a double eccentric mechanism, as used on variable stroke power presses, to control the stroke length of a three cylinder radial engine. Later, the engine with an adjustable swashplate angle would become a popular way to make variable stroke hydraulic motors. For an explanation of plunger and piston, see hydraulic cylinder Many designs are possible, the following types of hydraulic motors are available, Gear and vane motors are used in simple rotating systems. Their benefits include low initial cost and high rpm, a gear motor consists of two gears, the driven gear and the idler gear. High pressure oil is ported into one side of the gears, the gears then mesh, not allowing the oil from the outlet side to flow back to the inlet side. An especially positive attribute of the motor is that catastrophic breakdown is less common than in most other types of hydraulic motors. This is because the gears gradually wear down the housing and/or main bushings, reducing the efficiency of the motor gradually until it is all. This often happens long before wear causes the unit to seize or break down, a vane motor consists of a housing with an eccentric bore, in which runs a rotor with vanes in it that slide in and out. The force differential created by the force of the pressurized fluid on the vanes causes the rotor to spin in one direction
6.
Four-stroke engine
–
A four-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning a crankshaft. A stroke refers to the travel of the piston along the cylinder. The four separate strokes are termed, Intake, also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top dead center and ends at bottom dead center. In this stroke the valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion. Compression, This stroke begins at B. D. C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, in this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed during this stage, combustion, also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree revolution, while the piston is at T. D. C. The compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a plug or by heat generated by high compression. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft, during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns from B. D. C. to T. D. C. While the exhaust valve is open and this action expels the spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve. Nikolaus August Otto as a man was a traveling salesman for a grocery concern. In his travels he encountered the internal combustion engine built in Paris by Belgian expatriate Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, in 1860, Lenoir successfully created a double-acting engine that ran on illuminating gas at 4% efficiency. The 18 litre Lenoir Engine produced only 2 horsepower, the Lenoir engine ran on illuminating gas made from coal, which had been developed in Paris by Philip Lebon. In testing a replica of the Lenoir engine in 1861 Otto became aware of the effects of compression on the fuel charge, in 1862, Otto attempted to produce an engine to improve on the poor efficiency and reliability of the Lenoir engine. He tried to create an engine that would compress the fuel prior to ignition. Many other engineers were trying to solve the problem, with no success, in 1864, Otto and Eugen Langen founded the first internal combustion engine production company, NA Otto and Cie. Otto and Cie succeeded in creating an atmospheric engine that same year. The factory ran out of space and was moved to the town of Deutz, in 1872, Gottlieb Daimler was technical director and Wilhelm Maybach was the head of engine design
7.
Starter ring gear
–
The teeth of the starter ring are driven by the smaller gear of the starter motor. The primary function of the ring is to transfer torque from the starter motor pinion to the flywheel or flexplate to rotate the engine to begin the cycle. The starter ring gear is most commonly made by forming a length of square or rectangular steel bar into a circle, there then follow various operations such as normalising, turning, generating the teeth by gear hobbing and finally a heat-treatment operation. The teeth of the starter ring need to be hardened in order to increase their strength, the normal hardness at pitch circle diameter is 45-55 HRC. The body of the ring is left untreated which gives some ductility for shrinking onto a flywheel or welding to a flexplate. Engines with manual transmission usually have a flywheel, typically 5 to 10 kg of cast iron. This is done by heating the ring to around 200 °C to expand the ring which is placed onto the flywheel. The interference fit renders the starter ring firmly attached to the flywheel, engines with automatic transmissions instead have a pressed steel plate with the starter ring gear usually welded onto the outside of the plate
8.
Flywheel
–
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational energy. Flywheels resist changes in speed by their moment of inertia. The amount of stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational speed. For example flywheels are used in reciprocating engines because the torque from the individual pistons is intermittent. Energy storage systems Flywheel energy storage Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source and this is achieved by collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that exceed the abilities of the energy source. High energy density flywheels can be made of fiber composites and employ magnetic bearings. Carbon-composite flywheel batteries have recently been manufactured and are proving to be viable in real-world tests on mainstream cars, additionally, their disposal is more eco-friendly. Flywheels are often used to provide power output in systems where the energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth fast angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case, a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston, another example is the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars. In unstressed and inexpensive cases to save on cost the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is toward the rim of the wheel, pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation heightens rotational inertia for a given total mass. A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at power levels that exceed the abilities of its energy source, for example flywheels are used in power hammers and riveting machines. Flywheels can be used to control direction and oppose unwanted motions, a flywheel is a spinning wheel, or disc, or rotor, rotating around its symmetry axis. The moment of inertia is a measure of resistance to torque applied on a spinning object. When calculating with SI units, the units would be for mass, kilograms, for radius, meters, and for angular velocity, radians per second, increasing amounts of rotation energy can be stored in the flywheel until the rotor shatters. This happens when the stress within the rotor exceeds the ultimate tensile strength of the rotor material. Flywheels are made from different materials, the application determines the choice of material. Small flywheels made of lead are found in children’s toys, cast iron flywheels are used in old steam engines
9.
Airship
–
An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
10.
Norbert Riedel
–
Norbert Riedel was an engineer and entrepreneur. Riedel studied mechanical engineering and worked in the 1930s, first with Ardie, during the Second World War, he developed a starter engine for the first German jet engine-powered combat aircrafts powerplants. The starter system, which consisted of a Riedel 10 hp two-stroke flat engine hidden in the intake, a hole in the extreme nose of the centrebody contained a manual pull-handle which started the piston engine, which in turn rotated the compressor. Two small petrol tanks were fitted in the annular intake, the engine was considered an extreme short stroke design so it could fit in the hub of the turbine compressor. For reduction it had a planetary gear. In 1947, he founded the Riedel Motoren AG in Immenstadt, by the end of 195112,000 units were built. In December 1949, Riedel began design work for the scooter Till Riedel, in development was also an Imme with a two-cylinder engine. After the bankruptcy of Riedel Motoren AG he went back to Victoria, where he developed the models Victoria Swing, the Peggy was provided with a novel electromagnetic pushbutton circuit, electric starter, fan cooling and a propulsion unit swingarm. Also, the swing was equipped with the pushbutton circuit, norbert Riedel died in 1963 in an avalanche. blogspot. com, Classic Car and Motorcycle Heritage, Die Imme 100 Bernies Bike Shed, Imme R1001950
11.
Jumo 004
–
The Junkers Jumo 004, was the worlds first production turbojet engine in operational use, and the first successful axial compressor turbojet engine. Variants and copies of the engine were produced in Eastern Europe, the feasibility of jet propulsion had been demonstrated in Germany in early 1937 by Hans von Ohain working with the Heinkel company. The companies remained skeptical and little new development was carried out, in 1939 Schelp and Mauch visited the companies to check up on progress. Otto Mader, head of the Junkers Motorenweke division of the large Junkers aviation firm, stated that if the concept was useful. Schelp responded by stating that Dr Anselm Franz, then in charge of Junkers turbo- and supercharger development, Franz started his development team later that year, and the project was given the RLM designation 109-004. Franz opted for a design that was at once conservative and revolutionary, the axial-flow compressor not only had excellent performance, about 78% efficient in real world conditions, but it also had a smaller cross-section, important for high-speed aircraft. On the other hand, he aimed to produce an engine that was far below its potential, in the interests of expediting development. One major decision was to opt for a simple combustion area using six flame cans, Fedden himself criticized the attachment of the 004s compressor casing, which was in two halves, bolted to the half-sections of the stator assemblies. The first prototype 004A, which was constructed to run on fuel, was first tested in October 1940. It was benchtested at the end of January 1941 to a top thrust of 430 kgf, and work continued to increase the output, vibration problems with the compressor stators, originally cantilevered from the outside, delayed the program at this point. Max Bentele, as an Air Ministry consulting engineer with a background in turbocharger vibrations, the original aluminium stators were replaced with steel ones in which configuration the engine developed 5.9 kN in August, and passed a 10-hour endurance run at 9.8 kN in December. The first flight test took place on March 15,1942, the 004 used an eight-stage axial-flow compressor, with a number of axial combustion chambers, and a one-stage turbine with hollow blades. On July 18, one of the prototype Messerschmitt Me 262s flew for the first time under jet power from its 004 engines, Franz realized that the Jumo 004 would have to be redesigned to incorporate a minimum of these strategic materials, and this was accomplished. The engines operational lifespan was shortened, but on the side it became easier to construct. Production engines had a cast magnesium casing in two halves, one with half-sections of stator assemblies bolted to it, the four front stators were constructed from steel alloy blades welded to the mount, the rear five were pressed steel sheet bent over the mount and welded on. Steel alloy compressor blades dovetailled into slots in the disk and were fixed by small screws. The compressor itself was mounted to a shaft with twelve set screws. A hole in the nose of the intake diverter body contained a pull-handle for the cable which turned-over the piston engine
12.
Crank (mechanism)
–
A crank is an arm attached at a right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa, the arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, the end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. The term often refers to a crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace. In this case a persons arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, there is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached. Familiar examples include, Mechanical pencil sharpener Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes, manually operated car window The carpenters brace is a compound crank. The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles, the crankset that drives a bicycle via the pedals. Treadle sewing machine Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks to transform the motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft, the displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center. The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the cranks cycle. The relationship between the two is approximately, τ = F r sin where τ is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod smallend speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank rotational velocity. 17615° after TDC. Then, using the sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is 88. 21738°. When the crank is driven by the rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. At these points in the cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland
13.
Freewheel
–
An overdrive is sometimes mistakenly called a freewheel, but is otherwise unrelated. The condition of a driven shaft spinning faster than its driveshaft exists in most bicycles when the rider holds his or her feet still, in a fixed-gear bicycle, without a freewheel, the rear wheel would drive the pedals around. Saab used a system in their two-stroke models for this reason and maintained it in the Saab 96 V4. The simplest freewheel device consists of two saw-toothed, spring-loaded discs pressing against each other with the sides together, somewhat like a ratchet. Rotating in one direction, the saw teeth of the drive disc lock with the teeth of the driven disc, a more sophisticated and rugged design has spring-loaded steel rollers inside a driven cylinder. Rotating in one direction, the lock with the cylinder making it rotate in unison. Rotating slower, or in the direction, the steel rollers just slip inside the cylinder. Most bicycle freewheels use an internally step-toothed drum with two or more spring-loaded, hardened steel pawls to transmit the load, the Saab freewheel can be engaged or disengaged by the driver by respectively pushing or pulling a lever. This will lock or unlock the main shaft with the freewheel hub, without a live PTO, a high inertial load can cause the tractor to continue to move forward even when the foot clutch is depressed, creating an unsafe condition. By disconnecting the load from the PTO under these conditions, the overrunning clutch improves safety, a freewheel assembly is also widely used on engine starters as a kind of protective device. Starter motors usually need to spin at 3,000 RPM to get the engine to turn over. When the key is held in the position for any amount of time after the engine has started. Once the engine has turned over and is running, the clutch will release the starter from the flywheel. A freewheel clutch is now used in motorcycles with an electric starter motor. It is used as a replacement for the Bendix drive used on most auto starters because it reduces the needs of the starting system. In addition to the uses listed above, freewheels were used in some luxury or up-market conventional cars from the 1930s into the 1960s. The freewheel meant that the returned to its idle speed on the overrun. The mechanism could usually be locked to provide braking if needed
14.
Ignition timing
–
In a vast majority of cases, the angle will be described as a certain angle advanced before top dead center. Sparks occurring after top dead center are usually counter-productive unless there is need for a supplemental or continuing spark prior to the exhaust stroke, Setting the correct ignition timing is crucial in the performance of an engine. Sparks occurring too soon or too late in the cycle are often responsible for excessive vibrations. The ignition timing affects many variables including engine longevity, fuel economy, modern engines that are controlled in real time by an engine control unit use a computer to control the timing throughout the engines RPM and load range. Older engines that use mechanical spark distributors rely on inertia and manifold vacuum in order to set the timing throughout the engines RPM. Early cars required the driver to adjust timing via controls according to driving conditions, there are many factors that influence proper ignition timing for a given engine. Usually, any engine changes or upgrades will require a change to the ignition timing settings of the engine. Spark timing, relative to piston position, is based on static timing without mechanical advance, the distributors centrifugal timing advance mechanism makes the spark occur sooner as engine speed increases. Many of these engines also use a vacuum advance that advances timing during light loads and deceleration. This typically applies to use, marine gasoline engines generally use a similar system. In mid-1963, Ford offered transistorized ignition on their new 427 FE V8, engines so equipped carried special stickers on their valve covers reading “427-T. ”AC Delco’s Delcotron Transistor Control Magnetic Pulse Ignition System became optional on a number of General Motors vehicles beginning in 1964. The Delco system eliminated the mechanical points completely, using magnetic flux variation for current switching, in 1967, Ferrari and Fiat Dinos came equipped with Magneti Marelli Dinoplex electronic ignition, and all Porsche 911s had electronic ignition beginning with the B-Series 1969 models. In 1972, Chrysler introduced a magnetically-triggered pointless electronic ignition system as standard equipment on some production cars, Electronic control of ignition timing was introduced a few years later in 1975-76 with the introduction of Chryslers computer-controlled Lean-Burn electronic spark advance system. By 1979 with the Bosch Motronic engine management system, technology had advanced to include control of both the ignition timing and fuel delivery. These systems form the basis of modern management systems. Timing advance refers to the number of degrees before top dead center that the spark will ignite the mixture in the combustion chamber during the compression stroke. Retarded timing can be defined as changing the timing so that fuel ignition happens later than the specified time. For example, if the timing specified by the manufacturer was set at 12 degrees BTDC initially and adjusted to 11 degrees BTDC, it would be referred to as retarded
15.
Arnold (automobile)
–
The Arnold was one of the first motor cars manufactured in the United Kingdom. It was produced in East Peckham, Kent between 1896 and 1898, william Arnold & Sons of East Peckham, Kent, was an agricultural engineering company founded in about 1844. In 1895 they acquired a licence to build Benz cars, as the Arnold Motor Carriage Co. from 1896 to 1898. The firm built twelve cars patterned after the Benz but fitted with their own engines, Two Arnolds were exhibited at Crystal Palace in 1896. One Arnold from 1896 was fitted with the world’s first self-starter and this was a dynamotor coupled to the flywheel, designed to assist the car on hills and well as starting the engine, Two Arnold cars survive. List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom Arnold, in G. N, the Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars 1885–1968. Photo of one of the two surviving Arnold cars
16.
East Peckham
–
East Peckham is a village in Kent, England, made up of nine hamlets and situated about 5 miles east of Tonbridge on the River Medway. It was the centre for the hop growing industry in Kent and is home to the Hop Farm which has the worlds largest collection of Oast Houses. The Domesday entry for East and West Peckham reads, - The Archbishop himself holds Pecheham, In the time of King Edward the Confessor it was taxed at six sulungs, the arable land is ten carucates. In demesne there are two, and sixteen villeins, with fourteen borderers, having four carucates and a half, there is a church, and ten servants, and one mill, and six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of six hogs, richard de Tonebridge holds of the same favour two sulungs and one yoke, and has there twenty-seven villeins, having seven carucates, and wood for the pannage of ten hogs. The whole value being four pounds, in the time of King Edward the Confessor, the manor was worth twelve pounds, when the Archbishop received it eight pounds, and now what he has is worth eight pounds. Part of the manor of East Farleigh lay within what is now East Peckham, ralph Fitz Turold holds of the bishop half a sulung in Estockingeberge. In the time of King Edward the Confessor, two Freemen held it, and then like now, and it is valued at twenty shillings, there is a persistent myth that the village was originally sited a few miles away towards Mereworth although there is no evidence of this. Although Sheet 80 of the First Edition One-Inch Ordnance Survey map published on 1 January 1819 does indeed show the village as being two miles north east of its present location. St Michaels church stands on high ground two miles to the north of the village, and is now cared for by the Churches Conservation Trust, in the mid-nineteenth century the new parish church of the Holy Trinity was built in the village. The architects were Whichcord and Walker of Maidstone, and the stone was laid on 24 October 1840. The River Bourne flows through the parish, and formerly powered a watermill before joining the River Medway, there was another watermill on the River Medway at Branbridges. In the past, East Peckham has been flooded many times. The East Peckham Flood Relief partnership was formed in 2003, a dam has been built on the Coult Stream at Bullen Farm. It is 160 metres long and 4 metres high and has the capacity to hold 80,000 cubic metres of floodwater, the scheme cost just over £1 million. In 2012, an amateur theatre group, The Russett Players, was formed in the village. On 28 January 1896 Walter Arnold, of East Peckham, was summonsed for travelling at 8 mph in a motorised vehicle and he had been caught by a policeman who had given chase on a bicycle. He was fined 1 shilling plus costs, the first speeding fine in England, East Peckham is twinned with Chéreng, Nord, France
17.
England
–
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
18.
Charles F. Kettering
–
Charles Franklin Kettering was an American inventor, engineer, businessman, and the holder of 186 patents. He was a founder of Delco, and was head of research at General Motors from 1920 to 1947, among his most widely used automotive developments were the electrical starting motor and leaded gasoline. In association with the DuPont Chemical Company, he was responsible for the invention of Freon refrigerant for refrigeration. At DuPont he also was responsible for the development of Duco lacquers and enamels, while working with the Dayton-Wright Company he developed the Bug aerial torpedo, considered the worlds first aerial missile. He led the advancement of practical, lightweight diesel engines, revolutionizing the locomotive. In 1927, he founded the Kettering Foundation, a research foundation. He was on the cover of Time Magazine on January 9,1933, Charles was born in Loudonville, Ohio, United States, the fourth of five children of Jacob Kettering and Martha Hunter Kettering. Poor eyesight gave him headaches in school, after graduation he followed his sister Emma into a teaching position at Bunker Hill School. By all accounts he was an engaging and innovative teacher and he attracted students to evening scientific demonstrations on electricity, heat, magnetism, and gravity. He took classes at The College of Wooster, before transferring to The Ohio State University and he was a member of the Delta Upsilon Fraternity. Eye problems forced him to withdraw, and he took a job as foreman of a telephone line crew, at first, the termination of his studies caused him to be depressed. Then he found ways to apply his engineering skills on the job. He also met his wife, Olive Williams. When his eye condition improved, he was able to return to his studies, Kettering was hired directly out of school to head up the research laboratory at National Cash Register. Kettering distinguished himself as a practical inventor, as he said, I didnt hang around much with other inventors and the executive fellows. I lived with the sales gang and they had some real notion of what people wanted. During his five years at NCR, from 1904 to 1909 and he attributed his success to a good amount of luck but added, I notice the harder I work, the luckier I get. Beginning in 1907, his NCR colleague Edward A, Deeds convinced Kettering to develop improvements for the young automobile
19.
Henry M. Leland
–
Henry Martyn Leland was an American machinist, inventor, engineer and automotive entrepreneur. He founded the two premier American luxury automotive marques, Cadillac and Lincoln, Henry M. Leland was born to Leander and Zilpha, the youngest of 8, in Vermont in 1843. Sources differ on the town of his birth, he grew up in Barton and he learned engineering and precision machining in the Brown & Sharpe plant at Providence, Rhode Island. He subsequently worked in the industry, including at Colt. These experiences in toolmaking, metrology, and manufacturing steeped him in the 19th-century zeitgeist of interchangeability and he also invented the electric barber clippers, and for a short time produced a unique toy train, the Leland-Detroit Monorail. Leland created the Cadillac automobile, later bought out by General Motors, in 1902, William Murphy and his partners at the Henry Ford Company hired Leland to appraise the companys factory and tooling prior to liquidation. The directors lost no time in renaming the company Cadillac, at Cadillac, Leland applied many modern manufacturing principles to the fledgling automotive industry, including the use of interchangeable parts. The Cadillac won the Dewar Trophy for 1908, Leland sold Cadillac to General Motors on July 29,1909 for $4.5 million, but remained as an executive until 1917. With Charles Kettering, he developed a self-starter for the Cadillac and he prodded Kettering to design a workable electric starter after a Cadillac engineer was hit in the head and killed by a starting crank when the engine backfired. He left General Motors in a dispute with company founder William C. Durant over producing materiel during World War I, Cadillac had been asked to build Liberty aircraft engines but Durant was a pacifist. Leland founded Lincoln, later purchased by the Ford Motor Company, Leland formed the Lincoln Motor Company, got a $10,000,000 contract and started building the V12 Liberty engine. After the war, the company was reorganized, and the Lincoln Motor Company Plant was retooled to manufacture luxury automobiles, the V8 engine used in the first Lincoln automobiles is said to be influenced by the Liberty engines design. In 1922, Lincoln became insolvent and was out by Henry Fords Ford Motor Company. Fords bid of $8 million was the bid at a receivers sale. Ford had first offered $5 million, but the judge would not accept it for a company whose assets were conservatively estimated at $16 million. Ford deliberately low-balled his offer as revenge against Lelands role in the creation of Cadillac, after the sale, Leland and his son Wilfred continued to run the company, believing they would still have full control to run the company as they saw fit. Ford assigned a number of their people to Lincoln, they said to learn, however, it soon became clear they were there to streamline their production and stop the loss of money that had bankrupted Lincoln. Relations between the Henry Ford and Leland workers continued to deteriorate, on June 10,1922, Ford executive Ernest Liebold arrived at Lincoln to ask for the resignation of Wilfred Leland
20.
Delco Electronics
–
Delco Electronics Corporation was the automotive electronics design and manufacturing subsidiary of General Motors based in Kokomo, Indiana. The name Delco came from the Dayton Engineering Laboratories Co. founded in Dayton, Ohio, by Charles Kettering, Delco was responsible for several innovations in automobile electric systems, including the first reliable battery ignition system and the first practical automobile self-starter. Initially Kettering and Deeds were co-workers at National Cash Register Company, Kettering and Deeds had a lifelong professional relationship and friendship. In 1904, Deeds hired Kettering at NCR to motorize the cash register, around 1908, Deeds asked for help with a car he was building from a kit. Leaving NCR in 1909, Kettering focused on development of this ignition set. In 1909, when Henry Leland of Cadillac ordered 5,000 ignition sets, Deeds, the ignition system was introduced on the 1910 Cadillac. In 1911, Kettering invented and filed for U. S, patent 1,150,523 for the first useful electric starter, adapted from a cash register motor. The starters were first installed by Cadillac on production models in 1912, in 1915, Deeds left NCR to devote himself full-time to Delco. The Delco brand name was associated with production units of the company such as Delco Light, Delco Products, Delco Moraine. During World War I, the Delco plant in Moraine, Ohio, was expanded to manufacture the De Havilland DH.4 bomber, more than 3,000 were built in Moraine for the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company. Delco was also one of the manufacturers that produced the Liberty aircraft engine, all of these latter companies were associated with Charles Kettering, Edward A. Deeds, and Harold E. Talbott. Kettering became vice president of General Motors Research Corporation in 1920 and he held the position as head of research for GM for 27 years. While Delco Products promised a lot with their invention, it never became an option on GM autos either as production or an addon, in 1936, Delco began producing the first dashboard-installed car radios. By the early 1970s, Delco had become a supplier of automotive electronics equipment. Based in Kokomo, Indiana, Delco Electronics employed more than 30,000 at its peak, in early 1956, Delco produced a transistorized hybrid signal-seeking car radio, which used both vacuum tubes and transistors in its radios circuitry. Transistors were used to replace the audio output vacuum tubes. This transistorized hybrid radio was available as an option on the 1956 Chevrolet Corvette car models, in 1957, Delco produced an all-transistor signal-seeking car radio that was available for the 1957 Cadillac Eldorado Brougham car models. In 1962, GM created the General Motors Research Laboratories, based in Santa Barbara, California, to conduct research and this organization was eventually merged into Delco Electronics and renamed Delco Systems Operations
21.
NCR Corporation
–
They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR had been based in Dayton, Ohio, starting in 1884, NCR was founded in 1884 and acquired by AT&T in 1991. A restructuring of AT&T in 1996 led to NCRs re-establishment January 1,1997 as a separate company, NCR is the only AT&T spin-off company that has retained its original name—all the others have either been purchased or renamed following subsequent mergers. The company began as the National Manufacturing Company of Dayton, Ohio, was established to manufacture, in 1884, the company and patents were bought by John Henry Patterson and his brother Frank Jefferson Patterson, and the firm was renamed the National Cash Register Company. Patterson formed NCR into one of the first modern American companies by introducing new, aggressive sales methods and he established the first sales training school in 1893 and introduced a comprehensive social welfare program for his factory workers. Other significant figures in the history of the company were Charles F. Kettering, Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Deeds and Kettering went on to found Dayton Engineering Laboratories Company which later became Delco Products Division of General Motors, Watson eventually worked his way up to general sales manager. At an uninspiring sales meeting, Watson interrupted, saying The trouble with one of us is that we dont think enough. We dont get paid for working with our feet — we get paid for working with our heads, Watson then wrote THINK on the easel. Signs with this motto were erected in factory buildings, sales offices, THINK later became a widely known symbol of IBM. Kettering designed the first cash register powered by a motor in 1906. Within a few years he developed the Class 1000 register which was in production for 40 years, telephone Credit Authorization system for verifying credit in department stores. When John H. Patterson and his brother took over the company, cash registers were expensive, there was little demand for the expensive device, but Patterson believed the product would sell once shopkeepers understood it would drastically decrease theft by salesclerks. He created a team known as the American Selling Force which worked on commissions and followed a standard sales script. The philosophy was to sell a business rather than just a piece of machinery. Sales demonstrations were set up in hotels depicting a store interior complete with real merchandise, the sale prospect was described as the P. P. or Probable Purchaser. Once initial objections were swept aside and the P. P. admitted to internal theft losses, the deal was sealed with a 25 cent cigar. NCR expanded quickly and became multi-national in 1888, between 1893 and 1906 it acquired a number of smaller cash register companies
22.
Cash register
–
It is usually attached to a drawer for storing cash and other valuables. The cash register is usually attached to a printer, that can print out receipts for record keeping purposes. An early mechanical cash register was invented by James Ritty and John Birch following the American Civil War, James was the owner of a saloon in Dayton, Ohio, USA, and wanted to stop employees from pilfering his profits. The Ritty Model I was invented in 1879 after seeing a tool that counted the revolutions of the propeller on a steamship, with the help of James brother John Ritty, they patented it in 1883. It was called Rittys Incorruptible Cashier and it was invented for the purpose to stop cashiers of pilfering and eliminating employee theft or embezzlement, early mechanical registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the key was pushed, the drawer opened. Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines, in 1884 Eckert sold the company to John H. The original purpose of the receipt was enhanced fraud protection, the business owner could read the receipts to ensure that cashiers charged customers the correct amount for each transaction and did not embezzle the cash drawer. It also prevents a customer from defrauding the business by falsely claiming receipt of an amount of change or a transaction that never happened in the first place. The first evidence of a cash register was used in Coalton, Ohio. In 1906, while working at the National Cash Register company, a leading designer, builder, manufacturer, seller and exporter of cash registers from the 1950s until the 1970s was London-based Gross Cash Registers Ltd. founded by brothers Sam and Henry Gross. Sweda also had decimal-ready registers where the retailer used a key on Decimal Day for the conversion. Often cash registers are attached to scales, barcode scanners, checkstands, increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose computers with POS software. Cash registers use bitmap characters for printing and these POS terminals will often also identify the cashier on the receipt, and carry additional information or offers. Currently, many cash registers are individual computers and they may be running traditionally in-house software or general purpose software such as DOS. Many of the newer ones have touch screens and they may be connected to computerized point of sale networks using any type of protocol. Such systems may be accessed remotely for the purpose of obtaining records or troubleshooting, many businesses also use tablet computers as cash registers, utilizing the sale system as downloadable app-software. Cash registers include a key labeled No Sale, abbreviated NS on many modern electronic cash registers and its function is to open the drawer, printing a receipt stating No Sale and recording in the register log that the register was opened
23.
Cadillac
–
Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
24.
Cadillac Model Thirty
–
The Cadillac Model Thirty is an automobile that was introduced in December 1909 by Cadillac, and sold through 1911. It was the only model for those years and was based on the 1907 Model G. The 1912 Model 1912,1913 Model 1913, and 1914 Model 1914 were similar, the 1910 model was available with a closed body, the first time a US automobile manufacturer had offered this type. The engine was the same 226.2 in³ four-cylinder L-head design used in the Model G, the engine was bored out to 255.4 in³ for 1910 and 286.3 in³ for 1911 and 1912. The engine was reworked, with a stroke, for 1913. This same engine served in 1914, the 1912 model was awarded the Dewar Trophy for its electrical system, including its electric starter. The entire range was revamped and given a V8 engine for 1915
25.
Lanchester Motor Company
–
The Lanchester Motor Company Limited was a car manufacturer located until early 1931 at Armourer Mills, Montgomery Street, Sparkbrook, Birmingham, and afterwards at Sandy Lane, Coventry England. Lanchester was purchased by the BSA Group at the end of 1930, so, with Daimler, Lanchester became part of Jaguar Cars in 1960. The rights to the Lanchester brand now belong to Tata Motors of India, the Lanchester Motor Company Limited is still registered as an active company and accounts are filed each year, although as of 2014 it is marked as non-trading. Others who took directorships included the Whitfield brothers, J. S. Taylor and Hamilton Barnsley – a master builder who sold the business to BSA-Daimler in 1931. Work on the first Lanchester car had started in 1895, significantly designed from first principles as a car, not a horseless carriage. It had a single-cylinder 1306 cc engine with the piston having two connecting rods to separate crankshafts and flywheels rotating in opposite directions giving very smooth running, a two-cylinder engine was fitted to the same chassis in 1897 and a second complete car was built alongside it. This led on to the first production cars in 1900, when six were made as demonstrators and these had two-cylinder,4033 cc, horizontal air-cooled engines, retaining the twin crankshaft design. Steering was by side lever not wheel, the first cars were sold to the public in 1901. In 1902 Lanchester became the first company to market disc brakes to the public and they were mechanical and on the front wheels only. The discs were very thin and made of a soft metal like brass. Although probably leaving much to be desired, they fit the definition of a disc brake. All bodies were made by external coachbuilders until 1903 when a department was set up and up to 1914 most cars carried Lanchester built bodies. In 1904, despite an order book, the business ran out of money. After a period of management by a receiver the business was re-organised re-capitalized and incorporated as The Lanchester Motor Company Limited later that year, six-cylinder models joined the line up in 1906. A distinctive feature of the valves was their use of leaf springs. Frank Lanchester ran the London sales office and it was very expensive, dearer than a Rolls-Royce Silver Ghost and to maintain production a smaller car, the Twenty One joined the range in 1924. This had a 3. 1-litre, six-cylinder engine, now with removable cylinder head, mated to a conventional gearbox. It grew to the 3. 3-litre Twenty Three in 1926, the Forty was finally replaced by the Thirty with straight-eight 4. 4-litre engine in 1928
26.
Electric generator
–
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit. Sources of mechanical energy include steam turbines, gas turbines, water turbines, internal combustion engines, the first electromagnetic generator, the Faraday disk, was built in 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday. Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power grids, the reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be driven to generate electricity and frequently make acceptable manual generators. Electromagnetic generators fall into one of two categories, dynamos and alternators. The magnetic field of the dynamo or alternator can be provided by either wire windings called field coils or permanent magnets, a generator using permanent magnets is sometimes called a magneto. Armature, The power-producing component of an electrical machine, in a generator, alternator, or dynamo the armature windings generate the electric current, which provides power to an external circuit. The armature can be on either the rotor or the stator, depending on the design, before the connection between magnetism and electricity was discovered, electrostatic generators were invented. They operated on electrostatic principles, by using moving electrically charged belts, plates, the charge was generated using either of two mechanisms, electrostatic induction or the triboelectric effect. Such generators generated very high voltage and low current and their only practical applications were to power early X-ray tubes, and later in some atomic particle accelerators. The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832 by Michael Faraday, the principle later called Faradays law, is that an electromotive force is generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk and it produced a small DC voltage. This design was inefficient, due to self-cancelling counterflows of current in regions of the disk that were not under the influence of the magnetic field. While current was induced directly underneath the magnet, the current would circulate backwards in regions that were outside the influence of the magnetic field and this counterflow limited the power output to the pickup wires, and induced waste heating of the copper disc. Later homopolar generators would solve this problem by using an array of magnets arranged around the perimeter to maintain a steady field effect in one current-flow direction. Another disadvantage was that the voltage was very low, due to the single current path through the magnetic flux. Experimenters found that using multiple turns of wire in a coil could produce higher, since the output voltage is proportional to the number of turns, generators could be easily designed to produce any desired voltage by varying the number of turns. Wire windings became a feature of all subsequent generator designs
27.
Hybrid vehicle
–
Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids. Early prototype motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same principle, most motorized bicycles, mopeds are of this type. In a series hybrid bicycle the user pedals a generator, charging a battery or feeding the motor and they are commercially available, being simple in theory and manufacturing. The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel in 1975, in 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb for his 1995 diploma thesis, in 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle. Until 2005 they built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles, in 1999 Harald Kutzke described an active bicycle, the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation. A series hybrid bicycle is powered by pedals, batteries. Active cooling keeps plastic parts from softening, the prototype uses a regular electric bicycle charge port. Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery. A diesel/turbine engine drives a generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor - strictly an electric/hydraulic transmission. Both series and parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines, europe The new Autorail à grande capacité built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France is diesel/electric motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems. It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse, China The First Hybrid Evaluating locomotive was designed by rail research center MATRAI in 1999 and built in 2000. It was a G12 locomotive upgraded with batteries, a 200 kW diesel generator and 4 AC motors, Japan Japans first hybrid train with significant energy storage is the KiHa E200, with roof-mounted lithium ion batteries. India Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015, the train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology. The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route, CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. North America In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel chloride battery storage, no fuel is wasted for idling — ~60–85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking is used, but in principle it is easily utilized, since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery packs weight is a negligible penalty. The diesel generator and batteries are normally built on an existing retired yard locomotives frame, the existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused
28.
SCAT (automobile)
–
The SCAT was an Italian automobile manufacturer from Turin, founded in 1906 by Giovanni Battista Ceirano. The company was active from 1906 to 1932 and achieved Targa Florio wins in 1911,1912 and 1914, the first produced models were the 12 HP, the 16 HP and the 22 HP of 1909. Giovannis son Giovanni Ernesto was also influential, co-founding Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili, in 1888, after eight years apprenticeship at his fathers watch-making business, Giovanni Battista started building Welleyes bicycles, so named because English names had more sales appeal. In October 1898 Giovanni Battista and Matteo co-founded Ceirano GB & C, in July 1899 the plant and patents were sold to Giovanni Agnelli and produced as the first FIATs - the Fiat 4 HP. Giovanni Battista was employed by Fiat as the agent for Italy, in 1904 Matteo Ceirano left Ceirano GB & C to create his own brand - Itala. In 1906 Matteo left Itala to found SPA with chief designer, in 1906 Giovanni founded SCAT in Turin. In 1919 Giovanni and Giovanni Ernesto co-founded Ceirano Fabbrica Automobili and in 1922 they took control of FATA).8 km/h, british driver Cyril Snipe won the 1912 Targa Florio on 25 and 26 May, driving a SCAT 25/35 with his co-driver Pedrini. They completed the 965 kilometre course around the island of Sicily in 24 hours 37 minutes 39 seconds, defeating a field of 26 cars which included Lancia, Isotta-Fraschini, Fiat and A. L. F. A. The race passed through Palermo, Messina, Catania, Syracuse, Ragusa, Gela, Agrigento, Marsala, Trapani, Snipe drove a SCAT again in the 1913 Targa Florio race but failed to finish. In 1914 Ernesto Ceirano drove a SCAT 22/32 to his victory in the Targa Florio. List of Italian companies List of automobile companies founded by the Ceirano brothers SCAT automobiles
29.
Wolseley Motors
–
Wolseley Motors Limited was a British motor vehicle manufacturer founded in early 1901 by the Vickers armaments combine in conjunction with Herbert Austin. It initially made a full range topped by large luxury cars and dominated the market in the Edwardian era but the Vickers brothers died in 1915 and 1919, respectively. In 1921, expanding rapidly, it manufactured 12,000 cars, over-expansion led to receivership in 1927 when it was bought from Vickers by William Morris as a personal investment and years later moved into his Morris Motors empire. Even just before the Second World War its products were badge-engineered and it went with its sister businesses into BMC, BMH and British Leyland where its name lapsed in 1975. Maxim made use of a number of made by Austin in Maxims activities at his works in Crayford. Once the sheep-shearing company had decided they would not pursue their automobile interest an approach was made and agreement quickly reached. The Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company of Adderley Park Birmingham was incorporated in March 1901 with a capital of £40,000 by Vickers, Sons and Maxim to manufacture motor cars, the managing director was Herbert Austin. The cars and the Wolseley name came from Austins exploratory venture for The Wolseley Sheep Shearing Machine Company Limited, Wolseleys board had decided not to enter the business and Maxim and the Vickers brothers picked it up. After his five-year contract with The Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company ended Austin founded The Austin Motor Company Limited, Austin had been searching for other products for WSSMC because sale of sheep-shearing machinery was a highly seasonal trade. About 1895–96 he became interested in engines and automobiles, during the winter of 1895–96, working in his own time at nights and weekends, he made his own version of a design by Léon Bollée that he had seen in Paris. Later he found that another British group had bought the rights and he had to come up with a design of his own, in 1897 Austins second Wolseley car, the Wolseley Autocar No.1 was revealed. It was a design featuring independent rear suspension, mid-engine. It was not successful and although advertised for sale, none were sold, the third Wolseley car, the four-wheeled Wolseley Voiturette followed in 1899. A further four-wheeled car was made in 1900, the 1901 Wolseley Gasoline Carriage featured a steering wheel instead of a tiller. When Austins five-year contract officially ended in 1906 they had more than 1,500 cars, Wolseley was the largest British motor manufacturer. The company had formed in March 1901. By 1 May 1901 Austin had issued his first catalogue, there were to be two models,5 hp and 10 hp. They were both available with either a Tonneau or a Phaeton body with either pneumatic or solid tyres, for an additional outlay of thirty shillings the 10 hp model would be fitted with a sprag to prevent it running backwards
30.
Sunbeam Motor Car Company
–
Sunbeam Motor Car Company Limited was a British motor car manufacturer with its works at Moorfields in Blakenhall, a suburb of Wolverhampton in the county of Staffordshire —now West Midlands. Its Sunbeam name had been registered by John Marston in 1888 for his bicycle manufacturing business, Sunbeam motor car manufacture began in 1901. The motor business was sold to a newly incorporated Sunbeam Motor Car Company Limited in 1905 to separate it from Marstons pedal bicycle business—Sunbeam motorcycles were not made until 1912, in-house designer Coatalens enthusiasm for motor-racing — racing improves the breed — accumulated expertise with engines. Sunbeam manufactured their own aero engines during the First World War and 647 aircraft to the designs of other manufacturers, engines drew Sunbeam into Grand Prix racing and participation in the achievement of world land speed records. In spite of its cars and aero engines by 1934 a long period of very slow sales had incurred continuing losses. Sunbeam was unable to repay money borrowed for ten years in 1924 to fund the Grand Prix racing programme, there was a forced sale and Sunbeam was picked up by the Rootes brothers. Manufacture of Sunbeams now old-fashioned cars did not resume under the new owners, in 1954 they dropped the word Talbot leaving just Sunbeam. Sunbeams name continued to appear on new cars in 1982 under the ownership of Peugeot or Groupe PSA, John Marston, the London-educated son of a sometime mayor of Ludlow and landowner, had been apprenticed to Edward Perry, tinplate-works master and twice mayor of Wolverhampton. In 1859 aged 23 Marston bought two other manufacturers in Bilston, four miles away, and set himself up on his own account. On Perrys death Marston bought his Jeddo Works in Paul Street Wolverhampton, left Bilston, an avid cyclist in 1887 he established his Sunbeamland Cycle Factory in his Paul Street premises manufacturing and assembling pedal bicycles he branded Sunbeam. His Sunbeam trademark was registered in 1893, in 1895 a company, John Marston Limited, was incorporated and took ownership of John Marstons business. The Sunbeam trademark was registered for motor-cars in 1900, rugby-educated Thomas Cureton 1863—1921 began as his apprentice then became Marstons right-hand man in the cycle works and the cautious advocate of a motor-car venture. Their board of directors did not favour it but Marston and Cureton continued their project, between 1899 and 1901 Sunbeam produced a number of experimental cars driven about Wolverhampton but none was offered for sale. The first announcement of their new autocar was in the 22 September 1900 issue of The Autocar, dimensions, weight 10 cwt, overall measurements 84 inches by 57 inches. Described as a sociable it carried two passengers sitting close together facing the roadside from above a central belt-drive, to begin with they faced opposite roadsides. This layout provided propinquity while maintaining propriety and their driver at his tiller sat behind them his body facing the opposite roadside. Wheels were arranged in a diamond formation, the Sunbeam Mabley was a limited success, several hundred sold in 1901 and 1902 at £130. Listed in February 1904 its specification was, four cylinders 80 ×120 mm.1527 cc engine designed to run at 1,000 rpm, four-speed gearbox, in February 1904 the 12-horsepower car was given a six-cylinder 16-horsepower stablemate
31.
Star Motor Company
–
This article is about the British automobile. To see the article on the American Star Car Company, go to Star, for the American motorcycle company see, Star Motorcycles. For the Italian automobile manufacturer S. T. A. R, the Star Motor Company was a British car and commercial vehicle maker based in Wolverhampton and active from 1898 to 1932. At its peak Star was the UKs sixth largest car manufacturer, Star was founded by the Lisle family who like many other vehicle makers started by making bicycles, in their case in 1893 as Sharratt and Lisle. In 1896 this was changed to the Star Cycle Company, Edward Lisle built his own first bicycle in the early 1870s and had enough success racing it that he began to build additional bicycles to order. In 1876, he partnered with William Sharratt to increase production, in 1883, Edward Lisle founded the Star Cycle Company. Besides safety bicycles, models included tandems and a Pedersen, in 1889 the company purchased a factory on Stewart Street and by 1899, production reached 10,000 cycles per year, and by 1904 Star was the largest Wolverhampton based bicycle manufacturer. Planning for the Star car began in 1897 when the company acquired a 3.5 hp Benz car, Star then purchased the rights to produce Star-Benz cars in Wolverhampton and began production at the Stewart Street Works. The cars were now being sold under the Star Motor Company name, a subsidiary of Star Engineering Limited. The Star-Benz model sold well and around 250 were made, the cars initially sold for £189 but in 1900 they were selling for £168 and the company was producing 20 a week. One a week was being made in 1899, and in the first year, they made their first export sale, to Auckland, exports became a major part of Stars business, particularly to Australia and New Zealand. In 1900, production had expanded to facilities in Dudley Road and Nelson, Stewart, Ablow, a two-cylinder three-speed model appeared that year, also, at the Richmond Automobile Club Show. Encouraged by founder Edward Lisle, they were also being entered in the 1000 Miles Trial, in 1901, the 7 and 10 with vertical twin De Dion engines and in 1902 a four-cylinder 20 hp appeared. In 1903, copying the leading maker, Mercedes, Star introduced a 12 hp four, in addition, two Stars ran in the Isle of Man qualifying races for the Gordon Bennett Cup, neither 10-litre car made it. From 1904 only four-cylinder models were made, in 1902 the Star Motor Company changed its name to the Star Engineering company. The company rapidly expanded and diversified, expanding the Stewart Street works, the company built a new factory in 1903 on a 40, 000sq. ft. Star began to create their own more advanced designs and in 1903 several new models were released, particularly popular was the Little Star model released in early 1904 which had a 7 hp. twin cylinder engine and sold for £175. For 1906, there was a new 3261 cc 14 hp four, as well as a new six, the 6227 cc 30 hp, the six, increased in displacement to 6981 cc in 1909, lasted until 1911
32.
Adler (cars and motorcycle)
–
Adler was a German automobile and motorcycle manufacturer from 1900 until 1957. The Adler factory produced bicycles, typewriters, and motorcycles in addition to cars, before World War I, the company used De Dion two- and four-cylinder engines in cars that ranged from 1032 cc to 9081 cc, beginning in 1902, they used their own engines as well. These cars, driven by Erwin Kleyer and Otto Kleyer and by Alfred Theves won many sporting events, in the 1920s, Karl Irion raced many Adlers, popular models of the period included the 2298 cc,1550 cc, and 4700 cc four-cylinders and the 2580 cc six-cylinders. A few of the Standard models, built between 1927 and 1934, featured Gropius designed coachwork. The Standard 6, first seen in public at the Berlin Motor Show in October 1926 was the first Continental European car to use hydraulic brakes,1927 to 1929 Clärenore Stinnes was the first to circumnavigate the world by car, in an Adler Standard 6. In December 1930, Adler assigned the German engineer Josef Ganz, in the first months of 1931, Ganz constructed a lightweight Volkswagen prototype at Adler with a tubular chassis, a mid-mounted engine, and independent wheel suspension with swing-axles at the rear. After completion in May 1931, Ganz nicknamed his new prototype Maikäfer, after a shift in management at Adler, further development of the Maikäfer was stopped as the companys new technical director Hans Gustav Röhr concentrated on front-wheel driven cars. In the 1930s, the company introduced front-wheel drive Trumpf and Trumpf-Junior models and these gained many successes in races, including in the Le Mans race. The last new car introduced by Adler was the 2.5 Liter of 1937, thanks to a streamlined body designed by Paul Jaray, this car could run at 125 km/h. After World War II, a decision was made to not resume automobile construction, motorcycle production resumed in 1949 and continued for 8 years, leading to the production of the MB 250S. As part of the Allies war reparations, Adler motorcycle designs had been taken by BSA in Britain and later used by the British company Ariel to produce their Arrow, increasingly, Adler focused on the manufacture of office equipment. The company associated with Triumph to form Triumpf-Adler, and was taken over by Grundig in 1957, heinrich Kleyer Adler-Motor-Veteranen-Club Website for Adler motorcycle enthusiasts in Australia Website for Adler motorcycle enthusiasts in the UK History of Adler trucks
33.
Ford Model T
–
The Ford Model T is an automobile that was produced by Ford Motor Company from October 1,1908, to May 26,1927. The Ford Model T was named the most influential car of the 20th century in the 1999 Car of the Century competition, ahead of the BMC Mini, Citroën DS, and Volkswagen Type 1. With 16.5 million sold it stands eighth on the top ten list of most sold cars of all time as of 2012, although automobiles had already existed for decades, they were still mostly scarce and expensive at the Model Ts introduction in 1908. Positioned as reliable, easily maintained mass market transportation, it was a runaway success, in a matter of days after the release,15,000 orders were placed. The first production Model T was produced on August 12,1908 and left the factory on September 27,1908, at the Ford Piquette Avenue Plant in Detroit, Michigan. On May 26,1927, Henry Ford watched the 15 millionth Model T Ford roll off the line at his factory in Highland Park. There were several cars produced or prototyped by Henry Ford from the founding of the company in 1903 until the Model T was introduced, although he started with the Model A, there were not 19 production models, some were only prototypes. The production model immediately before the Model T was the Model S, a version of the companys largest success to that point. The follow-up was the Ford Model A, the company publicity said this was because the new car was such a departure from the old that Henry wanted to start all over again with the letter A. The Model T was Fords first automobile mass-produced on moving assembly lines with completely interchangeable parts, Henry Ford said of the vehicle, I will build a car for the great multitude. It will be enough for the family, but small enough for the individual to run. It will be constructed of the best materials, by the best men to be hired, after the simplest designs that modern engineering can devise. But it will be so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one –, although credit for the development of the assembly line belongs to Ransom E. The Model T was designed by Childe Harold Wills, and Hungarian immigrants Joseph A. Galamb, Henry Love, C. J. Smith, Gus Degner and Peter E. Martin were also part of the team. Production of the Model T began in the quarter of 1908. Collectors today sometimes classify Model Ts by build years and refer to these as model years and this is a retroactive classification scheme, the concept of model years as we conceive it today did not exist at the time. The nominal model designation was Model T, although design revisions did occur during the two decades of production. The Model T had a front-mounted 177-cubic-inch inline four-cylinder engine, producing 20 hp, according to Ford Motor Company, the Model T had fuel economy on the order of 13–21 mpg‑US
34.
Junkers Jumo 004
–
The Junkers Jumo 004, was the worlds first production turbojet engine in operational use, and the first successful axial compressor turbojet engine. Variants and copies of the engine were produced in Eastern Europe, the feasibility of jet propulsion had been demonstrated in Germany in early 1937 by Hans von Ohain working with the Heinkel company. The companies remained skeptical and little new development was carried out, in 1939 Schelp and Mauch visited the companies to check up on progress. Otto Mader, head of the Junkers Motorenweke division of the large Junkers aviation firm, stated that if the concept was useful. Schelp responded by stating that Dr Anselm Franz, then in charge of Junkers turbo- and supercharger development, Franz started his development team later that year, and the project was given the RLM designation 109-004. Franz opted for a design that was at once conservative and revolutionary, the axial-flow compressor not only had excellent performance, about 78% efficient in real world conditions, but it also had a smaller cross-section, important for high-speed aircraft. On the other hand, he aimed to produce an engine that was far below its potential, in the interests of expediting development. One major decision was to opt for a simple combustion area using six flame cans, Fedden himself criticized the attachment of the 004s compressor casing, which was in two halves, bolted to the half-sections of the stator assemblies. The first prototype 004A, which was constructed to run on fuel, was first tested in October 1940. It was benchtested at the end of January 1941 to a top thrust of 430 kgf, and work continued to increase the output, vibration problems with the compressor stators, originally cantilevered from the outside, delayed the program at this point. Max Bentele, as an Air Ministry consulting engineer with a background in turbocharger vibrations, the original aluminium stators were replaced with steel ones in which configuration the engine developed 5.9 kN in August, and passed a 10-hour endurance run at 9.8 kN in December. The first flight test took place on March 15,1942, the 004 used an eight-stage axial-flow compressor, with a number of axial combustion chambers, and a one-stage turbine with hollow blades. On July 18, one of the prototype Messerschmitt Me 262s flew for the first time under jet power from its 004 engines, Franz realized that the Jumo 004 would have to be redesigned to incorporate a minimum of these strategic materials, and this was accomplished. The engines operational lifespan was shortened, but on the side it became easier to construct. Production engines had a cast magnesium casing in two halves, one with half-sections of stator assemblies bolted to it, the four front stators were constructed from steel alloy blades welded to the mount, the rear five were pressed steel sheet bent over the mount and welded on. Steel alloy compressor blades dovetailled into slots in the disk and were fixed by small screws. The compressor itself was mounted to a shaft with twelve set screws. A hole in the nose of the intake diverter body contained a pull-handle for the cable which turned-over the piston engine
35.
BMW 003
–
The BMW003 was an early axial compressor turbojet engine produced by BMW AG in Germany during World War II. The 003 and the Junkers Jumo 004 were the only German turbojet engines to reach production during World War II, the most famous case of this was the Messerschmitt Me 262, which used the 003 in two of the V-series prototypes and in the two experimental A-1b aircraft. The only production aircraft to use the BMW003 were the Heinkel He 162, about 500 BMW003 engines were built in Germany, but very few were ever installed in aircraft. The engine also formed the basis for development in Japan during the war. A larger derivative was the BMW018, but only three prototypes had been built by the end of the war and this version was used as the basis for the successful post-war French Snecma Atar. The practicality of jet propulsion had been demonstrated in Germany in early 1937 by Hans von Ohain working with the Heinkel company, the BMW003 began development as a project of the Brandenburgische Motorenwerke, under the direction of Hermann Östrich and assigned the RLM designation 109-003. Bramo was also developing another turbojet, the 109-002, in 1939, BMW bought out Bramo, and in the acquisition, obtained both engine projects. Construction began late in the year and the engine ran for the first time in August 1940. The first flight test took place in mid-1941, mounted underneath a Messerschmitt Bf 110 and it was not until November 1941 that the Me 262 V1 was flown with BMW engines, which both failed during the test. The prototype aircraft had to return to the airfield on the power of the piston engine, the general usage of the BMW powerplant was abandoned for the Me 262, except for two experimental examples of the plane known as the Me 262 A-1b. The Me 262A-1a production version used the competing Jumo 004 whose heavier weight required the wings to be back in order to move the center of gravity into the correct position. Work on the 003 continued anyway, and by late 1942 it had made far more powerful. The improved engine was tested under a Junkers Ju 88 in October 1943 and was finally ready for mass production in August 1944. Completed engines earned a reputation for unreliability, the time between major overhauls was about 50 hours, the four-engined Arado Ar 234C variants were also designed to use the more available BMW jet engine. Moreover, the 004 needed only 375 hours to complete, compared to 1,400 for the 801, the lifetime of the combustors was estimated at 200 hours. In this configuration, it was known as the BMW 003R and was tested, albeit with some reliability problems, on single prototypes for advanced models of the Me 262. Both prototypes flew under hybrid jet/rocket power during March 1945, though records do not indicate the results of testing with the 162E. Only about 500 examples of the BMW003 were built, but the Fedden Mission postwar estimated total German jet engine production by mid-1946 could have reached 100,000 units a year, or more
36.
Auxiliary power unit
–
An auxiliary power unit is a device on a vehicle that provides energy for functions other than propulsion. They are commonly found on aircraft and naval ships as well as some large land vehicles. Aircraft APUs generally produce 115 V alternating current at 400 Hz, to run the electrical systems of the aircraft, APUs can provide power through single- or three-phase systems. The primary purpose of an aircraft APU is to power to start the main engines. Turbine engines must be accelerated to a rotational speed to provide sufficient air compression for self-sustaining operation. Smaller jet engines are started by an electric motor, while larger engines are usually started by an air turbine motor. Before the engines are to be turned, the APU is started, once the APU is running, it provides power to start the aircrafts main engines. To start, a jet engine requires rotation of the turbine, AC-electrical fuel pumps. As the turbine is already rotating, the front inlet fans are also rotating, after the ignition, both fans and turbine speed up their rotation. As combustion stabilizes, the engine only needs the fuel to run at idle. The started engine can now replace the APU when starting up further engines, during flight the APU and its generator are not needed. APUs are also used to run accessories while the engines are shut down and this allows the cabin to be comfortable while the passengers are boarding before the aircrafts engines are started. Electrical power is used to run systems for preflight checks, some APUs are also connected to a hydraulic pump, allowing crews to operate hydraulic equipment prior to engine start. This function can also be used, on aircraft, as a backup in flight in case of engine or hydraulic failure. Aircraft with APUs can also accept electrical and pneumatic power from ground equipment when an APU has failed or is not to be used, some airports reduce the use of APUs due to noise and pollution, and ground power is used when possible. While some APUs may not be startable in flight, ETOPS-compliant APUs must be flight-startable at altitudes up to the service ceiling. Recent applications have specified starting up to 43,000 ft from a complete cold-soak condition such as the Hamilton Sundstrand APS5000 for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. If the APU or its electrical generator is not available, the aircraft cannot be released for ETOPS flight and is forced to take a longer non-ETOPS route
37.
Chrysler
–
FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
38.
Ferguson TE20
–
The Ferguson TE20 is an agricultural tractor designed by Harry Ferguson. By far his most successful design, it was manufactured from 1946 until 1956 and it is light-weight but effective, and a popular collectors item for enthusiasts today. The model name came from Tractor, England 20 horsepower, the TE range of Ferguson tractors was introduced in England in 1946, following 30 years of continuous development of The Ferguson System from 1916. The first work was to design a plough and linkage to integrate the tractor with its work in a manner that was an engineering whole, the automatic control system is now employed by almost all tractor manufacturers worldwide. A British patent was applied for by Harry Ferguson in 1925, by the early 1930s the linkage design was finalised and is now adopted as international standard category I. Just one prototype Ferguson System tractor, known as the Ferguson Black, was built to further technical development, during 1936 the first production Ferguson tractors were built in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, by the David Brown Company. About 300,000 of these tractors, known as Ford Fergusons, were produced up to 30 June 1947, during the war years the Ferguson design team developed many improvements to both tractor and implements and started to make arrangements to manufacture in the United Kingdom. The agreement with Ford in 1938 was to include production at the Ford plant at Dagenham, Essex, by 1945 Ferguson had made a manufacturing agreement with the Standard Motor Company of Coventry to produce a Ferguson tractor incorporating all their latest improvements and to be known as the TE20. Standard developed a new engine for the tractor, which would in turn be used in Standards road cars. Production started in the summer of 1946, nearly a year before the last Ford Ferguson came off the line in Detroit in June 1947. The break with Ford left Harry Ferguson and his US company with implements to sell, to make up the gap until the new Ferguson factory in Detroit started in October 1948, more than 25,000 Coventry-built TE20s were shipped to the USA and Canada. The TO20 was virtually the same as the TE20 with a Continental engine Z-126 fitted instead of the standard engine. Coventry production up to 1956 was 517,651 units, with about 66% being exported, mainly to Continental Europe, to the above figure must be added TO production at Ferguson Park, Detroit. Including all Ferguson System tractors from May 1936 to July 1956 brings the figure to approximately 1 million. The Ferguson 35 replaced the old line in the US in 1955, Harry Ferguson remained Chairman of Massey Harris Ferguson until 1957, when he left over an argument over the Ferguson TE60 or LTX project as it is known. He continued his hobby of racing and set up Harry Ferguson Research, which produced the P99 Race car and he died at his home on 25 October 1960 due to a barbiturate overdose, it was never known if it was deliberate or not. The engine was the Standard wet liner inline-four engine, newer versions of the petrol only engine has 85 mm bore as well. The first TE20s ran on petrol until 1949 when the TVO tractor was launched incorporating the engine as early TE20s used a continental Z-120
39.
Pinion
–
A pinion is a round gear used in several applications, usually the smaller gear in a gear drive train, although in the first commercially successful steam locomotive, the pinion was rather large. In many cases, such as remote controlled toys, the pinion is also the drive gear, the smaller gear that drives in a 90-degree angle towards a crown gear in a differential drive. The small front sprocket on a chain driven motorcycle, the round gear that engages and drives a rack in a rack and pinion mechanism and against a rack in a rack railway. In the case of radio-controlled cars with an engine this pinion gear can be referred to as a bell when it is paired with a centrifugal clutch
40.
Armature (electrical engineering)
–
The armature, in contrast, must carry current, so it is always a conductor or a conductive coil, oriented normal to both the field and to the direction of motion, torque, or force. The first is to carry current crossing the field, thus creating shaft torque in a machine or force in a linear machine. The second role is to generate an electromotive force, in the armature, an electromotive force is created by the relative motion of the armature and the field. When the machine acts in the mode, the armature EMF drives the armature current. In an induction generator, these distinctions are blurred, since the power is drawn from the stator. A growler is used to check the armature for shorts, opens, the word armature was first used in its electrical sense, i. e. keeper of a magnet, in mid 19th century. The parts of an alternator or related equipment can be expressed in either mechanical terms or electrical terms, although distinctly separate these two sets of terminology are frequently used interchangeably or in combinations that include one mechanical term and one electrical term. This may cause confusion when working with machines like brushless alternators. In most generators, the magnet is rotating, and is part of the rotor, while the armature is stationary. Both motors and generators can be either with a stationary armature and a rotating field or a rotating armature. The pole piece of a permanent magnet or electromagnet and the moving, iron part of a solenoid, the armature can be on either the rotor or the stator. Field, The magnetic field component of an alternator, generator, dynamo or motor. The field can be on either the rotor or the stator, in a DC machine, the main field is produced by field coils. In both the generating and motoring modes, the armature carries current and a field is established. The effect of armature flux on the field is called the armature reaction. The armature reaction, demagnetizes the main field, and cross magnetizes the main field, the demagnetizing effect can be overcome by adding extra ampere-turns on the main field winding. The cross magnetizing effect can be reduced by having common poles, Armature reaction is essential in Amplidyne rotating amplifiers. Armature reaction drop is the effect of a field on the distribution of the flux under main poles of a generator. Since an armature is wound with coils of wire, a field is set up in the armature whenever a current flows in the coils
41.
Field coil
–
A field coil is an electromagnet used to generate a magnetic field in an electro-magnetic machine, typically a rotating electrical machine such as a motor or generator. It consists of a coil of wire through which a current flows, in a rotating machine, the field coils are wound on an iron magnetic core which guides the magnetic field lines. The magnetic core is in two parts, a stator which is stationary, and a rotor, which rotates within it, the magnetic field lines pass in a continuous loop or magnetic circuit from the stator through the rotor and back through the stator again. The field coils may be on the stator or on the rotor, the magnetic path is characterized by poles, locations at equal angles around the rotor at which the magnetic field lines pass from stator to rotor or vice versa. The stator are classified by the number of poles they have, most arrangements use one field coil per pole. Some older or simpler arrangements use a field coil with a pole at each end. Although field coils are most commonly found in rotating machines, they are used, although not always with the same terminology. These include simple electromagnets through to complex lab instruments such as mass spectrometers, field coils were once widely used in loudspeakers before the general availability of lightweight permanent magnets. Most DC field coils generate a constant, static field, most three-phase AC field coils are used to generate a rotating field as part of an electric motor. Single-phase AC motors may follow either of these patterns, small motors are usually universal motors, like the brushed DC motor with a commutator, larger AC motors are generally induction motors, whether these are three- or single-phase. Many rotary electrical machines require current to be conveyed to a rotor, usually by means of sliding contacts. These contacts are often the most complex and least reliable part of such a machine and it may also represent a limit on the maximum current that the machine can handle. For this reason, when machines must use two sets of windings, the carrying the least current are usually placed on the rotor. The field coils can be mounted on either the rotor or the stator, in a brushed DC motor the field is static but the armature current must be commutated, so as to continually rotate. This is done by supplying the armature windings on the rotor through a commutator, AC induction motors also use field coils on the stator, the current on the rotor being supplied by induction in a squirrel cage. For generators, the current is smaller than the output current. Accordingly, the field is mounted on the rotor and supplied through slip rings, the output current is taken from the stator, avoiding the need for high-current sliprings. In DC generators, which are now obsolete in favour of AC generators with rectifiers
42.
Brush (electric)
–
A brush is a device which conducts current between stationary wires and moving parts, most commonly in a rotating shaft. Typical applications include electric motors, alternators and electric generators, for certain types of electric motors or generators to function, the coils of the rotor must be connected to complete an electrical circuit. To accomplish this, a copper or brass commutator or slip rings are affixed to the shaft, such brushes provided poor commutation as they moved from one commutator segment to the next. The cure was the introduction of high resistance brushes made from graphite, although the resistance was of the order of tens of milliohms, they were high resistance enough to provide a gradual shift of current from one commutator segment to the next. The term brush remains in use, since the brushes wear out, they can be replaced in products intended to allow maintenance. Metal fiber brushes are currently being developed again and these brushes may have advantages over current carbon brushes, but have not yet seen wide implementation. Exact composition of the brush depends on the application, copper is used for better conductance. In order to maximize electrical conductivity and green strength, highly dendritic copper powder is used. Binders, mostly phenol- or other resins or pitch, are mixed in so the powder holds its shape when compacted, other additives include metal powders, and solid lubricants like MoS2, WS2. Much know-how and research is needed in order to define a brush grade mixture for each application or motor, the brush compound is compacted in a tool consisting of upper and lower punch and die, on mechanical or hydraulic presses. In this step, depending on processing, the copper-wire can be inserted automatically through a hole in the upper punch. This operation, called tamping, is performed using electrolytic copper powder. After this process, the brush is still very fragile and in professional jargon called a green brush, next follows heat treatment of the “green brushes” under artificial atmosphere. Temperatures range up to 1200 °C and this process is called sintering or baking. During sintering, the binders either burn off or carbonize and form a structure between the carbon, copper and other additives. The heat treatment is transformed by a temperature curve exactly defined for each material mixture, besides the mixture composition, the used temperature curve is the second big “secret” of each brush manufacturer. After the heat treatment, the structure is modified in a way which makes copying of the brush nearly impossible for competing companies. Sintering causes the brushes to shrink and to bend and they must be ground to net shape. Some companies use additional treatments in order to make the more durable by methods such as impregnation of the running surface by special oils, resins
43.
Series and parallel circuits
–
Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in many different ways. The two simplest of these are called series and parallel and occur frequently, components connected in series are connected along a single path, so the same current flows through all of the components. Components connected in parallel are connected, so the voltage is applied to each component. A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a circuit, likewise. In a series circuit, the current through each of the components is the same, in a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the currents through each component. Consider a very simple circuit consisting of four light bulbs and one 6 V battery. If a wire joins the battery to one bulb, to the bulb, to the next bulb, to the next bulb, then back to the battery, in one continuous loop. If each bulb is wired to the battery in a separate loop, the bulbs are said to be in parallel. If the four light bulbs are connected in series, there is current through all of them, and the voltage drop is 1.5 V across each bulb. If the light bulbs are connected in parallel, the currents through the light bulbs combine to form the current in the battery, while the drop is across each bulb. In a series circuit, every device must function for the circuit to be complete, one bulb burning out in a series circuit breaks the circuit. In parallel circuits, each light has its own circuit, so all but one light could be burned out, Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit, therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a circuit in which the current can flow. For example, if one of the light bulbs in an older-style string of Christmas tree lights burns out or is removed. = I n In a series circuit the current is the same for all of elements. The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances, R total = R1 + R2 + ⋯ + R n Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance. Total conductance of a series circuits of pure resistors, therefore, for a special case of two resistors in series, the total conductance is equal to, G total = G1 G2 G1 + G2
