1.
Tower Bridge
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Tower Bridge is a combined bascule and suspension bridge in London built in 1886–1894. The bridge crosses the River Thames close to the Tower of London and has become a symbol of London. Tower Bridge is one of five London bridges now owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates and it is the only one of the Trusts bridges not to connect the City of London directly to the Southwark bank, as its northern landfall is in Tower Hamlets. The vertical components of the forces in the sections and the vertical reactions of the two walkways are carried by the two robust towers. The bascule pivots and operating machinery are housed in the base of each tower, before its restoration in the 2010s, the bridges colour scheme dated from 1977, when it was painted red, white and blue for Queen Elizabeth IIs Silver Jubilee. Its colours were restored to blue and white. The nearest National Rail stations are at Fenchurch Street and London Bridge, in the second half of the 19th century, an advertisement in the East End of London led to a hiring for a new river crossing downstream of London Bridge. A Special Bridge or Subway Committee was formed in 1877, chaired by Sir Albert Joseph Altman and it opened the design of the crossing to public competition. Over 50 designs were submitted, including one from civil engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette, an Act of Parliament was pasesd in 1885 authorising the bridges construction. It specified the opening span must give a clear width of 61 metres, construction had to be in a Gothic style. Barry designed a bridge with two bridge towers built on piers. The central span was split into two equal bascules or leaves, which could be raised to allow traffic to pass. The two side-spans were suspension bridges, with the suspension rods anchored both at the abutments and through rods contained within the bridges upper walkways, E W Crutwell was the resident engineer for the construction. Two massive piers, containing over 70,000 tons of concrete, were sunk into the riverbed to support the construction, over 11,000 tons of steel provided the framework for the towers and walkways. This was then clad in Cornish granite and Portland stone, both to protect the steelwork and to give the bridge a pleasing appearance. Jones died in 1886 and George D. Stevenson took over the project, the total cost of construction was £1,184,000. The bridge was opened on 30 June 1894 by The Prince of Wales. The bridge connected Iron Gate, on the bank of the river, with Horselydown Lane, on the south – now known as Tower Bridge Approach and Tower Bridge Road
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
4.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
5.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
6.
Traction engine
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A traction engine is a self-propelled steam engine used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location. The name derives from the Latin tractus, meaning drawn, since the function of any traction engine is to draw a load behind it. They are sometimes called road locomotives to distinguish them from railway locomotives – that is, Traction engines tend to be large, robust and powerful, but heavy, slow, and difficult to manoeuvre. Nevertheless, they revolutionized agriculture and road haulage at a time when the alternative prime mover was the draught horse. They became popular in industrialised countries from around 1850, when the first self-propelled portable steam engines for use were developed. All types of engines have now been superseded, in commercial use. However, several examples have been preserved worldwide, many in working order. Steam fairs are held throughout the year in the United Kingdom, and in other countries, however, where soil conditions permitted, direct hauling of implements was preferred – in America, this led to the divergent development of the steam tractor. Limits of technical knowledge and manufacturing technology meant that practicable road vehicles, powered by steam, the alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle. The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the standard form of the engine had evolved. Until the quality of roads improved there was demand for faster vehicles and engines were geared accordingly to cope with their use on rough roads. British companies such as Manns and Garrett developed potentially viable direct ploughing engines, however conditions were against them. These market conditions arose in the wake of the First World War when there was a glut of surplus equipment available as a result of British Government policy. Large numbers of Fowler ploughing engines had been constructed in order to increase the land under tillage during the war, road steam disappeared through restrictions and charges that drove up their operating costs. Through 1921, steam tractors had demonstrated clear economic advantages over horse power for heavy hauling, the tax was payable by all road hauliers in proportion to the axle load and was particularly restrictive on steam propulsion, which was heavier than its petrol equivalent. This was at a time of unemployment in the mining industry. The tax was devastating to the businesses of heavy hauliers and showmen, the last new UK-built traction engines were constructed during the 1930s, although many continued in commercial use for many years while there remained experienced enginemen available to drive them. From the 1950s, the movement started to build up as enthusiasts realised that traction engines were in danger of dying out
7.
Steam car
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A steam car is a car powered by a steam engine. A steam engine is a combustion engine where the fuel is combusted away from the engine. ECE have a thermal efficiency, but it is easier to regulate carbon monoxide production. By the 1850s it was viable to produce them on a commercial basis, development was hampered by adverse legislation from the 1830s and then the rapid development of internal combustion engine technology in the 1900s, leading to their commercial demise. Relatively few steam powered vehicles remained in use after the Second World War, many of these vehicles were acquired by enthusiasts for preservation. The search for energy sources, has led to an occasional resurgence of interest in using steam power for road vehicles. A steam engine is a combustion engine, as opposed to an internal combustion engine. While gasoline-powered ICE cars have a thermal efficiency of 15% to 30%. A significant benefit of the ECE is that the burner can be configured for very low emissions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and unburned carbon in the exhaust. The greatest technical challenges to the car have focused on its boiler. This represents much of the mass of the vehicle, making the car heavy. The single largest restriction is the need to supply feedwater to the boiler and this must either be carried and frequently replenished, or the car must also be fitted with a condenser, a further weight and inconvenience. Electric cars were popular to some extent, but had a short range, the steam car does have advantages over internal combustion-powered cars, although most of these are now less important than in the early 20th century. The engine is smaller and lighter than an internal combustion engine and it is also better suited to the speed and torque characteristics of the axle, thus avoiding the need for the heavy and complex transmission required for an internal combustion engine. The car is also quieter, even without a silencer.1674 of December 1788, an illustration of it even appeared in Hergés book Tintin raconte lHistoire de lAutomobile. The first substantiated steam carriage for use was that of Josef Božek in 1815. He was followed by Thomas Blanchard of Massachusetts in 1825, others followed with the first Canadian, Henry Taylor in 1867, Amédée Bollée and Louis Lejeune of France in 1878, and Rene Thury of Switzerland in 1879. This early period saw the first repossession of an automobile in 1867
8.
Marine steam engine
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A marine steam engine is a steam engine that is used to power a ship or boat. Reciprocating steam engines were replaced in marine applications during the 20th century by steam turbines. The first commercially successful engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. The steam engine improvements brought forth by James Watt in the half of the 18th century greatly improved steam engine efficiency. In 1807, the American Robert Fulton built the worlds first commercially successful steamboat, simply known as the North River Steamboat, following Fultons success, steamboat technology developed rapidly on both sides of the Atlantic. The first successful transatlantic crossing by a steamship occurred in 1819 when Savannah sailed from Savannah, Georgia to Liverpool, the first steamship to make regular transatlantic crossings was the sidewheel steamer Great Western in 1838. As the 19th century progressed, marine engines and steamship technology developed alongside each other. A wide variety of reciprocating steam engines were developed over the course of the 19th century. The two main methods of classifying such engines are by connection mechanism and cylinder technology, most early marine engines had the same cylinder technology but a number of different methods of supplying power to the crankshaft were in use. Thus, early engines are classified mostly according to their connection mechanism. Some common connection mechanisms were side-lever, steeple, walking beam, however, steam engines can also be classified according to their cylinder technology. One can therefore sometimes find examples of engines which were classified under both methods, such as the walking beam. Over time, as most engines became direct-acting but cylinder technologies were growing more complex, Some of the more commonly encountered types of marine steam engine are listed in the following sections. Note that not all of these terms may have been used exclusively in relation to marine applications, the side-lever engine was the first type of steam engine to be widely adopted for marine use in Europe. The side-lever was an adaptation of the earliest form of steam engine and these levers extended, on the cylinder side, to each side of the bottom of the vertical engine cylinder. A piston rod, connected vertically to the piston, extended out of the top of the cylinder and this rod attached to a horizontal crosshead which, at each end, was connected to vertical rods. These rods connected down to the levers on each side of the cylinder and this formed the connection of the levers to the piston on the cylinder side of the engine. The other side of the levers were connected to each other with a horizontal crosstail and this crosstail in turn connected to and operated a single connecting rod, which turned the crankshaft
9.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
10.
Nuclear reactor
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This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor, formerly known as a pile, is a device used to initiate. Nuclear reactors are used at power plants for electricity generation. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to a fluid, which runs through steam turbines. These either drive a ships propellers or turn electrical generators, Nuclear generated steam in principle can be used for industrial process heat or for district heating. Some reactors are used to produce isotopes for medical and industrial use, some are run only for research. As of April 2014, the IAEA reports there are 435 nuclear power reactors in operation, when a large fissile atomic nucleus such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 absorbs a neutron, it may undergo nuclear fission. The heavy nucleus splits into two or more nuclei, releasing kinetic energy, gamma radiation, and free neutrons. A portion of neutrons may later be absorbed by other fissile atoms and trigger further fission events, which release more neutrons. This is known as a chain reaction. To control such a chain reaction, neutron poisons and neutron moderators can change the portion of neutrons that will go on to cause more fission. Nuclear reactors generally have automatic and manual systems to shut the fission reaction down if monitoring detects unsafe conditions, commonly-used moderators include regular water, solid graphite and heavy water. Some experimental types of reactor have used beryllium, and hydrocarbons have been suggested as another possibility, the reactor core generates heat in a number of ways, The kinetic energy of fission products is converted to thermal energy when these nuclei collide with nearby atoms. The reactor absorbs some of the rays produced during fission. Heat is produced by the decay of fission products and materials that have been activated by neutron absorption. This decay heat-source will remain for some even after the reactor is shut down. A kilogram of uranium-235 converted via nuclear processes releases approximately three times more energy than a kilogram of coal burned conventionally. A nuclear reactor coolant — usually water but sometimes a gas or a metal or molten salt — is circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat that it generates
11.
Piston
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A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
12.
Crank (mechanism)
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A crank is an arm attached at a right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa, the arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, the end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. The term often refers to a crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace. In this case a persons arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, there is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached. Familiar examples include, Mechanical pencil sharpener Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes, manually operated car window The carpenters brace is a compound crank. The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles, the crankset that drives a bicycle via the pedals. Treadle sewing machine Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks to transform the motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft, the displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center. The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the cranks cycle. The relationship between the two is approximately, τ = F r sin where τ is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod smallend speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank rotational velocity. 17615° after TDC. Then, using the sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is 88. 21738°. When the crank is driven by the rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. At these points in the cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland
13.
Burnley
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Burnley is a market town in Lancashire, England, with a population of 73,021. It is 21 miles north of Manchester and 20 miles east of Preston, the town is partially surrounded by countryside to the south and east, with the smaller towns of Padiham and Nelson to the west and north respectively. It has a reputation as a centre of excellence for the manufacturing. The town began to develop in the medieval period as a number of farming hamlets surrounded by manor houses and royal forests. During the Industrial Revolution it became one of Lancashires most prominent mill towns, at its peak it was one of the worlds largest producers of cloth. Burnley has retained a manufacturing sector, and has strong economic links with the cities of Manchester and Leeds. In 2013, in recognition of its success, Burnley received an Enterprising Britain award from the UK Government, the name Burnley is believed to have been derived from Brun Lea, meaning meadow by the River Brun. Limited coin finds indicate a Roman presence, but no evidence of a settlement has been found in the town, gorple Road appears to follow the route of a Roman road that may have crossed the present-day centre of town, on the way to the fort at Ribchester. It has been claimed that the earthworks of Ring Stones Camp, Twist Castle and Beadle Hill are of Roman origin. Following the Roman period, the became part of the kingdom of Rheged. There is no record of a settlement until after the Norman conquest of England. In 1122 a charter granted the church of Burnley to the monks of Pontefract Abbey, in its early days, Burnley was a small farming community, gaining a corn mill in 1290, a market in 1294, and a fulling mill in 1296. At this point, it was within the manor of Ightenhill, one of five that made up the Honor of Clitheroe, then a far more significant settlement, and consisted of no more than 50 families. Little survives of early Burnley apart from the Market Cross, erected in 1295, which now stands in the grounds of the old grammar school, which is now an annexe of Burnley College. Over the next three centuries, Burnley grew in size to about 1200 inhabitants by 1550, still centred around the church, St Peters, prosperous residents built larger houses, including Gawthorpe Hall in Padiham and Towneley Hall. In 1532, St Peters Church was largely rebuilt, Burnleys grammar school was founded in 1559, and moved into its own schoolhouse next to the church in 1602. Burnley began to develop in this period into a market town. It is known that weaving was established in the town by the middle of the 17th century, the town continued to be centred on St Peters Church, until the market was moved to the bottom of what is today Manchester Road, at the end of the 18th century
14.
Cylinder (engine)
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A cylinder is the central working part of a reciprocating engine or pump, the space in which a piston travels. Multiple cylinders are arranged side by side in a bank, or engine block. Cylinders may be sleeved or sleeveless, a sleeveless engine may also be referred to as a parent-bore engine. A cylinders displacement, or swept volume, can be calculated by multiplying its cross-sectional area by the distance the piston travels within the cylinder, the engine displacement can be calculated by multiplying the swept volume of one cylinder by the number of cylinders. The rings make near contact with the walls, riding on a thin layer of lubricating oil. The first illustration depicts a longitudinal section of a cylinder in a steam engine, the sliding part at the bottom is the piston, and the upper sliding part is a distribution valve that directs steam alternately into either end of the cylinder. Refrigerator and air compressors are heat engines driven in reverse cycle as pumps. Internal combustion engines operate on the inherent volume change accompanying oxidation of gasoline, diesel fuel or ethanol and they are not classical heat engines since they expel the working substance, which is also the combustion product, into the surroundings. The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods, as a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle, its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines use two angled cylinder banks, the V configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. For example, there are also rotary turbines, the Wankel engine is a rotary adaptation of the cylinder-piston concept which has been used by Mazda and NSU in automobiles. Rotary engines are relatively quiet because they lack the clatter of reciprocating motion, air-cooled engines generally use individual cases for the cylinders to facilitate cooling. Inline motorcycle engines are an exception, having two-, three-, four-, water-cooled engines with only a few cylinders may also use individual cylinder cases, though this makes the cooling system more complex. The Ducati motorcycle company, which for years used air-cooled motors with individual cylinder cases, in some engines, especially French designs, the cylinders have wet liners. They are formed separately from the casting so that liquid coolant is free to flow around their outsides. Wet-lined cylinders have cooling and a more even temperature distribution. During use, the cylinder is subject to wear from the action of the piston rings
15.
Crankshaft
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A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
16.
Beam engine
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A beam engine is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall. Beam engines were first used to pump out of mines or into canals. The rotative beam engine is a design of beam engine where the connecting rod drives a flywheel. These beam engines could be used to power the line-shafting in a mill. They also could be used to steam ships. The first beam engines were water-powered, and used to water from mines. A preserved example may be seen at Wanlockhead in Scotland, the first steam-related beam engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen. This was not, strictly speaking, steam powered, as the steam introduced below the piston was condensed to create a partial vacuum thus allowing atmospheric pressure to push down the piston and it was therefore called an Atmospheric Engine. The Newcomen atmospheric engine was adopted by many mines in Cornwall and elsewhere, technically this was still an atmospheric engine until he enclosed the upper part of the cylinder, introducing steam to also push the piston down. This made it a steam engine and arguably confirms him as the inventor of the steam engine. He also patented the centrifugal governor and the parallel motion, the latter allowed the replacement of chains round an arch head and thus allowed its use as a rotative engine. His patents remained in place until the start of the 19th Century, however, in reality development had been ongoing by others and at the end of the patent period there was an explosion of new ideas and improvements. Watts beam engines were used commercially in much larger numbers and many continued to run for 100 years or more, Watt held patents on key aspects of his engines design, but his rotative engine was equally restricted by the patent by an other of the simple crank. The beam engine went on to be improved and enlarged in the tin- and copper-rich areas of south west England. Consequently, the Cornish beam engines became world-famous, as they remain among the most massive beam engines ever constructed, in a rotative beam engine, the piston is mounted vertically, and the piston rod drives the beam as before. A connecting rod from the end of the beam, rather than driving a pump rod. Early Watt engines used Watts patent sun and planet gear, rather than a simple crank, once the patent had expired, the simple crank was employed universally
17.
Beam (structure)
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A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beams axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending, the loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beams support points. The total effect of all the acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile, length, historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and metal such as a flitch beam. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads, the loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In light frame construction joists may rest on beams, in carpentry a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam as in a summer beam or dragon beam. In engineering, beams are of types, Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation, over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends, continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end, trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss. In the beam equation I is used to represent the moment of area. It is commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis. Therefore, it not just how much area the beam section has overall. The greater I is, the stiffer the beam in bending, internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress, there are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them, then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates a moment, and, in turn
18.
Table engine
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A table engine is a variety of stationary steam engine where the cylinder is placed on top of a table-shaped base, the legs of which stand on the baseplate which locates the crankshaft bearings. The piston rod protrudes from the top of the cylinder and has fixed to it a cross-head which runs in slides attached to, and rising from, long return rods connect the crosshead to the crankshaft, on which is fixed the flywheel. Henry Maudslay patented a version of this a few years later. It was supplied for low-speed, low-power applications around the first half of the nineteenth century and they continued to be made in a range of sizes, down to very small, with a bore and stroke of only a few inches. The table engine was one of the first types where the engine was constructed as an independent unit and this made the engines cheaper, and more importantly quicker, to erect on site. Entire engines could be built and tested at their factory before delivery, engines could also be pre-built, then offered for sale from stock, rather than having to be designed and constructed for each site. This erroneous view was not dispelled until around 1830 and the number of steam locomotives using horizontal cylinders without such wear problems. Maudslay table engine at the Science Museum, London
19.
Crosshead
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A crosshead is a mechanism used in long reciprocating engines and reciprocating compressors to eliminate sideways pressure on the piston. Also, the crosshead enables the connecting rod to freely move outside the cylinder, therefore, the longitudinal dimension of the crosshead must be matched to the stroke of the engine. A piston rod is attached to the piston and links it to the crosshead, the crosshead also houses the gudgeon pin on which the small end of the connecting rod pivots. In this way, the forces are applied only to the crosshead and its bearings. Internal combustion engines using crossheads make for easier maintenance of the top end of the engine, the piston rod is mounted on the underside of the piston and connected to the crosshead by a single nut in double acting engines. The large two-stroke marine diesel engines are usually of this pattern, a crosshead is essential in a double-acting diesel engine. Large diesels often have a plunger oilpump directly attached to the crosshead to supply oil under pressure to the crosshead bearing. In the case of the engine, a crosshead is essential if the engine is to be double acting - steam is applied to both sides of the piston, which requires a seal around the piston rod. An exception is the cylinder steam engine which can be double acting. Crossheads in a locomotive can be mounted either to one guide mounted above the crosshead or to two, one above and one below. The former was preferred in modern locomotives
20.
High-speed steam engine
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High-speed steam engines were one of the final developments of the stationary steam engine. They ran at a speed, of several hundred rpm. They have two primary characteristics, High speed and this is sufficient to drive a small dynamo directly, rather than needing a step-up drive by belts. Generation by dynamo requires a rotation speed for a stable output voltage. When an alternator was being driven, the output frequency also depended upon a stable rotation speed and these also resulted in a number of secondary characteristics. Although these were not defining to the type, or were always the case, they were common, Improved lubrication. This often used an enclosed crankcase with an oil sump and lubrication by splash or by ring oilers, some went so far as to have engine-driven oil pumps and a circulation system. Small, rigid cast iron frames, so that they did not require the large stationary engines usual complex masonry foundations, as the crankcase became more important for lubrication, the layout was simpler if steam pressure was only applied to one side of the cylinder. This has an advantage, as the steams force is now only on one side of the piston, the force on the bearings will still vary through the stroke. This reduces the effects of any bearing slop at high speed, High speed was not needed for electrical power generation in the largest city-wide plants. As these plants were necessarily large, they could also use large-diameter dynamos with many pole pieces and this gave the necessary linear speed for a lower rotational shaft speed. These engines were produced with simple or compound operating cycles. Smaller examples were usually simple, as the difficulties of achieving good regulation outweighed the efficiencies of compounding, high-speed engines did develop a reputation for profligacy. For larger engines the fuel cost savings were worthwhile and compound designs such as the Willans engine were used and they also used a wide range of valves. Examples with either slide or piston valves were common, multi-cylinder single-acting engines typically shared one piston valve between two cylinders, either between the cylinders or horizontally above them. The valvegear driving these valves was usually simple, a single eccentric designed only to run at one speed, in one direction, although these engines were contemparaneous with sophisticated and efficient valvegears such as the Corliss, these trip valves were incapable of working quickly enough. A key requirement for the steam engine was accurate control of a constant speed. Although the control of steam engines via a centrifugal governor dates back to Watt and these early governors operated a throttle valve to control the flow of steam to the engine
21.
Corliss steam engine
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Corliss engines were generally about 30 percent more fuel efficient than conventional steam engines with fixed cutoff. This increased efficiency made steam power more economical than water power, Corliss engines were typically used as stationary engines to provide mechanical power to line shafting in factories and mills and to drive dynamos to generate electricity. Many were quite large, standing many metres tall and developing several hundred horsepower, albeit at low speed, see, for example, the engines at the Hook Norton Brewery and the Distillerie Dillon in the list of operational engines. Corliss engines have four valves for each cylinder, with steam, Corliss engines incorporate distinct refinements in both the valves themselves and in the valve gear, that is, the system of linkages that operate the valves. In contrast, conventional steam engines have a valve or piston valve that alternately feeds. These passages are exposed to wide temperature swings during engine operation, Clark commented that the Corliss gear is essentially a combination of elements previously known and used separately, affecting the cylinder and the valve-gear. The origins of the Corliss gear with regard to previous steam valve gear was traced by Inglis, patent 6,162 for his valve gear on March 10,1849. Unlike later engines, most of which were horizontal, this patent describes a vertical beam engine. The inlet valves are pulled open with a pawl, when the pawl trips. The speed of a Corliss engine is controlled by varying the cutoff of steam during each power stroke, to accomplish this, the centrifugal governor is linked to a pair of cams, one for each admission valve. These cams determine the point during the stroke that the pawl will release. This comes far closer to the ideal Carnot cycle than is possible with an engine where the valve is open for the length of the power stroke. Corliss valves open directly into the cylinder, the valves connect the cylinder to separate steam and exhaust plenums. Initially, Corliss used slide valves with linear actuators, but by 1851, Corliss had shifted to semi-rotary valve actuators, in this engine, the wrist plate was moved to the center of the cylinder side, as on later Corliss engines. This was still a beam engine, however, and the valve actuators operated linear slide valves inside the four valve chests of the engine. Corliss valves are in the form of a circular segment. Their actuating mechanism is off along the axis of the valve, thus they have little dead space such as the stem of a poppet valve and the entire port area can be used efficiently for gas flow. As the area of a Corliss valve is small compared to the port area and these advantages have led to the Corliss form of valve being used in other roles, apart from steam engines with Corliss gear
22.
Valve gear
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It can also serve as a reversing gear. It is sometimes referred to as the motion, in the simple case, this can be a relatively simple task as in the internal combustion engine in which the valves always open and close at the same points. A further benefit may be obtained by admitting the steam to the cylinder slightly before front or back dead centre and this advanced admission assists in cushioning the inertia of the motion at high speed. Instead, a system of eccentrics, cranks and levers is used to control a D slide valve or piston valve from the motion. Generally, two simple harmonic motions with different fixed phase angles are added in varying proportions to provide a motion that is variable in phase. A variety of mechanisms have been devised over the years. Both slide and piston valves have the limitation that intake and exhaust events are fixed in relation to each other, lap is provided on steam edges of the valve, so that although the valve stroke reduces as cutoff is advanced, the valve is always fully opened to exhaust. However, as cutoff is shortened, the exhaust events also advance, the exhaust release point occurs earlier in the power stroke and compression earlier in the exhaust stroke. Early release wastes some energy in the steam, and early closure also wastes energy in compressing an otherwise unnecessarily large quantity of steam and these inefficiencies drove the widespread experimentation in poppet valve gears for locomotives. Intake and exhaust poppet valves could be moved and controlled independently of each other, a very late British design, the SR Leader class, used sleeve valves adapted from internal combustion engines, but this class was not a success. In stationary steam engines, traction engines and marine engine practice, in stationary engines trip valves were also extensively used. Valve gear was a field of invention, with probably several hundred variations devised over the years. However, only a number of these saw any widespread use. They can be divided into those that drove the standard reciprocating valves, those used with poppet valves, slip-eccentric - This gear is now confined to model steam engines, and low power hobby applications such as steam launch engines, ranging to a few horsepower. The eccentric is loose on the crankshaft but there are stops to limit its rotation relative to the crankshaft, the engine is pushed forwards to put the eccentric in the forward gear position and backwards to put it in the backward gear position. There is no control of cutoff. These included the Teutonic, Greater Britain and John Hick classes, gab or hook gear - used on earliest locomotives. Allowed reversing but no control of cutoff, one component of the motion comes from a crank or eccentric
23.
Uniflow steam engine
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The uniflow type of steam engine uses steam that flows in one direction only in each half of the cylinder. Steam always enters at the hot ends of the cylinder and exhausts through ports at the cooler centre, by this means, the relative heating and cooling of the cylinder walls is reduced. Steam entry is controlled by poppet valves that are operated by a camshaft. The inlet valves open to admit steam when minimum expansion volume has been reached at the start of the stroke. For a period of the cycle, steam is admitted. Near the end of the stroke, the piston will uncover a ring of exhaust ports mounted radially around the centre of the cylinder. These ports are connected by a manifold and piping to the condenser, continued rotation of the crank moves the piston. This condition allows higher thermal efficiency, the exhaust ports are only open for a small fraction of the piston stroke, with the exhaust ports closed just after the piston begins traveling toward the admission end of the cylinder. The steam remaining within the cylinder after the exhaust ports are closed is trapped, and this is thermodynamically desirable as it preheats the hot end of the cylinder before the admission of steam. However, the risk of excessive compression often results in small auxiliary exhaust ports being included at the cylinder heads, such a design is called a semi-uniflow engine. Engines of this type usually have multiple cylinders in an in-line arrangement, and, by changing the absolute phase, the engines direction of rotation may be changed. The uniflow design also maintains a constant temperature gradient through the cylinder, avoiding passing hot, in practice, the uniflow engine has a number of operational shortcomings. The large expansion ratio requires a large cylinder volume, to gain the maximum potential work from the engine a high reciprocation rate is required, typically 80% faster than a double-acting counterflow type engine. This causes the opening times of the valves to be very short. Because there is a thermal gradient across the cylinder, the metal of the wall expands to different extents and this requires the cylinder bore to be machined wider in the cool center than at the hot ends. If the cylinder is not heated correctly, or if water enters, the uniflow engine was first used in Britain in 1827 by Jacob Perkins and was patented in 1885 by Leonard Jennett Todd. It was popularised by German engineer Johann Stumpf in 1909, with the first commercial stationary engine produced a year previously in 1908, experiments were also made in France, Germany, the United States and Russia. In no case were the results encouraging enough for development to be undertaken
24.
Compound steam engine
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A compound steam engine unit is a type of steam engine where steam is expanded in two or more stages. Multiple-expansion engines employ additional cylinders, of lower pressure, to extract further energy from the steam. Invented in 1781, this technique was first employed on a Cornish beam engine in 1804, around 1850, compound engines were first introduced into Lancashire textile mills. In a single-expansion steam engine, the steam enters the cylinder at boiler pressure through an inlet valve. The steam pressure forces the piston down the cylinder, until the valve shuts and this cut-off allows much more work to be extracted, since the expansion of the steam is doing additional work beyond that done by the steam at boiler pressure. An earlier cut-off increases the ratio, which in principle allows more energy to be extracted and increases efficiency. This temperature drop would occur if the cylinder were perfectly insulating so that no heat is released from the system. As a result, steam enters the cylinder at high temperature, the changing steam temperature alternately heats and cools the cylinder with every stroke and is a source of inefficiency which increases at higher expansion ratios. Beyond a certain point, further increasing the ratio will actually decrease efficiency due to the increased heating and cooling. A method to lessen the magnitude of this heating and cooling was invented in 1804 by British engineer Arthur Woolf, in the compound engine, high-pressure steam from the boiler first expands in a high-pressure cylinder and then enters one or more subsequent lower pressure cylinders. The complete expansion of the steam occurs across multiple cylinders and, as there is less expansion in each cylinder and this reduces the magnitude of cylinder heating and cooling, making higher expansion ratios practical and increasing the efficiency of the engine. There are other advantages, as the range is smaller, cylinder condensation is reduced. Loss due to condensation is restricted to the LP cylinder, pressure difference is less in each cylinder so there is less steam leakage at the piston and valves. The turning moment is uniform, so balancing is easier. Only the smaller HP cylinder needs to be built to withstand the highest pressure, similarly, components are subject to less strain, so they can be lighter. The reciprocating parts of the engine are lighter, reducing the engine vibrations, the compound could be started at any point in the cycle, and in the event of mechanical failure the compound could be reset to act as a simple, and thus keep running. To derive equal work from lower-pressure steam requires a larger cylinder volume as this steam occupies a greater volume, therefore, the bore, and often the stroke, are increased in low-pressure cylinders, resulting in larger cylinders. Double-expansion engines expand the steam in two stages, but this does not imply that all engines have two cylinders
25.
Exhaust gas
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Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, petrol, biodiesel blends, diesel fuel, fuel oil, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack and it often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume. A2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions. According to another study from the university, traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom. The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen, water vapor, and carbon dioxide, Exhaust gas temperature is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge, EGT is also a measure of engine health in gas-turbine engines. During the first two minutes after starting the engine of a car that has not been operated for several hours, inefficient catalytic converter under cold conditions, Catalytic converters are very inefficient until up to their operating temperature. This time has much reduced by moving the converter closer to the exhaust manifold. The small converter handles the start-up emissions, which enough time for the larger main converter to heat up. Further improvements can be realised in many ways, including heating, thermal battery, chemical reaction preheating, flame heating. The requirements were phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars, in spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases. The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but is around these levels, The 10% oxygen for diesel is likely if the engine was idling and it is much less if the engine is running under load. People exposed to it should wear a gas mask, in aircraft gas turbine engines, exhaust gas temperature is a primary measure of engine health. Typically the EGT is compared with an engine power indication called engine pressure ratio. For example, at full power EPR there will be a maximum permitted EGT limit, once an engine reaches a stage in its life where it reaches this EGT limit, the engine will require specific maintenance in order to rectify the problem. The amount the EGT is below the EGT limit is called EGT margin, the EGT margin of an engine will be greatest when the engine is new, or has been overhauled. For most airlines, this information is monitored remotely by the airline maintenance department by means of ACARS. In jet engines and rocket engines, exhaust from propelling nozzles which in some applications shows shock diamonds, Flue gas Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful work
26.
Heat sink
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In computers, heat sinks are used to cool central processing units or graphics processors. A heat sink is designed to maximize its surface area in contact with the medium surrounding it. Air velocity, choice of material, protrusion design and surface treatment are factors that affect the performance of a heat sink, heat sink attachment methods and thermal interface materials also affect the die temperature of the integrated circuit. Thermal adhesive or thermal grease improve the heat sinks performance by filling air gaps between the sink and the heat spreader on the device. A heat sink is made out of copper and/or aluminium. Copper is used because it has many desirable properties for thermally efficient, first and foremost, copper is an excellent conductor of heat. This means that high thermal conductivity allows heat to pass through it quickly. Aluminum is used in applications where weight is a big concern, a heat sink transfers thermal energy from a higher temperature device to a lower temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is air, but can also be water. If the fluid medium is water, the sink is frequently called a cold plate. In thermodynamics a heat sink is a reservoir that can absorb an arbitrary amount of heat without significantly changing temperature. Practical heat sinks for electronic devices must have a higher than the surroundings to transfer heat by convection, radiation. The power supplies of electronics are not 100% efficient, so heat is produced that may be detrimental to the function of the device. As such, a sink is included in the design to disperse heat to improve efficient energy use. To understand the principle of a sink, consider Fouriers law of heat conduction. The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction, q k, is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient, Q k = − k A d T d x Consider a heat sink in a duct, where air flows through the duct. It is assumed that the heat sink base is higher in temperature than the air, when compact heat exchangers are calculated, the logarithmic mean air temperature is used. M ˙ is the air flow rate in kg/s
27.
Pumping station
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Pumping stations are facilities including pumps and equipment for pumping fluids from one place to another. They are used for a variety of systems, such as the supply of water to canals, the drainage of low-lying land. A pumping station is, by definition, a part of a pumped-storage hydroelectricity installation. In countries with canal systems, pumping stations are also frequent, because of the way the system of canal locks work, water is lost from the upper part of a canal each time a vessel passes through. Also, most lock gates are not watertight, so some water leaks from the levels of the canal to those lower down. Obviously, the water has to be replaced or eventually the upper levels of the canal would not hold water to be navigable. Canals are usually fed by diverting water from streams and rivers into the parts of the canal, but if no suitable source is available. An excellent example of a pumping station is the Claverton Pumping Station on the Kennet and Avon Canal in southern England. This pumps water from the nearby River Avon to the canal using pumps driven by a waterwheel which is powered by the river, where no external water supply is available, back pumping systems may be employed. Water is extracted from the canal below the lowest lock of a flight and is pumped back to the top of the flight, when low-lying areas of land are drained, the general method is to dig drainage ditches. However, if the area is sea level then it is necessary to pump the water upwards into water channels that finally drain into the sea. The Victorians understood this concept, and in the United Kingdom they built pumping stations with water pumps, in Lincolnshire, large areas of wetland at sea level, called The Fens, were turned into rich arable farmland by this method. The land is full of nutrients because of the accumulation of mud that created the land initially. Elsewhere, pumping stations are used to water that has found its way into low-lying areas as a result of leakage or flooding. In more recent times, a pumping station provides an efficient. They are suitable for building services collection and pumping of liquids like surface water, wastewater or sewage from areas where drainage by gravity is not possible. A package pumping station is a system, built in a housing manufactured from strong, impact-resistant materials such as precast concrete, polyethylene. The unit is supplied with internal pipework fitted, pre-assembled ready for installation into the ground, after which the submersible pumps, traditional site constructed systems have the valve vault components installed in a separate structure
28.
Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
29.
Winding engine
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A winding engine is a stationary engine used to control a cable, for example to power a mining hoist at a pit head. Electric hoist controllers have replaced proper winding engines in modern mining, early winding engines were hand, or more usually horse powered. The first powered winding engines were steam engines. They differ from most other steam engines in that, like a steam locomotive, they need to be able to stop frequently. This requires more complex valve gear and other controls than are needed on engines used in mills or to drive pumps
30.
Hoist (device)
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A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook, the basic hoist has two important characteristics to define it, Lifting medium and power type. The lifting medium is either wire rope, wrapped around a drum, or load-chain, the power can be provided by different means. Common means are hydraulics, electrical and air driven motors, both the wire rope hoist and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800s, however mass production of an electric hoist did not start until the early 1900s and was first adapted by Germany. A hoist can be built as one unit, designed for cost-effective purchasing and moderate use, or it can be built as a built-up custom unit, designed for durability. The built-up hoist will be more expensive, but will also be easier to repair. Package units were regarded as being designed for light to moderate usage. Built-up units are designed for heavy to severe service, but over the years that market has decreased in size since the advent of the more durable packaged hoist. A machine shop or fabricating shop will use an integral-package hoist, while a Steel Mill or NASA would use a unit to meet durability, performance. NASA has also seen a change in the use of package hoists, the NASA Astronaut training pool, for example, utilizes cranes with packaged hoists. The more commonly used hoist in todays worldwide market is an electrically powered hoist and these are either the chain type or the wire rope type. See the Hoists Manufacturers Institute site for true life calculation which is based on load, in todays modern world for the North American market there are a few governing bodies for the industry. The Overhead Alliance is a group that represents Crane Manufacturers Association of America, Hoist Manufacturers Institute and these product counsels of the Material Handling Industry of America have joined forces to create promotional materials to raise the awareness of the benefits to overhead lifting. The members of group are marketing representatives of the member companies. Common small portable hoists are of two types, the chain hoist or chain block and the wire rope or cable type. Chain hoists may have a lever to actuate the hoist or have a loop of operating chain that one pulls through the block which then activates the block to take up the main lifting chain. For a given rated load wire rope is lighter in weight per unit length, the lift chain of a chain hoist is far larger than the liftwheel over which chain may function
31.
Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
32.
Boulton & Watt
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Boulton & Watt was an early British engineering and manufacturing firm in the business of designing and making marine and stationary steam engines. The partnership was formed in 1775 to exploit Watts patent for an engine with a separate condenser. This made much more efficient use of its fuel than the older Newcomen engine, initially the business was based at the Soho Manufactory near Boultons Soho House on the southern edge of the then-rural parish of Handsworth. However most of the components for their engines were made by others, in 1795, they began to make steam engines themselves at their Soho Foundry in Smethwick, near Birmingham, England. The partnership was passed to two of their sons in 1800, William Murdoch was made a partner of the firm in 1810, where he remained until his retirement 20 years later at the age of 76. The firm lasted over 120 years, albeit renamed James Watt & Co. in 1849, and was making steam engines in 1895. The business was a hotbed for the nurturing of emerging engineering talent, among the names which were employed there in the eighteenth century were James Law, Peter Ewart, William Brunton, Isaac Perrins, William Murdoch, and John Southern. The firm left an extremely detailed archive of its activities, which was given to the city of Birmingham in 1911 and is kept at the Library of Birmingham, the library has since obtained various other related archives. An additional archive was donated to the Boulton and Watt collection in 2015 and it represents the research carried out by John Richardson The archive includes, A copy of his completed P. h. D. thesis submitted to the University of Reading in 1989. The original thesis remains the property of the University of Reading and this information includes portfolio number, dates of drawings and comments on techniques used. Where applicable, the cross reference with letters, books and other related literature on the firm of Boulton. A selection of DVDs containing all text and the many drawings studied are also included in the archive and this research is primarily concerned with the contribution of the firm of Boulton and Watt to engineering drawing used in design and manufacture. Reports from Australia confirmed that the engine was erected in the Power House Museum, Ultimo and this engine was originally designed and built for Samuel Whitbread in 1784 and the job portfolio contains forty four drawings that relate to it. Copies of the different types of drawings were made and sent out, they provided all the information required to re assemble. Smethwick Engine, Thinktank science museum, Birmingham, manufactured 1779, Whitbread Engine, Powerhouse Museum, Sydney, manufactured 1785,25 inch bore,72 inch stroke. Crofton Pumping Station manufactured 1812,42.25 inch bore,84 inch stroke, kew Bridge Steam Museum manufactured 1820,64 inch bore,96 inch stroke. Samuel Clegg Steam engine Watt steam engine William Murdoch Hills, Richard L. James Watt, the Non-Rotative Beam Engine Chapter 3, The Boulton and Watt Engine Maurice Kelly ISBN 0-9536523-3-5 Archives of Soho at Birmingham Central Library. Revolutionary Players website Cornwall Record Office Boulton & Watt letters
33.
George Saxon & Co
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George Saxon & Co was an English engineering company that manufactured stationary steam engines. It was based in the Openshaw district of Manchester, the company produced large steam-driven engines for power stations and later for textile mills in Lancashire and elsewhere. George Saxon was born in Manchester in 1821 and he served an apprenticeship with William Fairbairn, and rose to supervisor. In 1851, he moved to be foreman at Benjamin Goodfellows works in Hyde, here in 1854, he invented and patented a fusible plug for steam boilers. That year he formed his own business at Spring Works, Openshaw and he probably started manufacturing steam engines in 1860. He patented many improvements to engine design. He was elected president of the Manchester Association of Engineers in 1871 and he was also a member if the Institute of Mechanical Engineers. In February 1879 he patented an automatic cut-off motion, which made his engines more economical and he believed in the use of a long cylinder stroke on his horizontal engines to produce more power. His sons followed him into the business and continued it after his death in 1879, up to 1860 Saxon appears to have mainly concentrated on engine repair work and producing mill gearing and shafting. Spring Works was extended in 1860 by the addition of a shop, when engine making seems to have started in a small way. By 1875 Saxon was building engines of between 750 and 1,000 ihp, for the new Oldham Limiteds and these were mostly horizontal twin tandem compound engines - a 4-cylinder design for which Saxons became noted during the last quarter of the 19th century. During 1871–80 Saxons are known to have built at least 10 engines with a capacity of about 6,800 ihp, George Saxon engines were charactised by having a long stroke and high operating speed. They used Corliss valves on their large mill engines from around 1890 onwards, the Saxon design dispensed with the wrist plate and unusually placed Corliss valves on both the HP and LP cylinders where other designers, such as McNaught and Petrie would have used piston valves. Saxons were late adopters of Corliss valve engines but were quick to adopt the efficient triple-expansion engine design and they also continued to build large horizontal twin tandem compound engines. Near-identical engines Saxons built in 1902 for Dawn Mill, Shaw, the flywheels of these engines were 26 ft in diameter and weighed between 80 and 90 tons. The speed of 60 rpm and stroke of 5 ft were standard at this time, Saxons built their first inverted vertical engine in 1896, a space efficient design which became quite popular with mill builders. They built some particularly large engines, in 1908 they built a 2,750 ihp engine for No 2 Mill, Times Mill, Middleton – their largest to be built in the Oldham area. In Pear New Mill, Stockport, and Hall Lane Spinning Mill, Leigh and this design was so named because Allis-Chalmers, in designing a 60,000 h. p
34.
Peter Brotherhood
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Peter Brotherhood was a British engineer. He invented the Brotherhood engine used for torpedoes as well as other engineering products. With his son he built an engineering business in London bearing his name. His son Stanley moved the works to Peterborough in 1903 where their business continued to grow. On 30 October 2015 Hayward Tyler Group PLC completed the acquisition of the trade and assets of the Peter Brotherhood business from Dresser-Rand Company Ltd, Peter was the second son of the fourteen children of Rowland Brotherhood, a British engineer, and his wife Priscilla Penton. He was born in Maidenhead, Berkshire 22 April 1838 and raised in comfortable circumstances in Chippenham and he spent the years when he was aged 13 to 18 studying applied science at Kings College School. After practical experience including a period at the Great Western Railway works at Swindon he joined the marine engineering works, Maudslay. He is said to have had a mechanical instinct which allowed him to design machinery without resorting to calculations or formulae and he also had a passion for experiment. Peter married Eliza Pinniger Hunt, daughter of a contractor to the Indian railways, on 19 April 1866 and they had five children but only Stanley and two daughters outlived them. A restored Kittoe and Brotherhood beam engine of 1867 can be seen at the Coldharbour Mill museum in Devon - it was supplied to the Whitechapel Albion brewery. Kittoe retired in 1871 and the firm became Peter Brotherhood, put to many uses it drove the Navys Whitehead torpedoes and was used in the torpedoes of other navies as well. Fans, dynamos and other high speed machines were driven by this engine. In 1881 the business was moved to Belvedere Road, Lambeth and they continued to make heavy agricultural tractors. From late 1906 the cars were named Sheffield-Simplex, Stanley Brotherhood was a director then chairman of Humber Limited until it merged with Hillman Motor Company and came under the control of Rootes Group in 1929. A private limited liability company was incorporated to own the Peter Brotherhood business on 16 December 1907, on 29 June 1937 it went public becoming a public listed company. In 2008, the business was sold to Dresser-Rand Company Ltd, on 30 October 2015 the Hayward Tyler Group PLC completed the acquisition of the trade and assets of the Peter Brotherhood business from Dresser-Rand Company Ltd, a Siemens-owned company. The Peter Brotherhood business continues manufacturing steam turbines, gas compressors, and combined heat and power solutions
35.
Coldharbour Mill Working Wool Museum
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Coldharbour Mill, near the village of Uffculme in Devon, England, is one of the oldest woollen textile mills in the world, having been in continuous production since 1797. The headquarters for the mill was at Tonedale in Wellington, the water provided by the nearby River Culm was a prime factor in Thomas Foxs decision to purchase the existing grist mill. In 1797 he wrote to his brother I have purchased the premises at Uffculme for eleven hundred guineas, the buildings are but middling, but the stream good. The roads in the area at the time were very poor and it appears that there has been a mill of some description near the Coldharbour site since Saxon times. The Domesday Book recording two mills in the Uffculme area, at its peak the company employed approximately 5,000 people and owned and operated nine mills and factories in Somerset, Devon, and Oxfordshire. One of the most notable satellite mills was that of William Bliss & Sons, located in Chipping Norton, the William Bliss site was one of the grandest mills in England, complete with reading room, chapel and workers cottages. Fox Brothers bought it in 1920, the main Tonedale site in Wellington was the largest integrated mill site in the South West of England, covering 10 acres of land and forming the hub of the Fox Brothers woollen manufacturing empire. The ancestors of the owners, the Fox family and the Were family, were early Quaker converts. During George Foxs first visit to Devonshire in 1655, he went to the house of Nicholas Tripe and his wife and their daughter, Anstice, married George Croker of Plymouth, and they were much persecuted for their beliefs. Their daughter Tabitha married Francis Fox of St. Germans, Cornwall, Thomas Were was a very successful manufacturer, and had inherited the WRE trademark, which certified the quality of his cloth. His great-great grandfather John Were of Pinksmoor was credited with owning a fulling mill, during one of the visits of Edward to his father-in-law, it was suggested that one of Edward and Annes sons should join the Wellington woollen manufacturing business. After four years overseas, Edwards son Thomas Fox moved to Wellington. Thomas and his wife Sarah Smith, built in 1801, then lived in, Tone Dale House, Wellington - the house is lived in by a Fox, five generations later, by Ben. In 1826, when his sons were partners, the business was renamed Fox Brothers, the almost incredible sum of £900,000 was lately subscribed at Wells in about two hours for cutting one from Taunton to Bristol. In 1787, Were and Company ran short of ready cash, on 30 October, Thomas printed 500 notes of five guineas each. The notes were well received by local businesses, in 1797, an invasion scare resulted in a shortage of gold and cash, and Thomas Fox issued 3,000 five guinea notes, and seventy six £20 notes in order to enable his business to continue its expansion. One of the original £5 notes is on display at Tone Dale House, Exeter was the centre of the mediaeval woollen trade in England, with cloth being exported to the Continental markets of France, Holland and Germany. Kersey, a cloth, was superseded by serge, so that by 1681 95% of the Exeter cloth export was serge
36.
Thomas Savery
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Thomas Savery was an English inventor and engineer, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England. He is famous for his invention of the first commercially used steam powered engine, Savery became a military engineer, rising to the rank of Captain by 1702, and spent his free time performing experiments in mechanics. Savery also worked for the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, contracting the supply of medicines to the Navy Stock Company and his duties on their behalf took him to Dartmouth, which is probably how he came into contact with Thomas Newcomen. He demonstrated it to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699, Saverys engine had no piston, and no moving parts except from the taps. It was operated by first raising steam in the boiler, the steam was admitted to one of the first working vessels. When the system was hot and therefore full of steam the tap between the boiler and the vessel was shut, and if necessary the outside of the vessel was cooled. This made the steam inside it condense, creating a partial vacuum, at this point the tap below the vessel was closed, and the tap between it and the up-pipe opened, and more steam was admitted from the boiler. As the steam pressure built up, it forced the water from the vessel up the up-pipe to the top of the mine, however, his engine had four serious problems. First, every time water was admitted to the vessel much of the heat was wasted in warming up the water that was being pumped. Saverys original patent of July 1698 gave 14 years protection, the year,1699. This Act became known as the Fire Engine Act, Saverys patent covered all engines that raised water by fire, and it thus played an important role in shaping the early development of steam machinery in the British Isles. The architect James Smith of Whitehill acquired the rights to use Saverys engine in Scotland, in England, Saverys patent meant that Thomas Newcomen was forced to go into partnership with him. By 1712, arrangements had been between the two men to develop Newcomens more advanced design of engine, which was marketed under Saverys patent. After his death in 1715 Saverys patent and Act of Parliament became vested in a company and this company issued licences to others for the building and operation of Newcomen engines, charging as much as £420 per year patent royalties for the construction of steam engines. In one case a colliery paid the Proprietors £200 per year, the Fire Engine Act did not expire until 1733, four years after the death of Newcomen. One of his engines was set up at York Buildings in London, according to later descriptions this produced steam eight or ten times stronger than common air, but blew open the joints of the machine, forcing him to solder the joints with spelter. Another was built to control the supply at Hampton Court. A few Savery engines were tried in mines, an unsuccessful attempt being made to use one to clear water from a pool called Broad Waters in Wednesbury and this had been covered by a sudden eruption of water some years before
37.
Newcomen atmospheric engine
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The atmospheric engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, often referred to simply as a Newcomen engine. The engine operated by condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum and it was the first practical device to harness steam to produce mechanical work. Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump out of mines. Hundreds were constructed through the 18th century, James Watts later engine design was an improved version of the Newcomen engine that roughly doubled fuel efficiency. Many atmospheric engines were converted to the Watt design, for a price based on a fraction of the savings in fuel, as a result, Watt is today better known than Newcomen in relation to the origin of the steam engine. Prior to Newcomen a number of small devices of various sorts had been made. Around 1600 a number of experimenters used steam to power small fountains working like a coffee percolator, first a container was filled with water via a pipe, which extended through the top of the container to nearly the bottom. The bottom of the pipe would be submerged in the water, the container was then heated to make the water boil. These devices had limited effectiveness but illustrated the principles viability, in 1662 Edward Somerset, second Marquess of Worcester, published a book containing several ideas he had been working on. One was for a pump to supply water to fountains. A fresh charge of steam under pressure then drove the water from the container up another pipe to a header before that steam condensed. By working the two containers alternately, the rate to the header tank could be increased. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam-powered pump he called the Miners Friend, essentially identical to Somersets design, the process of cooling and creating the vacuum was fairly slow, so Savery later added an external cold water spray to quickly cool the steam. Saverys invention cannot be regarded as the first steam engine since it had no moving parts. There were evidently high hopes for the Miners Friend, which led Parliament to extend the life of the patent by 21 years, unfortunately, Saverys device proved much less successful than had been hoped. This was insufficient to pump out of a mine. In Saverys pamphlet, he suggests setting the boiler and containers on a ledge in the mineshaft, obviously these were inconvenient solutions and some sort of mechanical pump working at surface level – one that lifted the water directly instead of sucking it up – was desirable. Such pumps were common already, powered by horses, but required a vertical reciprocating drive that Saverys system did not provide, the more practical problem concerned having a boiler operating under pressure, as demonstrated when the boiler of an engine at Wednesbury exploded, perhaps in 1705
38.
Watt steam engine
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The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of a separate condenser. It was a vacuum or atmospheric engine using steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to create a vacuum beneath the piston. The difference between atmospheric pressure above the piston and the vacuum below drove the piston down the cylinder. James Watt avoided the use of pressure steam because of safety concerns. Watts design became synonymous with steam engines, due in no part to his business partner. The Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to 1775, was an improvement on the design of the Newcomen engine and was a key point in the Industrial Revolution, Watts two most important improvements were the separate condenser and rotary motion. The separate condenser, located external to the cylinder, condensed steam without cooling the piston, Watts engines efficiency was more than double that of the Newcomen engine. Rotary motion was more suitable for power than the oscillating beam of Newcomens engine. In 1699, the English mechanical designer, Thomas Savery, invented a pumping appliance that used steam to draw directly from a well by means of a vacuum created by condensing steam. The appliance was also proposed for draining mines, but it could only draw fluid up approximately 25 feet, as mines became deeper, this was often impractical. It also consumed an amount of fuel compared with later engines. The solution to draining deep mines was found by Thomas Newcomen who developed an engine that also worked on the vacuum principle. It employed a cylinder containing a piston connected by a chain to one end of a rocking beam that worked a mechanical lift pump from its opposite end. At the bottom of each stroke, steam was allowed to enter the cylinder below the piston, as the piston rose within the cylinder, drawn upward by a counterbalance, it drew in steam at atmospheric pressure. At the top of the stroke the valve was closed. This water condensed the steam and created a vacuum below the piston. The atmospheric pressure outside the engine was then greater than the pressure within the cylinder, the piston, attached to a chain and in turn attached to one end of the rocking beam, pulled down the end of the beam, lifting the opposite end of the beam. Hence, the deep in the mine attached to opposite end of the beam via ropes
39.
Richard Trevithick
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Richard Trevithick was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall, England. The son of a captain, and born in the mining heartland of Cornwall. He performed poorly in school, but went on to be a pioneer of steam-powered road. His most significant contribution was the development of the first high-pressure steam engine and he also built the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive. Turning his interests abroad, Trevithick also worked as a consultant in Peru. Throughout his professional career, he went through ups and downs. During the prime of his career, he was a well-respected and known figure in mining and engineering, Richard Trevithick was born at Tregajorran, between Camborne and Redruth, in the heart of one of the rich mineral mining areas of Cornwall. He was the child and the only boy in a family of six children. He was very tall for the era at 6 ft 2in, as well as athletic, an exception was arithmetic, for which he had an aptitude, but arrived at the correct answers by unconventional means. Trevithick was the son of mine captain Richard Trevithick and of miners daughter Ann Teague, as a child he would watch steam engines pump water from the deep tin and copper mines in Cornwall. For a time he was a neighbour to William Murdoch, the steam carriage pioneer, Trevithick first went to work at the age of 19 at the East Stray Park Mine. He was enthusiastic and quickly gained the status as a consultant and he was popular with the miners because of the respect they had for his father. In 1797, Trevithick married Jane Harvey of Hayle and his company became famous worldwide for building huge stationary beam engines for pumping water, usually from mines, based on Newcomens and Watts engines. Until this time, such engines were of the condensing or atmospheric type, originally invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712. Trevithick became engineer at the Ding Dong Mine in 1797, and he worked on building and modifying steam engines to avoid the royalties due to Watt on the separate condenser patent. He also experimented with the pump, a type of pump – with a beam engine – used widely in Cornwalls tin mines. He was not the first to think of so-called strong steam, William Murdoch had developed and demonstrated a model steam carriage, starting in 1784, and demonstrated it to Trevithick at his request in 1794. In fact, Trevithick lived next door to Murdoch in Redruth in 1797 and 1798, Oliver Evans in the U. S. had also concerned himself with the concept, but there is no indication that his ideas had ever come to Trevithicks attention
40.
Arthur Woolf
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Arthur Woolf was a Cornish engineer, most famous for inventing a high-pressure compound steam engine. As such he made a contribution to the development and perfection of the Cornish engine. Woolf left Cornwall in 1785 to work for Joseph Bramahs engineering works in London and he worked there and at other firms as an engineer and engine builder until 1811, when he returned to Cornwall. Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine, was trained by him, when he returned to Cornwall, beam engine designs were crude, shackled by outdated Watt patents and poor engineering. He learned from Bramah that to move forward meant adopting much improved engineering techniques, Woolf was chief engineer to Harvey & Co of Hayle, a leading engineering and foundry works. They eventually swallowed up the rival Copperhouse Foundry run by Sandys, Carne, for very many years they were a leading firm worldwide for drainage engines, even supplying 6 eight-beamed pumping engines to the Dutch government to drain the Haarlemmermeer. By the time Woolf retired in 1836 the Cornish engine, largely due to his efforts, was a thing of magnificent beauty, in 1803, Woolf obtained a patent on an improved boiler for producing high pressure steam. In 1804, he patented his invention, a compound steam engine. Woolfs engine was a compound engine with two cylinders in which the steam worked in succession. These were both coupled to the end of the beam of the engine. The operation of the engine can be described as being a cylinder of Trevithicks high-pressure simple expansion engine. Woolf had worked as an engine erector for Hornblower and was familiar with his work on compound engines. As a Cornishman, he was familiar with Trevithick and his newly developed high-pressure puffer engines that were then entering service. He recognised that, even with the new principle of expansion, from this step, it was a relatively simple matter to couple the two together. For most uses, the cylinders of the engine were double-acting, opposing sides of the high- and low-pressure cylinders were cross-connected to each other. Where engines were used for pumping, Woolf engines were built with paired single-acting cylinders. Also in many parts of the world are built to his designs. He was held in high regard by French, German, Belgian and Dutch steam engineers
41.
William McNaught (Glasgow)
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William McNaught was a Scottish engineer, from Glasgow, who patented a compound steam engine in 1845. This was a technique of improving the efficiency of a standard simple Boulton & Watt beam engine, the engine was compounded by adding a high-pressure cylinder between the support column and the flywheel, on the side opposite the low-pressure cylinder. This improvement could be fitted to existing engines. William McNaught was born on 27 May 1813 at Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scotland, son of John McNaught, McNaught patented his compound steam engine in 1845. He relocated to Manchester in 1849, the Robertson Street workshop was operated by William McNaught & Son as Makers of Steam-Engine Indicators, Steam Gauges, etc at 12 Hampden Terrace, Glasgow, at least until 1895. MacNaught died in Chorlton upon Medlock, Manchester, on 8 January 1881, in addition the stress on the centre of the beam was substantially reduced, and stress on the crank pin slightly reduced. This was important in preventing beam failure, many engine makers McNaughted existing beam engines, including William McNaught of Rochdale, as the thermodynamic benefits of high-pressure steam were beginning to be understood. Bolton Steam Museum displays a McNaughtted beam engine, the Cellars Clough mill engine was McNaughted by Woodhouse and Mitchell of Brighouse in 1909
42.
Cornish engine
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A Cornish engine is a type of steam engine developed in Cornwall, England, mainly for pumping water from a mine. It is a form of engine that uses steam at a higher pressure than the earlier engines designed by James Watt. Cornwall has long had tin, copper and other ore mines, but if mining is to take place at greater depths. This may be done using horse power or a waterwheel to operate pumps, accordingly, the conversion of coal into power to work pumps was highly desirable to the mining industry. Wheal Vor had one of the earliest Newcomen engines before 1714, the cost of fuel for pumping was thus a significant part of mining costs. Later, many of the more efficient early Watt engines were erected by Boulton and they charged the mine owners a royalty based on a share of the fuel saving. The fuel efficiency of an engine was measured by its duty, early Watt engines had a duty of 20 million, and later ones over 30 million. The Cornish cycle operates as follows, the pressure difference between the steam at boiler pressure above the piston and the vacuum below it drives the piston down. Part way down the stroke, the steam inlet valve is closed. At the bottom of the stroke, the exhaust valve to the condenser is closed and the equilibrium valve is opened. The weight of the pump draws the piston up, and as the piston comes up. When the piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the cycle is ready to repeat, the next stroke may occur immediately, or it may be delayed by a timing device such as a cataract. If it was not necessary for the engine to work at its maximum rate, the engine is single-acting, and the steam piston is pulled up by the weight of the pump piston and rodding. Steam may be supplied at a pressure of up to 50 pounds per square inch, the principal advantage of the Cornish engine was its increased efficiency, accomplished by making more economical use of higher-pressure steam. Increasing the boiler pressure above the low, virtually atmospheric pressure steam used by James Watt was an essential element of the improvement in efficiency of the Cornish engine. However, simply increasing the pressure would have made an engine more powerful without increasing its efficiency. The key advance was allowing the steam to expand in the cylinder, in a Watt engine, steam is admitted throughout the pistons power stroke. At the end of the stroke, the steam is exhausted, and any remaining energy is wasted in the condenser and this results in the capture of a greater proportion of its energy, and less heat being lost to the condenser, than in a Watt engine
43.
History of the steam engine
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The first recorded rudimentary steam engine was the aeolipile described by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD. Starting in the 12th century, a number of steam-powered devices were experimented with or proposed, the steam turbine has become the most common method by which electrical power generators are driven. Investigations are being made into the practicalities of reviving the reciprocating steam engine as the basis for a new wave of advanced steam technology, Steam ejected tangentially from nozzles caused a pivoted ball to rotate. This suggests that the conversion of pressure into mechanical movement was known in Roman Egypt in the 1st century. Heron also devised a machine that used air heated in a fire to displace a quantity of water from a closed vessel. The weight of the water was made to pull a rope to operate temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert, incorrectly, that the aeolipile was capable of useful work, a similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648. These devices were then called mills but are now known as steam jacks, the steam flow of these early steam turbines, however, was not concentrated and most of its energy was dissipated in all directions. This would have led to a waste of energy and so they were never seriously considered for industrial use. In 1605 French mathematician Florence Rivault in his treatise on artillery wrote on his discovery that water, if confined in a bombshell and heated, in 1606, the Spaniard, Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont demonstrated and was granted a patent for a steam powered water pump. The pump was used to drain the inundated mines of Guadalcanal. Influenced by Torricelli, Otto von Guericke invented a vacuum pump by modifying an air gun pump, Guericke put on a demonstration in 1654 in Magdeburg, Germany, where he was mayor. Two copper hemispheres were fitted together and air was pumped out, weights strapped to the hemispheres could not pull them apart until the air valve was opened. The experiment was repeated in 1656 using two teams of 8 horses each, which could not separate the Magdeburg hemispheres, gaspar Schott was the first to describe the hemisphere experiment in his Mechanica Hydraulico-Pneumatica. After reading Schott’s book, Robert Boyle built a vacuum pump. Denis Papin became interested in using a vacuum to generate motive power while working with Christiaan Huygens, Papin worked for Robert Boyle from 1676 to 1679, publishing an account of his work in Continuation of New Experiments and gave a presentation to Royal Society in 1689. From 1690 on Papin began experimenting with a piston to produce power with steam and he experimented with atmospheric and pressure steam engines, publishing his results in 1707. His system was the first to separate the boiler from the pumping action, water was admitted into a reinforced barrel from a cistern, and then a valve was opened to admit steam from a separate boiler
44.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
45.
Lineshaft
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A line shaft is a power driven rotating shaft for power transmission that was used extensively from the Industrial Revolution until the early 20th century. The central power source could be a water wheel, turbine, windmill, Power was distributed from the shaft to the machinery by a system of belts, pulleys and gears known as millwork. A typical line shaft would be suspended from the ceiling of one area, one pulley on the shaft would receive the power from a parent line shaft elsewhere in the building. The other pulleys would supply power to pulleys on each individual machine or to subsequent line shafts, in manufacturing where there were a large number of machines performing the same tasks, the design of the system was fairly regular and repeated. Shafts were usually horizontal and overhead but occasionally were vertical and could be underground, Shafts were usually rigid steel, made up of several parts bolted together at flanges. The shafts were suspended by hangers with bearings at certain intervals of length, the distance depended on the weight of the shaft and the number of pulleys. The shafts had to be aligned or the stress would overheat the bearings. The bearings were usually friction type and had to be kept lubricated, pulley lubricator employees were required in order to ensure that the bearings did not freeze or malfunction. In the earliest applications power was transmitted between pulleys using loops of rope on grooved pulleys and this method is extremely rare today, dating mostly from the 18th century. Flat belts on flat pulleys or drums were the most common method during the 19th, the belts were generally tanned leather or cotton duck impregnated with rubber. Leather belts were fastened in loops with rawhide or wire lacing, lap joints and glue, cotton duck belts usually used metal fasteners or were melted together with heat. The leather belts were run with the side against the pulleys for best traction. The belts needed periodic cleaning and conditioning to keep them in good condition, belts were often twisted 180 degrees per leg and reversed on the receiving pulley to cause the second shaft to rotate in the opposite direction. Pulleys were constructed of wood, iron, steel or a combination thereof, varying sizes of pulleys were used in conjunction to change the speed of rotation. For example a 40 pulley at 100 rpm would turn a 20 pulley at 200 rpm, Pulleys solidly attached to the shaft could be combined with adjacent pulleys that turned freely on the shaft. In this configuration the belt could be maneuvered onto the idler to stop power transmission or onto the solid pulley to convey the power and this arrangement was often used near machines to provide a means of shutting the machine off when not in use. Usually at the last belt feeding power to a machine, a pair of stepped pulleys could be used to give a variety of speed settings for the machine. Occasionally gears were used between shafts to change speed rather than belts and different sized pulleys, but this seems to have been relatively uncommon, early versions of line shafts date back into the 18th century, but truly came of age in the early 19th century with industrialization
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Steam donkey
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Steam donkey, or donkey engine, is the common nickname for a steam-powered winch, or logging engine, widely used in past logging operations, though not limited to logging. They were also found in the mining, maritime, and nearly any other industry that needed a powered winch, a good deal of the cable-logging terminology derived from 19th-century merchant sailing, as much of the early technology originated from that industry. A logging engine comprised at least one powered winch around which was wound hemp rope or steel cable and they were usually fitted with a boiler and usually equipped with skids, or sleds made from logs, to aid them during transit from one setting to the next. The larger steam donkeys often had a house built either on the skids or as a separate structure. Usually, a tank, and sometimes a fuel oil tank, was mounted on the back of the sled. In rare cases, steam donkeys were also mounted on wheels, later steam donkeys were built with multiple horizontally mounted drums/spools, on which were wound heavy steel cable instead of the original rope. This describes the use of a donkey for logging operations. In the simplest setup, a horse would carry the cable out to a log in the woods. The cable would be attached, and, on signal, the steam donkeys operator would open the regulator, allowing the steam donkey to drag, or skid, the log towards it. The log was taken either to a mill or to a landing where the log would be transferred for onward shipment by rail, road or river. Later, a drum was added, where a smaller cable could be routed around the setting. If a donkey was to be moved, one of its cables was attached to a tree, stump or other anchor. In Canada, and in particular Ontario, the engine was often mounted on a barge that could float. Log booms would be winched across water with the engine and it would often be reconfigured with a saw to mill the timber. John Dolbeer, a partner of the Dolbeer and Carson Lumber Company in Eureka, California. The patent was issued April 18,1882, on Dolbeers first model, a 150-foot, 4½ inch manila rope was wrapped several times around a gypsy head and attached at the other end to a log. The invention of the engine led to the development of the diesel-powered tractor crawler. Though some have preserved in museums, very few are in operating order
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
