1.
Water hammer
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Water hammer is a pressure surge or wave caused when a fluid in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly. A water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a system. It is also called hydraulic shock and this pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe collapse. It is possible to reduce the effects of the water hammer pulses with accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, rough calculations can be made either using the Joukowsky equation, or more accurate ones using the method of characteristics. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio described in the 1st century B. C. the effect of water hammer in lead pipes, Water hammer was exploited before there was even a word for it, In 1772, Englishman John Whitehurst built a hydraulic ram for a home in Cheshire, England. In 1796, French inventor Joseph Michel Montgolfier built a hydraulic ram for his mill in Voiron. In French and Italian, the terms for water hammer come from the ram, coup de bélier. As the 19th century witnessed the installation of water supplies. Water hammer also interested physiologists who were studying the circulatory system, however, his findings went unnoticed by civil engineers. When a pipe is suddenly closed at the outlet, the mass of water before the closure is still moving, thereby building up high pressure, in domestic plumbing this is experienced as a loud banging resembling a hammering noise. Water hammer can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is high enough, air traps or stand pipes are sometimes added as dampers to water systems to absorb the potentially damaging forces caused by the moving water. In hydroelectric generating stations, the water travelling along the tunnel or pipeline may be prevented from entering a turbine by closing a valve. For example, if there is 14 km of tunnel of 7.7 m diameter full of water travelling at 3.75 m/s and this arresting is frequently achieved by a surge shaft open at the top, into which the water flows. As the water rises up the shaft its kinetic energy is converted into potential energy, at some HEP stations, what looks like a water tower is actually one of these devices, known in these cases as a surge drum. In the home a water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, the result may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging, or as some shuddering. On the other hand, when a valve in a pipe closes. This problem can be particularly acute if the pipe is on a downhill slope, to prevent this, air and vacuum relief valves or air vents are installed just downstream of the valve to allow air to enter the line to prevent this vacuum from occurring. Other causes of water hammer are pump failure and check valve slam, steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water hammer, known as steam hammer
2.
James Nasmyth
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James Hall Nasmyth was a Scottish engineer, artist and inventor famous for his development of the steam hammer. He was the co-founder of Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company manufacturers of machine tools and he retired at the age of 48, and moved to Penshurst, Kent where he developed his hobbies of astronomy and photography. James Nasmyth was born at 47 York Place, Edinburgh where his father Alexander Nasmyth was a landscape, one of Alexanders hobbies was mechanics and he employed nearly all his spare time in his workshop where he encouraged his youngest son to work with him in all sorts of materials. James was sent to the Royal High School where he had as a friend, Jimmy Patterson, being already interested in mechanics he spent much of his time at the foundry and there he gradually learned to work and turn in wood, brass, iron, and steel. In 1820 he left the High School and again made use of his fathers workshop where at the age of 17. From 1821 to 1826, Nasmyth regularly attended the Edinburgh School of Arts, in 1828 he made a complete steam carriage that was capable of running a mile carrying 8 passengers. This accomplishment increased his desire to become a mechanical engineer and he had heard of the fame of Henry Maudslays workshop and resolved to get employment there, unfortunately his father could not afford to place him as an apprentice at Maudslays works. In May 1829 Nasmyth visited Maudslay in London, and after showing him his work was engaged as an assistant workman at 10 shillings a week, unfortunately, Maudslay died two years later, whereupon Nasmyth was taken on by Maudslays partner as a draughtsman. When Nasmyth was 23 years old, having saved the sum of ₤69 and he rented a factory flat 130 feet long by 27 feet wide at an old Cotton Mill on Dale Street, Manchester. The premises were constructed adjacent to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in March 1838 James was making a journey by coach from Sheffield to York in a snowstorm, when he spied some ironwork furnaces in the distance. The coachman informed him that they were managed by a Mr. Hartop who was one of his customers and he immediately got off the coach and headed for the furnaces through the deep snow. He found Mr. Hartop at his house, and was invited to stay the night and that evening he met Hartops family and was immediately smitten by his 21-year-old daughter, Anne. A decisive man, the day he told her of his feelings and intentions. He then communicated the same to her parents, and told them his prospects and they were married two years later, on 16 June 1840 in Wentworth. Up to 1843, Nasmyth, Gaskell & Co. concentrated on producing a range of machine tools in large numbers. By 1856, Nasmyth had built 236 shaping machines, in 1840 he began to receive orders from the newly opened railways which were beginning to cover the country, for locomotives. Nasmyth thought the matter over and seeing the obvious defects of the tilt-hammer sketched out his idea for the first steam hammer and he kept his ideas for new devices, mostly in drawings, in a Scheme Book which he freely showed to his foreign customers. However, the Schneiders hesitated to build Bourdons radical new machine, Bourdon and Eugène Schneider visited the Nasmyth works in England in the middle of 1840, where they were shown Nasmyths sketch
3.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
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The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, often abbreviated as Santa Fe or AT&SF, was one of the larger railroads in the United States. Chartered in February 1859, the reached the Kansas-Colorado border in 1873 and Pueblo, Colorado. To create a demand for its services, the set up real estate offices. Despite the name, its main line never served Santa Fe, New Mexico, as the terrain was too difficult, the Santa Fe was a pioneer in intermodal freight transport, an enterprise that included a tugboat fleet and an airline. Its bus line extended passenger transportation to areas not accessible by rail, the AT&SF was the subject of a popular song, Harry Warren & Johnny Mercers On the Atchison, Topeka and the Santa Fe, written for the film, The Harvey Girls. The railroad officially ceased operations on December 31,1996, when it merged with the Burlington Northern Railroad to form the Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was chartered on February 11,1859, to join Atchison and Topeka, Kansas, with Santa Fe, in its early years, the railroad opened Kansas to settlement. Much of its revenue came from wheat grown there and from cattle driven north from Texas to Wichita, rather than turn its survey southward at Dodge City, AT&SF headed southwest over Raton Pass because of coal deposits near Trinidad, Colorado and Raton, New Mexico. D&RG paid an estimated $1.4 million to Santa Fe for its work within the Gorge and agreed not to extend its line to Santa Fe, while Santa Fe agreed to forego its planned routes to Denver and Leadville. Building across Kansas and eastern Colorado was simple, with few natural obstacles and it set up real estate offices in the area and promoted settlement across Kansas on the land that was granted to it by Congress in 1863. It offered discounted fares to anyone who traveled west to land, if the land was purchased. AT&SF reached Albuquerque in 1880, Santa Fe, the destination of the railroad, found itself on a short branch from Lamy. In March 1881 AT&SF connected with the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico, the railroad then built southwest from Benson, Arizona, to Nogales on the Mexican border where it connected with the Sonora Railway, which the AT&SF had built north from the Mexican port of Guaymas. The Atlantic & Pacific Railroad was chartered in 1866 to build west from Springfield, Missouri, the infant A&P had no rail connections. The line that was to become the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway would not reach Springfield for another four years, A&P started construction in 1868, built southwest into what would become Oklahoma, and promptly entered receivership. In 1879 A&P struck a deal with the Santa Fe and Frisco railroads to construct a line for each. The railroads would jointly build and own the A&P railroad west of Albuquerque, in 1883 A&P reached Needles, California, where it connected with an SP line. A&P also built a line between Tulsa, Oklahoma and St. Louis, Missouri for the Frisco, but the Tulsa-Albuquerque portion remained unbuilt, by January 1890, the entire system consisted of some 7,500 miles of track
4.
Topeka, Kansas
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Topeka is the capital city of the U. S. state of Kansas and the seat of Shawnee County. It is situated along the Kansas River in the part of Shawnee County, located in northeast Kansas. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 127,473, the Topeka Metropolitan Statistical Area, which includes Shawnee, Jackson, Jefferson, Osage, and Wabaunsee counties, had a population of 233,870 in the 2010 census. The name Topeka is a Kansa-Osage sentence that means place where we dug potatoes, as a placename, Topeka was first recorded in 1826 as the Kansa name for what is now called the Kansas River. Topekas founders chose the name in 1855 because it was novel, of Indian origin, the mixed-blood Kansa Native American, Joseph James, called Jojim, is credited with suggesting the name of Topeka. The city, laid out in 1854, was one of the Free-State towns founded by Eastern antislavery men immediately after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Bill, in 1857, Topeka was chartered as a city. Three ships of the U. S. Navy have been named USS Topeka after the city, for many millennia, the Great Plains of North America were inhabited by Native Americans. From the 16th century to 18th century, the Kingdom of France claimed ownership of parts of North America. In 1762, after the French and Indian War, France secretly ceded New France to Spain, in 1802, Spain returned most of the land to France, but keeping title to about 7,500 square miles. In 1803, most of the land for modern day Kansas was acquired by the United States from France as part of the 828,000 square mile Louisiana Purchase for 2.83 cents per acre. In the 1840s, wagon trains made their way west from Independence, Missouri, on a journey of 2,000 miles, during the 1840s and into the 1850s, travelers could reliably find a way across the river, but little else was in the area. In the early 1850s, traffic along the Oregon Trail was supplemented by trade on a new military road stretching from Fort Leavenworth through Topeka to the newly established Fort Riley, in 1854, after completion of the first cabin, nine men established the Topeka Town Association. Included among them was Cyrus K. Holliday, an man who would become mayor of Topeka and founder of the Atchison. Soon, steamboats were regularly docking at the Topeka landing, depositing meat, lumber, and flour and returning eastward with potatoes, corn, by the late 1860s, Topeka had become a commercial hub providing many Victorian era comforts. Topeka was a free-state center during the problems in Kansas Territory between free-staters and southerners, who for a period controlled the legal government of Kansas. After southern forces barricaded Topeka in 1856, Topeka’s leaders took actions to defend the town from invasion. A militia was organized and fortifications were built on Quincy Street, the fortifications seemed to consist of low-lying earthwork levies strengthened by the presence of at least one cannon. There was stone in the fortifications, the militia manned the fortifications until at least September 1856, when the siege around the town was lifted
5.
Kansas
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Kansas /ˈkænzəs/ is a U. S. state located in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas is named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribes name is said to mean people of the wind or people of the south wind. For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous, tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. When it was opened to settlement by the U. S. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided. The abolitionists eventually prevailed, and on January 29,1861, after the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. By 2015, Kansas was one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles is the 15th largest state by area and is the 34th most populous of the 50 United States with a population of 2,911,641, residents of Kansas are called Kansans, officially. Mount Sunflower is Kansass highest point at 4,041 feet, for a millennia, the land that is currently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, in 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, from 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state, the Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30,1854, establishing the U. S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery, the secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29,1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature and his application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record
6.
Power hammer
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Power hammers are mechanical forging hammers that use a non-muscular power source to raise the hammer preparatory to striking, and accelerate it onto the work being hammered. Also called Open Die Power Forging Hammers and they have been used by blacksmiths, bladesmiths, metalworkers, and manufacturers since the late 1880s, having replaced trip hammers. A typical power hammer consists of a frame, an anvil, the workpiece is placed on the lower anvil or die and the head or upper die strikes the workpiece. This provides more force than simply allowing the weight to fall, earlier designs like trip hammer, steam drop hammers, board or strap hammers, use the power source to raise the ram, but let its fall be propelled solely by gravity. Power hammers are rated by weight of moving parts that act directly on the work piece and this includes the weight of the parts that may consist of upper die, ram, mechanical linkage arms and spring or ram, piston, and associated connecting rod. Specific design elements are dictated by the power source, the largest power hammer was powered by steam and was rated at 125 short tons. Power hammers are generally categorized by their power source, steam hammers use steam to drive the hammer. These tended to be the largest models as the energy of steam was needed to operate them. Locomotive works was one location such large hammers were needed, the workpieces were sometimes so large it required an overhead crane and several men to position the piece in the hammer, and a man to operate the machine. These hammers tended to be smaller and were operated by a man both holding the workpiece and operating the machine. The majority of mechanical linkage machines were powered by line shaft flat belt systems or later electric motors that rotated a crank on the machine that drove the ram. Air-power hammers use pneumatics to drive the hammer, steam and mechanical power hammers were made into the middle of the 20th century in the United States. At the end of the 19th century the power hammer became popular in smaller blacksmith. These machines were typically rated between 25 and 500 pounds of falling weight, many may still be seen in use in small manufacturing and artist-blacksmith shops today. In the middle of the 20th century power hammers driven by compressed air began to gain popularity and several manufacturers are currently producing these hammers today
7.
Forging
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Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer or a die, Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed, cold forging, warm forging, or hot forging. For the latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge, forged parts can range in weight from less than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia, the products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals. Today, forging is a worldwide industry. Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes, the smithy or forge has evolved over centuries to become a facility with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry. In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with powered by compressed air, electricity. These hammers may have reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds, smaller power hammers,500 lb or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete with the availability of the other, more convenient, Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, additionally, forgings can target a lower total cost when compared to a casting or fabrication. Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged, hot forging prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forging, which would increase the difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such as heat treating, are more economical. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and personnel. In the case of hot forging, a furnace is required to heat ingots or billets. In the case of drop forging operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock, most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces involved. The main advantage of hot forging is that it can be more quickly and precisely. Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece, drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then dropped onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die
8.
Piston
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A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
9.
Pneumatic cylinder
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Pneumatic cylinder are mechanical devices which use the power of compressed gas to produce a force in a reciprocating linear motion. Like hydraulic cylinders, something forces a piston to move in the desired direction, the piston is a disc or cylinder, and the piston rod transfers the force it develops to the object to be moved. Engineers sometimes prefer to use pneumatics because they are quieter, cleaner, because the operating fluid is a gas, leakage from a pneumatic cylinder will not drip out and contaminate the surroundings, making pneumatics more desirable where cleanliness is a requirement. For example, in the puppets of the Disney Tiki Room. Once actuated, compressed air enters into the tube at one end of the piston and, hence, one major issue engineers come across working with pneumatic cylinders has to do with the compressibility of a gas. Many studies have been completed on how the precision of a cylinder can be affected as the load acting on the cylinder tries to further compress the gas used. Under a vertical load, a case where the cylinder takes on the full load, Pneumatic systems are often found in settings where even rare and brief system failure is unacceptable. In such situations locks can sometimes serve as a safety mechanism in case of loss of air supply and, leakage of air from the input or output reduces the pressure and so the desired output. Although pneumatic cylinders will vary in appearance, size and function, however, there are also numerous other types of pneumatic cylinder available, many of which are designed to fulfill specific and specialized functions. Single-acting cylinders use the pressure imparted by compressed air to create a force in one direction. More often than not, this type of cylinder has limited extension due to the space the compressed spring takes up and they have two ports to allow air in, one for outstroke and one for instroke. Stroke length for this design is not limited, however, the rod is more vulnerable to buckling and bending. Additional calculations should be performed as well, telescoping cylinders, also known as telescopic cylinders can be either single or double-acting. The telescoping cylinder incorporates a piston rod nested within a series of stages of increasing diameter. Upon actuation, the rod and each succeeding stage telescopes out as a segmented piston. The main benefit of this design is the allowance for a longer stroke than would be achieved with a single-stage cylinder of the same collapsed length. One cited drawback to telescoping cylinders is the potential for piston flexion due to the segmented piston design. Consequently, telescoping cylinders are primarily utilized in applications where the piston bears minimal side loading, cushion end air cylinders, cylinders with regulated air exhaust to avoid impacts between the piston rod and the cylinder end cover
10.
James Watt
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While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and reheating the cylinder, Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water, Watt attempted to commercialise his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton in 1775. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful, in his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none was as significant as his steam engine work. He developed the concept of horsepower, and the SI unit of power, James Watt was born on 19 January 1736 in Greenock, Renfrewshire, a seaport on the Firth of Clyde. His father was a shipwright, ship owner and contractor, and served as the towns chief baillie, while his mother, Agnes Muirhead, both were Presbyterians and strong Covenanters. Watts grandfather, Thomas Watt, was a teacher and baillie to the Baron of Cartsburn. Despite being raised by parents, he later on became a deist. Watt did not attend regularly, initially he was mostly schooled at home by his mother but later he attended Greenock Grammar School. He exhibited great manual dexterity, engineering skills and an aptitude for mathematics, while Latin, when he was eighteen, his mother died and his fathers health began to fail. Watt travelled to London to study instrument-making for a year, then returned to Scotland and he made and repaired brass reflecting quadrants, parallel rulers, scales, parts for telescopes, and barometers, among other things. Because he had not served at least seven years as an apprentice, Watt was saved from this impasse by the arrival from Jamaica of astronomical instruments bequeathed by Alexander Macfarlane to the University of Glasgow, instruments that required expert attention. Watt restored them to working order and was remunerated and these instruments were eventually installed in the Macfarlane Observatory. Subsequently three professors offered him the opportunity to set up a workshop within the university. It was initiated in 1757 and two of the professors, the physicist and chemist Joseph Black as well as the famed Adam Smith, at first he worked on maintaining and repairing scientific instruments used in the university, helping with demonstrations, and expanding the production of quadrants. In 1759 he formed a partnership with John Craig, an architect and businessman, to manufacture and sell a line of products including musical instruments and this partnership lasted for the next six years, and employed up to sixteen workers. One employee, Alex Gardner, eventually took over the business, in 1764, Watt married his cousin Margaret Miller, with whom he had five children, two of whom lived to adulthood, James Jr. and Margaret. His wife died in childbirth in 1772, in 1777 he was married again, to Ann MacGregor, daughter of a Glasgow dye-maker, with whom he had two children, Gregory, who became a geologist and mineralogist, and Janet
11.
Bethlehem Steel
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Bethlehem Steel Corporation was Americas second-largest steel producer and largest shipbuilder. Bethlehem Steel and a company, Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, were two of the most powerful symbols of American industrial manufacturing leadership. In 2005, ISG merged with Mittal Steel, ending American ownership of the assets of Bethlehem Steel, the companys roots go back to 1857 when the Saucona Iron Company was first organized by Augustus Wolle. The Panic of 1857, a financial crisis, halted further organization of the company. Eventually, the organization was completed, the site moved elsewhere in South Bethlehem, on June 14,1860, the board of directors of the fledgling company elected Alfred Hunt president. On May 1,1861, the title was changed again. Construction of the first blast furnace began on July 1,1861, the first rolling mill was built between the spring of 1861 and the summer of 1863, with the first railroad rails being rolled on September 26. A machine shop, in 1865, and another blast furnace, during its early years, the company produced rails for the rapidly expanding railroads and armor plating for the US Navy. In 1899, the company assumed the name Bethlehem Steel Company, in 1904, Charles M. Schwab and Joseph Wharton formed the Bethlehem Steel Corporation with Schwab becoming its first president and chairman of its board of directors. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation installed the gray rolling mill and producing the first wide-flange structural shapes to be made in America and these shapes were partly responsible for ushering in the age of the skyscraper and establishing Bethlehem Steel as the leading supplier of steel to the construction industry. In the early 1900s, the corporation branched out from steel, with mines in Cuba. In 1913, it acquired the Fore River Shipbuilding Company of Quincy, Massachusetts, in 1917, it incorporated its shipbuilding division as Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Limited. In 1922, it purchased the Lackawanna Steel Company, which included the Delaware, Lackawanna, the nations decision to rebuild the United States Navy with steam-driven, steel-hulled warships reshaped Bethlehem Iron Companys destiny. Following the American Civil War, the Navy quickly downsized after the end of hostilities, as national energies were redirected toward settling the West, almost no new ordinance was produced, and new technology was neglected. By 1881, international incidents highlighted the poor condition of the U. S. fleet, in 1883, Secretary of the Navy William E. Chandler and Secretary of the Army Robert Todd Lincoln appointed Lt. William Jaques to the Gun Foundry Board. Jaques was sent on several fact-finding tours of European armament makers and on one of these trips he formed ties with the firm of Joseph Whitworth of Manchester. He returned to America as Whitworths agent and, in 1885, was granted a furlough to pursue this personal interest. Jaques was aware that the U. S. Navy would soon solicit bids for the production of heavy guns and other products such as armor that would be needed to further expand the fleet
12.
Die (manufacturing)
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A die is a specialized tool used in manufacturing industries to cut or shape material mostly using a press. Like molds, dies are generally customized to the item they are used to create, products made with dies range from simple paper clips to complex pieces used in advanced technology. Forming dies are made by tool and die makers and put into production after mounting into a press. The die is a block that is used for forming materials like sheet metal. For the vacuum forming of sheet only a single form is used. Vacuum forming is considered a simple molding thermoforming process but uses the principles as die forming. The workpiece may pass through several stages using different tools or operations to obtain the final form, the main components for die tool sets are, Die block – This is the main part that all the other parts are attached to. Punch plate – This part holds and supports the different punches in place, blank punch – This part along with the blank die produces the blanked part. Pierce punch – This part along with the pierce die removes parts from the finished part. Stripper plate – This is used to hold the material down on the blank/pierce die, pilot – This will help to place the sheet accurately for the next stage of operation. Guide, back gauge, or finger stop – These parts are all used to make sure that the material being worked on always goes in the position, within the die. Setting block – This part is used to control the depth that the punch goes into the die, Blanking dies – See blanking punch Pierce die – See pierce punch. Shank – used to hold in the presses and it should be aligned and situated at the center of gravity of the plate. Processes, Blanking, A blanking die produces a piece of material by cutting the desired shape in one operation. The finished part is referred to as a blank, generally a blanking die may only cut the outside contour of a part, often used for parts with no internal features. Three benefits to die blanking are, Accuracy, a properly sharpened die, with the correct amount of clearance between the punch and die, will produce a part that holds close dimensional tolerances in relationship to the parts edges. Since the part is blanked in one operation, the edges of the part produces a uniform appearance as opposed to varying degrees of burnishing from multiple operations. Due to the compression of the blanking process, the end result is a flat part that may retain a specific level of flatness for additional manufacturing operations
13.
Samuel Smiles
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Samuel Smiles, was a Scottish author and government reformer who campaigned on a Chartist platform. But he concluded that more progress would come from new attitudes than from new laws and his masterpiece, Self-Help, promoted thrift and claimed that poverty was caused largely by irresponsible habits, while also attacking materialism and laissez-faire government. It has been called the bible of mid-Victorian liberalism, and it raised Smiles to celebrity status almost overnight, born in Haddington, East Lothian, Scotland, Smiles was the son of Janet Wilson of Dalkeith and Samuel Smiles of Haddington. He was one of surviving children. While his family members were strict Reformed Presbyterians, he did not practice and he studied at a local school, leaving at the age of 14. He apprenticed to be a doctor under Dr. Robert Lewins and this arrangement enabled Smiles to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1829. There he furthered his interest in politics, and became a supporter of Joseph Hume. During this time, Samuel junior contracted a disease. His father died in the epidemic of 1832, but Smiles was enabled to continue with his studies because he was supported by his mother. She ran the small general store firm in the belief that the Lord will provide. In 1837, he wrote articles for the Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle, in November 1838, Smiles was invited to become the editor of the Leeds Times, a position he accepted and filled until 1842. As editor of the Leeds Times, he advocated radical causes ranging from womens suffrage to free trade, on 7 December 1843, Samuel married Sarah Ann Holmes Dixon in Leeds. They had three daughters and two sons, in 1845, he left the Leeds Times and became a secretary for the newly formed Leeds & Thirsk Railway. After nine years, he worked for the South Eastern Railway, in the 1850s, Smiles abandoned his interest in parliament and decided that self-help was the most important place of reform. In 1859, he published his book Self-Help, with Illustrations of Character, Smiles wrote articles for the Quarterly. In an article on railways, he argued that the railways should be nationalised, in 1861 Smiles published an article from the Quarterly, renamed Workers Earnings, Savings, and Strikes. The witness was asked, Do you think this family was unable to get better lodgings and they were careless, was the reply. In 1866, Smiles became president of the National Provident Institution and he recovered from the stroke, eventually learning to read and write again
14.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
15.
SS Great Britain
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SS Great Britain is a museum ship and former passenger steamship, which was advanced for her time. She was the longest passenger ship in the world from 1845 to 1854 and she was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel for the Great Western Steamship Companys transatlantic service between Bristol and New York. While other ships had been built of iron or equipped with a screw propeller and she was the first iron steamer to cross the Atlantic, which she did in 1845, in the time of 14 days. The ship is 322 ft in length and has a 3 and she was powered by two inclined 2 cylinder engines of the direct-acting type, with twin 88 in bore, 6-foot stroke cylinders. She was also provided with secondary sail power, the four decks provided accommodation for a crew of 120, plus 360 passengers who were provided with cabins, dining, and promenade saloons. When launched in 1843, Great Britain was by far the largest vessel afloat, in 1852 she was sold for salvage and repaired. Great Britain carried thousands of immigrants to Australia from 1852 until converted to sail in 1881, three years later, she was retired to the Falkland Islands where she was used as a warehouse, quarantine ship and coal hulk until scuttled in 1937. In 1970, following a donation by Sir Jack Hayward that paid for the vessel to be towed back to the UK. Now listed as part of the National Historic Fleet, she is a visitor attraction and museum ship in Bristol Harbour. After the initial success of its first liner, SS Great Western of 1838, the same engineering team that had collaborated so successfully on Great Western—Isambard Brunel, Thomas Guppy, Christopher Claxton and William Patterson—was again assembled. This time however, Brunel, whose reputation was at its height, construction was carried out in a specially adapted dry dock in Bristol, England. Two chance encounters were to affect the design of Great Britain. In late 1838, John Lairds 213-foot English Channel packet ship Rainbow—the largest iron-hulled ship then in service—made a stop at Bristol, Brunel despatched his associates Christopher Claxton and William Patterson to make a return voyage to Antwerp on Rainbow to assess the utility of the new building material. Both men returned as converts to iron-hulled technology, and Brunel scrapped his plans to build a wooden ship, Great Britains builders recognised a number of advantages of iron over the traditional wooden hull. Wood was becoming more expensive, while iron was getting cheaper, Iron hulls were not subject to dry rot or woodworm, and they were also lighter in weight and less bulky. The chief advantage of the hull was its much greater structural strength. The practical limit on the length of a ship is about 300 feet. Iron hulls are far less subject to hogging, so that the size of an iron-hulled ship is much greater
16.
Le Creusot
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Le Creusot is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne in eastern France. The inhabitants are known as Creusotins, formerly a mining town, its economy is now dominated by metallurgical companies such as ArcelorMittal, Schneider Electric, and Alstom. Since the 1990s, the town has been developing its tourism credentials and its main attraction is the Parc des Combes. A replica of the Creusot steam hammer has been built as a tourist attraction in a square at the entrance to the town from the east, Le Creusot is also the second educational centre of the Bourgogne, with its IUT and the Condorcet university centre. In 1836, iron ore mines and forges around Le Creusot were bought by Adolphe Schneider and they developed a business in steel, railways, armaments, and shipbuilding. The Schneider empire developed much of the town itself, until it was reduced in the second half of the twentieth century. It eventually became known as Schneider Electric, the special alloys for the TGV trains were manufactured in Le Creusot. About 5 km south-east of town centre is the Gare du Creusot TGV, a station on the LGV Sud-Est line. Communes of the Saône-et-Loire department INSEE Official website
17.
Adolphe Schneider
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Adolphe Schneider was a French financier and industrialist who developed a major metalworking enterprise at Le Creusot, the parent of todays Schneider Electric. Adolphe Schneider was born in Nancy, France, on 23 October 1802 and he was the son of Antoine Schneider, Châtelain de Bidestroff, and Catherine Duran. His cousin was Antoine Virgile Schneider, who was known for his service in Greece. Virgile married a Polish heiress who brought a considerable dowry and he was elected a deputy for Sarreguemines in 1834, became minister of war and was involved with construction of the fortifications of Paris. In 1821, at the age of nineteen, Adolphe Schneider entered the Seillière bank, Schneider had been recommended to François Seillière by his cousin Virgile. Seillière was from a Catholic family from Lorraine that had moved to Paris, the bank specialized in helping companies involved in iron-making and metallurgy such as Ignace-François de Wendel. Schneider quickly showed he had a business sense with exceptional qualities of listening, understanding, analysis. In 1829 Seillière began to give him a share in the profits from supplies of wool, wheat and wood from the north, in 1830 Schneider was the banks agent with the French expeditionary force to Algiers, for which the bank was providing supplies. Schneider met the needs from Spanish suppliers, who were cheaper than the French. The project was a success for the bank. Schneider received a 2% commission on all the merchandise, which gave him capital to go into business on his own account as a cloth merchant. On 7 July 1831 he married Valérie Aignan in Paris and they had three children, Camille, Marie and Paul Henry. Around this time Schneider formed a relationship with the owners of the Le Creusot ironworks, the works at Le Creusot had been founded fifty years before by a company partly owned by King Louis XVI of France. Despite an investment of 30 million francs, the works had never prospered, Le Creusot went bankrupt and was sold at auction in 1835 for 1,850,000 francs. Adolphs younger brother Eugène Schneider had begun work as a clerk in Reims, in 1827 the baron de Neuflize employed him as manager of a forge near Sedan, a position he held for nearly ten years. In 1835 Schneider obtained financing and acquired the works at Le Creusot from the purchaser at a premium of one million francs, Adolphe brought in Eugène to run the works while he handled finance and sales. In 1838 the works built the first French railway locomotive, at that time the works employed about 2,000 men. In 1842 the inventor François Bourdon designed and built a steam hammer for the works, Schneider entered politics in 1840, when he was elected to the municipal council of Creusot
18.
Schneider-Creusot
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Schneider-Creusot, or Schneider et Cie, was a historic French iron and steel-mill which became a major arms manufacturer. After World War II, it evolved into Schneider Electric, in 1836 Adolphe Schneider and his brother Eugène Schneider bought iron-ore mines and forges around Le Creusot. They developed a business dealing in steel, railways, armaments, the Creusot steam hammer was built in 1877. Somua, a located near Paris, made machinery and vehicles
19.
Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
20.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
21.
Liverpool and Manchester Railway
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The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was a railway opened on 15 September 1830 between the Lancashire towns of Liverpool and Manchester in the United Kingdom. Jervis of the Delaware and Hudson Railway some years later wrote, as opening the epoch of railways which has revolutionised the social and commercial intercourse of the civilized world. Trains were hauled by steam locomotives between the two towns, though private wagons and carriages were allowed. Cable haulage of trains was down the steeply-graded 1. 26-mile Wapping Tunnel to Liverpool Docks from Edge Hill junction. The railway was built to provide faster transport of raw materials, finished goods. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway was the first public transport system on land which did not use animal traction power. Up to then, the rail systems for public use had been, Horse-drawn plateways, such as the Lake Lock Railroad, Surrey Iron Railway. Railways that used a mix of steam and horse-drawn traffic, such as the Stockton and Darlington Railway, or a mix of cable and horse haulage, often described as the Grand British Experimental Railway the success or failure of which would decide plans for all future railways. The L&MR was intended to achieve cheap transport of raw materials, finished goods, huge tonnages of textile raw material were imported through Liverpool and carried to the textile mills near the Pennines where water and then steam power enabled the production of the finished cloth. There was support for the railway from the towns at either end, the original promoters are usually acknowledged to be Joseph Sandars, a rich Liverpool corn merchant, and John Kennedy, then owner of the largest spinning mill in Manchester. They were influenced to do this by William James, now something of a forgotten figure, James was a land surveyor who had made a fortune in property speculation. He advocated a national network of railways, based upon what he had seen of the development of colliery lines, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company was founded on 24 May 1823. It was established by Henry Booth, who became its secretary and treasurer, along with merchants from Liverpool. Charles Lawrence was the Chairman, Lister Ellis, Robert Gladstone, John Moss, a bill presented in 1825 to Parliament was rejected, but it passed in May the following year. In Liverpool 172 people took 1,979 shares, in London 96 took 844, the Marquess of Stafford had 1,000, giving 308 shareholders with 4,233 shares. The initial survey for the line was carried out by William James and, Robert Stephenson departed for South America and William James became bankrupt. Consequently, in 1824 George Stephenson was appointed engineer in their place, by this time, he was taking on too much. As Robert was absent, George left checking the survey to subordinates, upon presentation to Parliament in 1825 it was shown to be inaccurate
22.
Bridgewater Canal
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The Bridgewater Canal connects Runcorn, Manchester and Leigh, in North West England. It was commissioned by Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater and it was opened in 1761 from Worsley to Manchester, and later extended from Manchester to Runcorn, and then from Worsley to Leigh. It once connected with the River Mersey at Runcorn but has since cut off by a slip road to the Silver Jubilee Bridge. Often considered to be the first true canal in England, it required the construction of an aqueduct to cross the River Irwell and its success helped inspire a period of intense canal building in Britain, known as canal mania. It later faced intense competition from the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, Navigable throughout its history, it is one of the few canals in Britain not to have been nationalised, and remains privately owned. Pleasure craft now use the canal forms part of the Cheshire Ring network of canals. Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater, owned some of the coal mines dug to supply north west England with fuel for the steam engines instrumental in powering Englands industrial revolution. The dukes underground mines also suffered from persistent flooding, caused by the geology of the Middle Coal Measures, where the coal seam lies beneath a layer of permeable sandstone. The canal boats would carry 30 long tons at a time, the duke and his estate manager John Gilbert produced a plan of the canal, and in 1759 obtained an Act of Parliament, enabling its construction. This route would make connecting to any future canals much easier, Brindley moved into Worsley Old Hall and spent 46 days surveying the proposed route, which to cross the Irwell would require the construction of an aqueduct at Barton-upon-Irwell. At the dukes behest, in January 1760 Brindley also travelled to London to give evidence before a parliamentary committee, the duke therefore gained a second Act of Parliament, which superseded the original. Brindleys planned route began at Worsley and passed southeast through Eccles, from there it continued southeast along the edge of Trafford Park, and then east into Manchester. Although a connection with the Mersey and Irwell Navigation was included in the new Act, at Hulme Locks in Castlefield, the terminus would be at Castlefield Basin, where the nearby River Medlock was to help supply the canal with water. Boats would unload their cargoes inside the dukes purpose-built warehouse, there were no locks in Brindleys design, demonstrating his ability as a competent engineer. The Barton Aqueduct was built quickly for the time, work commenced in September 1760. The duke invested a sum of money in the scheme. This success helped inspire a period of canal building, known as Canal Mania. Along with its stone aqueduct at Barton-upon-Irwell, the Bridgewater Canal was considered an engineering achievement
23.
University of Bolton
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The University of Bolton is a public university in Bolton, Greater Manchester, England. It has approximately 14,000 students across all sites and courses, with 700 academic, around 70% of its students come from Bolton and the North West region. It ranked 93 out of 119 institutions in the newly released table, the Times newspaper profile states, The university sees itself as a regional institution, with around three quarters of the students coming from the North West, many through partner colleges. The university is a member of the North West Universities Association, Universities UK, the University of Bolton traces its origins back to 1825 with the founding of Bolton Mechanics Institute. This resulted in the creation of the new Technical School with student numbers rising to more than 1,500, in 1926 Bolton Technical School became a college. Fifteen years later a new building was opened offering a range of technical education choices. Numbers rose to 5,750 students attending more than 1,000 classes, in 1964 Bolton Technical College and Bolton Institute of Technology were divided into two separate organisations. A J Jenkinson, known as Jack, was Principal of the Technical College, Bolton College of Education, Bolton Institute of Higher Education was formed in 1982 by the merger of the Bolton Institute of Technology and Bolton College of Education. The first principal of BIHE was Mr John McKenzie who was succeeded by Professor Bob Oxtoby who began the campaign for university status, an £8.3 million extension project began in 1991 with the purchase of the former Eagle Factory. Bolton Institute was awarded the right to award degrees in 1992. In 1998 Mollie Temple became the principal and successfully led the institution to achieve university status in 2004. The university is situated on an urban campus between Deane Road and Derby Street in Bolton. There are two halls of residence, although the university intends to relocate all services on to a site in the centre of Bolton. There is a centre in Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates. Formally known as Deane Tower, Senate House underwent refurbishment in 2004 to become a centre for design disciplines, research and consultancy services. Following the remodelling and centralization of the University campus in 2007, the building also houses the university library, student services and coffee shop. The five storey building houses the majority of the Universitys subjects including the Faculty of Wellbeing and Social Sciences, the Bolton One facility is a £31 million, three-way partnership with Bolton Council and NHS Bolton situated on the universitys campus. The university contributed around £7 million to the development, the purpose built centre houses new health, science and sports teaching and research facilities - as well as a sports complex
24.
Low Moor Works
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The Low Moor Ironworks was a wrought iron foundry established in 1791 in the village of Low Moor about 3 miles south of Bradford in Yorkshire, England. The works were built to exploit the high-quality iron ore and low-sulphur coal found in the area, Low Moor made wrought iron products from 1801 until 1957 for export around the world. At one time it was the largest ironworks in Yorkshire, a complex of mines, piles of coal and ore, kilns, blast furnaces, forges. The surrounding countryside was littered with waste, and smoke from the furnaces, today Low Moor is still industrial, but the pollution has been mostly eliminated. The ironworks depended on the excellent resources of high-quality coal and iron ore found in the vicinity, the better bed coal came from a seam about 18 to 28 inches thick resting on hard sandstone. This coal is low in sulphur. About 120 feet above this coal seam there is a layer of black bed coal, the ironstone lies above this layer, holding about 32% iron. The Halifax coal beds lie about 230 yards below the better bed, most of the land occupied by the iron works was part of the Royds Hall estate. Operation of a mine on the estate is mentioned in 1673. In 1744 the owner, Edward Rookes Leeds, began to develop the coal mines. About 1780 a wooden railway was built from the Low Moor mines to the yard in the centre of Bradford, from where the coal could be carried via the Leeds. The property was offered for sale by auction, in December 1786 and October 1787. In 1788 the estate was sold to a partnership of Richard Hird, after some sales of shares the partners were Richard Hird, Joseph Dawson, a minister, and John Hardy, a solicitor. Dawson was interested in metallurgy and chemistry and was a friend of Dr. Joseph Priestley. He seems to have been the prime mover in the enterprise, the partners planned to found an ironworks, and engaged an engineer from Wigan named Smalley to build the blast engine. Smalley called on Thomas Woodcock to prepare plans for the furnaces, casting houses, Woodcock moved to Low Moor, and was to be architect and general manager until his death in 1833. Construction of the plant began in June 1790, including blast furnaces, the furnaces had square bases, tapering as they rose to about 50 feet in height. The two furnaces were blown in on 13 August 1791 and the first casting was made by the three days later
25.
SS Great Eastern
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SS Great Eastern was an iron sailing steam ship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, and built by J. Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall on the River Thames, London. She was by far the largest ship built at the time of her 1858 launch. Her length of 692 feet was only surpassed in 1899 by the 705-foot 17, 274-gross-ton RMS Oceanic, the ships five funnels were rare. This was later reduced to four, Brunel knew her affectionately as the Great Babe. He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. Finishing her life as a music hall and advertising hoarding in Liverpool. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made a sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it, using paddle wheels meant that the ship would be able to reach Calcutta, where the Hooghly River was too shallow for screws. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell, a naval architect. Scott Russell examined Brunels plan and made his own calculations as to the ships feasibility and he calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require 8,500 horsepower to achieve 14 knots, but believed it was possible. At Scott Russells suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company, the Eastern Company was formed in January 1851 with the plan of exploiting the increase in trade and emigration to India, China and Australia. However, in March 1852 the Government awarded the contracts to the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company and this left them in the position of having a company without a purpose. He was unable to due to illness and Scott Russell took his place. The Company then set up a committee to investigate the proposal, and they reported in favour, Brunel was appointed Engineer to the project and he began to gather tenders to build the hull, paddle engines and screw engines. If any doubt ever arises on these points I must cease to be responsible, Scott Russell even offered to reduce the tender to £258,000 if an order for a sister ship was placed at the same time. In the spring of 1854 work could at last begin, the first problem to arise was where the ship was to be built. Eventually it was decided to build the ship sideways to the river, later the mechanical design was dropped on the grounds of cost, although the sideways plan remained. Having decided on a launch, a suitable site had to be found, as Scott Russells Millwall, London. The adjacent yard belonging to David Napier was empty, available and suitable, so it was leased, the site of the launch is still visible on the Isle of Dogs
26.
Joseph Clinton Robertson
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Joseph Clinton Robertson, pseudonym Sholto Percy, was a Scottish patent agent, writer and periodical editor. He was a political radical prominent in the days of the working-class press in London. He was born about 1787, the son of Colin Robertson of Perth, Scotland, a doctor who was required to leave Scotland, reacting against his background he went to Edinburgh and became involved with radicals there. By 1811 he had written for the Spy of James Hogg and he went to London in 1819, and did hack work for the publisher Thomas Boys. Robertson founded The Mechanics Magazine in 1823, and edited and largely wrote it until the year of his death and it was a low-priced scientific weekly, and the first publication of its kind. To begin with he was in alliance with Thomas Hodgskin. It took advantage of a tax exemption for technical weeklies not dealing in news. Robertson also devised a way of generating cheap content by an early crowdsourcing technique, in the Mechanics Magazine Robertson first proposed the London Mechanics Institution. The idea was taken out of his hands and those of Hodgskin. Robertson became a long term critic of the Institution, Knight & Lacey became bankrupt that year, and in a complex series of events the Mechanics Magazine was published dually for a period, two versions of the same title being produced weekly. Lacey left for the USA, and Henry Kelly was brought in by Knight as a new partner, the Bankruptcy Court dealt with the matter by requiring Robertson to work on as editor, but upheld his claim to the title. By 1829, with just one more issue, the legal dust had settled. Drawn into the world, Robertson conducted the defence for John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in their patent case, on boilers, brought by Lord Cochrane. Buoyed by the experience, he took up patents as a further profession, in the 1830s Robertson was a railway company promoter, initially working in 1833–4 for the London & Greenwich Railway with George Landmann and George Walter. They also employed John Herapath, a contributor to the Mechanics Magazine, the subscription list was padded, and, Herapath later alleged, Robertson was responsible. Walter founded the Railway Magazine, having seen the potential in the Mechanics Magazine and its railway promotion, from 1834 Robertson was working with Braithwaite promoting the Eastern Counties Railway. He had married Sophia Brooman, related to the Cobbold family of Ipswich, charles Blacker Vignoles as consultant engineer gave the project credibility. Matters went downhill, however, after Robertson wrote a prospectus in 1834
27.
Bowling Iron Works
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The operation included mining coal and iron ore, smelting, refining, casting and forging to create finished products. Iron is said to have worked in the vicinity of Bradford in Roman times. The monks of Rievaulx Abbey to the east were working iron on land owned by their monastery in 1150, surface coal was being extracted from outcrops and shallow pits by 1360, and coal mines were worked by 1502. The Bowling Ironworks were established in the 1780s to smelt and forge iron from the Black Bed ironstone deposits using coal from the Better Bed seam, the ironstone yields about 32% iron. The Better Bed coal is free of sulfur, making it ideal for furnaces used in smelting, puddling and forging, the Black Bed coal, nearer to the surface, could be sold or used for firing boilers and other purposes. Mining began in Jeremiah Rawsons estate, then extended into nearby estates as the deposits became exhausted, in 1794 the company purchased from Francis Lindley Wood the rights to 90 acres of coal and iron stone in Hall Lane, Broomfields. In 1806 the company purchased additional mineral rights to parts of Sir Francis Lindley Woods Bowling Hall Estate, the rights to other land was purchased in later years, often after extensive negotiation. In 1816 the company purchased from Sir Francis all his lands and mineral rights in Bowling. The same seams of ironstone and coal were exploited by the Low Moor Iron Company, founded in 1788, and then by the Bierley Iron Company from around 1810. The first foundry was established at Bowling around 1784 by a group of businessmen including John Sturges, an ironmaster with works at Wakefield, and Richard Paley, the other partners were John Sturges junior, William Sturges and John Ewell. Ewell left the partnership in 1792, the company took the name of John Sturges & Company. Iron was brought to the foundry from Wakefield in the early years, the first products were items for domestic use such as laundry irons, ovens, boilers, window sash weights and clock weights. The smelting plant was established in 1788, producing pig iron that was used in the plates for the first steam engine at the Low Moor works. As late as 1792 pig iron was delivered to Wakefield and wrought iron received in exchange, in 1804 the partnership was extended, bringing in John Green Paley, George Paley, Thomas Mason and the Reverend John Simons. The Bowling works were selling large quantities of guns, shot, cast iron was used for guns before the invention of wrought iron, and the cast iron guns were subject to rigorous production controls and quality tests. When Sir William Armstrong invented wrought-iron guns, some of the first coils he used were Bowling iron, Bowling iron, or Best Yorkshire, became well known around the world. Steam hammers were installed at the Bowling Ironworks where the cylinder was bolted to the back of the hammer. These were designed by John Charles Pearce, who took out a patent for his steam hammer design several years before James Nasmyths patent expired, on 14 November 1848 a new partnership was created with the name of Bowling Iron Co. confirmed by act of parliament in August 1849
28.
John Ramsbottom (engineer)
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John Ramsbottom was an English mechanical engineer. Born in Todmorden, then on the county border of Yorkshire and Lancashire, Ramsbottom was the son of a steam cotton mill owner. He learned about engines, rebuilding his fathers and also invented the weft fork that enabled looms to be run at high speed. He also created many inventions for railways, in 1839 Ramsbottom joined Sharp, Roberts and Company of Manchester who made both industrial stationary engines and steam locomotives, and learned of the latter. He was recommended by Charles Beyer in 1842 to become superintendent of the Manchester. In 1846 the M&BR merged and became the London and North Western Railway, in 1857 Ramsbottom became locomotive superintendent of the Northern Division, based at Crewe. He is credited with designing and introducing the first water troughs to be used by locomotives to pick up at speed. LNWR 2-2-2 Cornwall, rebuilt to his design in 1858 In 1852 he invented the piston ring. His other inventions included the Ramsbottom safety valve, the displacement lubricator, Ramsbottom became a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1866. He was also president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers in 1870 and 1871, Ramsbottom retired in 1871, becoming in 1883 a consulting engineer and a director of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. He was also a director of Beyer-Peacock
29.
Pile driver
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A pile driver is a mechanical device used to drive piles into soil to provide foundation support for buildings or other structures. The term is used in reference to members of the construction crew that work with pile-driving rigs. One traditional type of pile driver includes a weight placed between guides so that it is able to freely slide up and down in a single line. It is placed above a pile, the weight is raised, which may involve the use of hydraulics, steam, diesel, or manual labour. When the weight reaches its highest point it is then released, there are a number of claims to the invention of the pile driver. A mechanically sound drawing of a pile driver appeared as early as 1475 in Francesco di Giorgio Martinis treatise Trattato di Architectura. However, there is evidence that a device was used in the construction of Crannogs at Oakbank. In 1801 John Rennie came up with a steam piledriver in Britain, otis Tufts is credited with inventing the steam pile driver in the United States. Ancient pile driving equipment used manual or animal labor to lift weights, usually by means of pulleys. Modern piledriving equipment uses various methods to raise the weight and guide the pile, a modern diesel pile hammer is a very large two-stroke diesel engine. The weight is the piston, and the apparatus which connects to the top of the pile is the cylinder, piledriving is started by having the weight raised by auxiliary means — usually a cable from the crane holding the pile driver — which draws air into the cylinder. Diesel fuel is added/injected into the cylinder, the weight is dropped, using a quick-release. The weight of the piston compresses the air/fuel mixture, heating it to the point of diesel fuel. The mixture ignites, transferring the energy of the weight to the pile head. The rising weight draws in air, and the cycle starts over until the fuel runs out or is stopped by the pile crew. As the piston falls, it activates the fuel pump, which discharges a metered amount of fuel into the pan of the impact block. The falling piston also blocks the exhaust ports, and compression of fuel trapped in the cylinder begins, the compressed air exerts a pre-load force to hold the impact block firmly against the drive cap and pile. At the bottom of the stroke, the piston strikes the impact block, atomizing the fuel
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HMNB Devonport
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Her Majestys Naval Base, Devonport, is one of three operating bases in the United Kingdom for the Royal Navy. HMNB Devonport is located in Devonport, in the west of the city of Plymouth, having begun as Royal Navy Dockyard in the late-17th century, it is now the largest naval base in Western Europe and is the sole nuclear repair and refuelling facility for the Royal Navy. From 1934 until the early 21st century the barracks on the site was named HMS Drake. Recently, the name HMS Drake has been extended to cover the entire base, in the early 1970s the newly-styled Fleet Maintenance Base was itself commissioned as HMS Defiance, it remained so until 1994, at which point it was amalgamated into HMS Drake. HM Naval Base Devonport is the port of the Devonport Flotilla which includes the largest ship in the Royal Navy, HMS Ocean. In 2009 the Ministry of Defence announced the conclusion of a review of the long-term role of three naval bases. Devonport will no longer be used as a base for submarines after these move to Faslane by 2017. However, Devonport retains a role as the dedicated home of the amphibious fleet, survey vessels. In 1588, the ships of the English Navy set sail for the Spanish Armada through the mouth of the River Plym, Sir Francis Drake is now an enduring legacy in Devonport, as the naval base has been named HMS Drake. In 1689 Prince William of Orange became William III and almost immediately he required the building of a new Royal Dockyard west of Portsmouth, having dismissed the Plymouth site as inadequate, he settled on the Hamoaze area which soon became known as Plymouth Dock, later renamed Devonport. On 30 December 1690, a contract was let for a dockyard to be built, having selected the location, Dummer was given responsibility for designing and building the new yard. At the heart of his new dockyard, Dummer placed a stone-lined basin, previously the Navy Board had relied upon timber as the major building material for dry docks, which resulted in high maintenance costs and was also a fire risk. The docks Dummer designed were stronger with more secure foundations and stepped sides that made it easier for men to work beneath the hull of a docked vessel and these innovations also allowed rapid erection of staging and greater workforce mobility. He discarded the earlier three-sectioned hinged gate, which was labour-intensive in operation, Dummer wished to ensure that naval dockyards were efficient working units that maximised available space, as evidenced by the simplicity of his design layout at Plymouth Dock. He introduced a centralised storage area alongside the basin, and a positioning of other buildings around the yard. His double rope-house combined the previously separate tasks of spinning and laying while allowing the floor to be used for the repair of sails. On high ground overlooking the rest of the yard he built a terrace of houses for the senior dockyard officers. Most of Dummers buildings and structures were rebuilt over ensuing years, including the basin, the terrace survived into the 20th century, but was largely destroyed in the Blitz along with several others of Devonports historic buildings
31.
The Great Exhibition
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
32.
Creusot steam hammer
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The Creusot steam hammer was a giant steam hammer built in 1877 by Schneider and Co. in the French industrial town of Le Creusot. The Creusot hammer still exists, although it is no longer operational, and is a tourist attraction in the town of Le Creusot, with few remaining rivals, the hammer today is once again the largest of its kind in the world. The Creusot steam hammer was named a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1981. In 1836, Joseph Eugène Schneider and his brother Adolphe Schneider purchased a derelict ironworks in Burgundy, near the town of Le Creusot, two years later the company produced the first steam locomotive to be built in France. Eugène Schneider along with the chief engineer, François Bourdon. Schneider and Co. went on to build 110 steam hammers of all sizes between 1843 and 1867,26 of which were employed by the firm itself. As the jobs grew more demanding, the hammers grew correspondingly larger, in celebration of this technological achievement, a full-scale wooden replica of the Creusot hammer was built and displayed at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1878. The anvil weighed a massive 750 tons, and in order to support the weight and the hammer blows, a one-metre thick bed of oak timber topped the masonry foundation and provided the immediate floor for the giant anvil. The four legs are hollow cast, rectangular in cross-section and were originally bolted to plates embedded in the masonry, one leg supports the operators platform from which the machine was controlled. The steam cylinder itself is 6 meters high and has an diameter of 1.9 meters. The piston had a travel of 5 meters and the piston rod was 35 centimeters in diameter. The hammerhead or tup was interchangeable, with a number of differently shaped dies which may account for the hammers reported variable force of between 75 and 100 tons, the actual force delivered may have been in the order of 3.3 million foot-pounds. Four separate furnaces provided steam power to four adjacent swan-necked cranes, six Bessemer converters supplied the steel for the ingots, which were transported on a railway line built expressly for the purpose through the works. For a comparison of scale, the worlds largest modern hydraulic forging presses can apply force of about 80,000 tons, in its heyday, the hammer would sometimes give public demonstrations of its accuracy. It could be used to cork a bottle, crack a nut without damaging the contents, with such demonstrations, steam hammers for a time became symbols of industrial precision. Steam hammers were made redundant with the introduction of hydraulic and mechanical steel presses. In 1969 the Creusot hammer was dismantled and reassembled in Le Creusot town square, although it has no source of steam in its current location and is therefore non-functional, it still serves as a tourist attraction and a reminder of a bygone era of technological achievement. ^ Force, The figure for the force delivered,3.3 million foot-pounds was calculated by multiplying the maximum weight of the falling mass by the length of its travel
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Schneider et Cie
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Schneider-Creusot, or Schneider et Cie, was a historic French iron and steel-mill which became a major arms manufacturer. After World War II, it evolved into Schneider Electric, in 1836 Adolphe Schneider and his brother Eugène Schneider bought iron-ore mines and forges around Le Creusot. They developed a business dealing in steel, railways, armaments, the Creusot steam hammer was built in 1877. Somua, a located near Paris, made machinery and vehicles
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Krupp
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The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their production of steel, artillery, ammunition, and other armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG, was the largest company in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century and it was important to weapons development and production in both world wars. One of the most powerful dynasties in European history, for 400 years Krupp flourished as the premier weapons manufacturer for Germany. From the Thirty Years War until the end of the Second World War, they produced everything from battleships, U-boats, tanks, howitzers, guns, utilities, the dynasty began in 1587 when a trader named Arndt Krupp moved to Essen and joined the merchants guild. He then began buying vacated real estate from families who fled the city due to the Black Death, over the next three centuries his descendants began producing small guns during the Thirty Years War and over time gradually acquired fulling mills, coal mines, and an iron forge. During the Napoleonic Wars, Friedrich Krupp founded the Gusstahlfabrik and began producing smelted steel in 1816, the foundations were laid for the steel Empire that would come to dominate the world for nearly a century under his son Alfred. Krupp became the manufacturer for the Kingdom of Prussia in 1859. Krupp was also a company that paved the way for workers rights. Widows and orphans were guaranteed pay if their husbands and/or fathers were killed, the company also produced the steel that built the railroads of America, capped the Chrysler Building in 1929, and was the first to travel to the bottom of the Mariana Trench. During the Third Reich, Krupp supported Adolf Hitler and the use of forced labour, after the war Krupp was rebuilt from scratch and again became one of the wealthiest companies in Europe. However a recession in 1967 caused the company severe profit loss, in 1999 the Krupp firm merged with Thyssen AG to form ThyssenKrupp AG, a large industrial conglomerate. Friedrich Krupp launched the familys metal-based activities, building a steel foundry in Essen in 1810. His son Alfred, known as the Cannon King or as Alfred the Great, invested heavily in new technology to become a significant manufacturer of steel rollers and he also invested in fluidized hotbed technologies and acquired many mines in Germany and France. Unusual for the era, he provided social services for his workers, including subsidized housing and health, the company began to make steel cannons in the 1840s—especially for the Russian, Turkish, and Prussian armies. When Alfred started with the firm, it had five employees, at his death twenty thousand people worked for Krupp—making it the worlds largest industrial company and the largest private company in the German empire. Krupps had a Great Krupp Building with an exhibition of guns at the Columbian Exposition in 1893, in the 20th century the company was headed by Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach, who assumed the surname of Krupp when he married the Krupp heiress, Bertha Krupp. After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Krupp works became the center for German rearmament. In 1943, by an order from Hitler, the company reverted to a sole-proprietorship, with Gustav
35.
Essen
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Essen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Its population of approximately 589,000 makes it the ninth-largest city in Germany and it is the central city of the northern part of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area and seat to several of the regions authorities. Founded around 845, Essen remained a town within the sphere of influence of an important ecclesiastical principality until the onset of industrialization. The city then — especially through the Krupp family iron works — became one of Germanys most important coal and steel centers. Essen, until the 1970s, attracted workers from all over the country, following the region-wide decline of heavy industries in the last decades of the 20th century, the city has seen the development of a strong tertiary sector of the economy. Although it is the most indebted city in Germany, Essen continues to pursue its redevelopment plans, notable accomplishments in recent years include the title of European Capital of Culture on behalf of the whole Ruhr area in 2010 and the selection as the European Green Capital for 2017. In 1958, Essen was chosen to serve as the seat to a Roman Catholic diocese, in early 2003, the universities of Essen and the nearby city of Duisburg were merged into the University of Duisburg-Essen with campuses in both cities and a university hospital in Essen. Essen is located in the centre of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe, comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3 million inhabitants. The city limits of Essen itself are 87 km long and border ten cities, five independent and five kreisangehörig, the city extends over 21 km from north to south and 17 km from west to east, mainly north of the River Ruhr. The Ruhr forms the Lake Baldeney reservoir in the boroughs of Fischlaken, Kupferdreh, the lake, a popular recreational area, dates from 1931 to 1933, when some thousands of unemployed coal miners dredged it with primitive tools. Generally, large areas south of the River Ruhr are quite green and are quoted as examples of rural structures in the otherwise relatively densely populated central Ruhr area. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, Essen with 9. 2% of its covered by recreational green is the greenest city in North Rhine-Westphalia. The city has been shortlisted for the title of European Green Capital two consecutive times, for 2016 and 2017, winning for 2017, the city was singled out for its exemplary practices in protecting and enhancing nature and biodiversity and efforts to reduce water consumption. Essen participates in a variety of networks and initiatives to reduce gas emissions. The lowest point can be found in the borough of Karnap at 26.5 m. The average elevation is 116 m, Essen comprises fifty boroughs which in turn are grouped into nine suburban districts often named after the most important boroughs. Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were annexed from 1901 to 1975
36.
William I, German Emperor
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William I, or in German Wilhelm I, of the House of Hohenzollern was the King of Prussia and the first German Emperor, as well as the first Head of State of a united Germany. Under the leadership of William and his Minister President Otto von Bismarck, Prussia achieved the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire. Contrary to the domineering Bismarck, William was described as polite, gentlemanly and, while a staunch conservative, the future king and emperor was born William Frederick Louis of Prussia in the Kronprinzenpalais in Berlin on 22 March 1797. As the second son of Prince Frederick William, himself son of King Frederick William II and his grandfather died the year he was born, at age 53, in 1797, and his father Frederick William III became king. He was educated from 1801 to 1809 by Johann Friedrich Gottlieb Delbrück, who was also in charge of the education of Williams brother, at age twelve, his father appointed him an officer in the Prussian army. William served in the army from 1814 onward, like his father he fought against Napoleon I of France during the part of the Napoleonic Wars known in Germany as the Befreiungskriege, and was reportedly a very brave soldier. He was made a Captain and won the Iron Cross for his actions at Bar-sur-Aube, the war and the fight against France left a lifelong impression on him, and he had a long-standing antipathy towards the French. In 1815, William was promoted to Major and commanded a battalion of the 1 and he fought under Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher at the Battles of Ligny and Waterloo. He also became an excellent diplomat by engaging in diplomatic missions after 1815, in 1816, William became the commander of the Stettiner Gardelandwehrbataillon and in 1818 was promoted to Generalmajor. The next year, William was appointed inspector of the VII. and this made him a spokesman of the Prussian Army within the House of Hohenzollern. He argued in favour of a strong, well-trained and well-equipped army, in 1820, William became commander of the 1. Gardedivision and in 1825 was promoted to commanding general of the III, in 1829, William married Princess Augusta von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach after Princess Elisa Radziwill, his cousin whom he had been attracted to, was deemed an inappropriate match by his father. William had been forced to abandon the relationship with Elisa in 1826, Augusta was the daughter of Grand Duke Karl Friedrich von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach. Their marriage was stable, but not a very happy one. In 1840 his older brother became King of Prussia, since he had no children, William was first in line to succeed him to the throne and thus was given the title Prinz von Preußen. Against his convictions but out of loyalty towards his brother, in 1847 William signed the bill setting up a Prussian parliament and took a seat in the upper chamber, the Herrenhaus. During the Revolutions of 1848, William successfully crushed a revolt in Berlin that was aimed at his elder brother, the use of cannon made him unpopular at the time and earned him the nickname Kartätschenprinz. Indeed, he had to flee to England for a while and he returned and helped to put down an uprising in Baden, where he commanded the Prussian army
37.
Exposition Universelle (1878)
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The third Paris Worlds Fair, called an Exposition Universelle in French, was held from 1 May through to 10 November 1878. It celebrated the recovery of France after the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, however, efforts made in April were prodigious, and by 1 June, a month after the formal opening, the exhibition was finally completed. This exposition was on a far larger scale than any previously held anywhere in the world and it covered over 66 acres, the main building in the Champ de Mars and the hill of Chaillot, occupying 54 acres. The Gare du Champ de Mars was rebuilt with four tracks to receive rail traffic occasioned by the exposition, the Pont dIéna linked the two exhibition sites along the central allée. The French exhibits filled one-half of the space, with the remaining exhibition space divided among the other nations of the world. Germany was the major country which was not represented. The United States exhibition was headed by a series of commissioners, young, a former United States Congressman and major general in the Confederate States Army and Floyd Perry Baker, a Kansas newspaper editor, as well as other generals, politicians, and celebrities. The United Kingdoms expenditure was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue, the UK display was under the control of a royal commission, of which the Prince of Wales was president. The Gallery of Machines was a building, an industrial showcase of low transverse arches. Many of the buildings and statues were made of staff, a low-cost temporary building material invented in Paris in 1876, which consisted of fiber, plaster of Paris. On the northern bank of the Seine River, a palace was constructed for the exhibition at the tip of the Place du Trocadéro. It was a handsome Moorish structure, with towers 76 metres in height, on 30 June 1878, the completed head of the Statue of Liberty was showcased in the garden of the Trocadéro palace, while other pieces were on display in the Champs de Mars. Among the many inventions on display was Alexander Graham Bells telephone, thomas Edison had on display a megaphone and phonograph. International juries judged the various exhibits, awarding medals of gold, silver, one popular feature was a human zoo, called a negro village, composed of 400 indigenous people. Gold award for painting, Jan Matejko, for the The Hanging of the Sigismund Bell, Union of Lublin, gold award for photography, Aimé Dupont Over 13 million people paid to attend the exposition, making it a financial success. In addition to the impetus given to French trade, the revenue from customs. Concurrent with the exposition, a number of meetings and conferences were held to gain consensus on international standards, French writer Victor Hugo led the Congress for the Protection of Literary Property, which led to the eventual formulation of international copyright laws. Similarly, other meetings led to efforts to standardize the flow of mail from country to country, the International Congress for the Amelioration of the Condition of Blind People led to the worldwide adoption of the Braille System of touch-reading
38.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
39.
Trip hammer
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Trip hammers were usually raised by a cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. During the Industrial Revolution the trip hammer fell out of favor and was replaced with the power hammer, often multiple hammers were powered via a set of line shafts, pulleys and belts from a centrally located power supply. In ancient China, the trip hammer evolved out of the use of the mortar and pestle, the latter was a simple device employing a lever and fulcrum, which featured a series of catches or lugs on the main revolving shaft as well. This device enabled the labor of pounding, often in the decorticating and polishing of grain, the latter book states that the legendary mythological king known as Fu Xi was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar. Afterwards the power of animals—donkeys, mules, oxen, and horses—was applied by means of machinery, with his description, it is seen that the out-of-date Chinese term for pestle and mortar would soon be replaced with the Chinese term for the water-powered trip-hammer. The Han Dynasty scholar and poet Ma Rong mentioned in one of his poems of hammers pounding in the water-echoing caves. In his Rou Xing Lun, the government official Kong Rong remarked that the invention of the hammer was an excellent example of a product created by intelligent men during his own age. There are numerous references to trip hammers during the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty, the recumbent hammer was found in Chinese illustrations by 1313 AD, with the publishing of Wang Zhens Nong Shu book on ancient and contemporary metallurgy in China. There were also illustrations of trip hammers in an encyclopedia of 1637, the main components for water-powered trip hammers - water wheels, cams, and hammers - were already known in Hellenistic times. Ancient cams are in evidence in early water-powered automata from the 3rd century BC and these trip-hammers were used for the pounding and hulling of grain. Apart from agricultural processing, archaeological evidence also suggests the existence of trip hammers in Roman metal working. In Ickham in Kent, a large metal hammer-head with mechanical deformations was excavated in an area where several Roman water-mills and metal waste dumps have also been traced. The widest application of trip hammers, however, seems to have occurred in Roman mining, here, the regularity and spacing of large indentations on stone anvils indicate the use of cam-operated ore stamps, much like the devices of later medieval mining. Later, Muslim engineers introduced the use of trip hammers in the production of paper, replacing the traditional Chinese mortar, water-powered and mechanised trip hammers reappeared in medieval Europe by the 12th century. Their use was described in written sources of Styria, written in 1135. Both texts mentioned the use of vertical stamp mills for ore-crushing, medieval French sources of the years 1116 and 1249 both record the use of mechanised trip hammers used in the forging of wrought iron. The well-known Renaissance artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci often sketched trip hammers for use in forges and even file-cutting machinery, the oldest depicted European illustration of a martinet forge-hammer is perhaps the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus of Olaus Magnus, dated to 1565 AD. In this woodcut image, there is the scene of three martinets and a working wood and leather bellows of the Osmund Bloomery furnace
40.
Frohnauer Hammer
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The Frohnauer Hammer is an historic hammer mill in Frohnau, a village in the municipality of Annaberg-Buchholz in the Ore Mountains of southeast Germany. The mill is an important witness to proto-industrial development in the Ore Mountains, of the once-numerous hammer mills only three others remain working in Saxony, the Dorfchemnitz Iron Hammer Mill, the Grünthal Copper Hammer Mill and the Freibergsdorf Hammer Mill. In 1907 the Frohnauer Hammer Mill on the Sehma river became the first technical monument in Saxony, the museum complex includes the hammer mill itself, an exhibition of forged artefacts, a hand forge, a mechanical Christmas hill and a bobbin lace room. The Frohnauer Hammer goes back to the 15th century when it was mentioned as a mill with four millstones. On 28 October 1491, Caspar Nietzel discovered a deposit of ore on the Schreckenberg mountain. That same year, mining courts were held for the first time in the mill gardens, on 21 September 1496, a decision was made in the rooms of the mill to found the New Town on the Schreckenberg, later St. Annaberg. The most notable representative at the meeting of the commission in Frohnau was Ulrich Rülein von Calw. In 1498, the mining town was given minting rights. The mill was expanded in the same year into a mint, in which the Schreckenberger. The mint was moved to Annaberg in 1502, however. Around 1590, the mill was closed and fell into ruins, in 1611, it became an oil mill, processing flax, with an adjoining scissor grinding works. But by 1616, there were plans to convert the mill into a hammer mill. This was not achieved, however, until 1621, due to the debasement of coins as a consequence of the Thirty Years War, Prince-Elector John George I took over the mill and had it turned into a silver hammer mill. But this mill worked for two years and was then closed. It was not worth turning it back into a hammer mill. Even its new owner did not have the luck to make it an economic success, the turmoil of war forcing him to give the operation up in 1631. From 1632, the place was used as a hammer mill. The building then stood unused for twenty years after its conversion, the iron hammer mill enjoyed its operational heyday in the second half of the 17th century
41.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
42.
Metalworking
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Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a range of work from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts. It therefore includes a wide range of skills, processes. Metalworking is a science, art, hobby, industry and trade and its historical roots span cultures, civilizations, and millennia. Metalworking has evolved from the discovery of smelting various ores, producing malleable and ductile metal useful for tools, modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Todays machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, the oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The earliest substantiated and dated evidence of metalworking in the Americas was the processing of copper in Wisconsin, Copper was hammered until brittle then heated so it could be worked some more. This technology is dated to about 4000-5000 BCE, the oldest gold artifacts in the world come from the Bulgarian Varna Necropolis and date from 4450 BCE. Not all metal required fire to obtain it or work it, isaac Asimov speculated that gold was the first metal. His reasoning is that by its chemistry it is found in nature as nuggets of pure gold, in other words, gold, as rare as it is, is sometimes found in nature as the metal that it is. There are a few metals that sometimes occur natively. Almost all other metals are found in ores, a mineral-bearing rock, another feature of gold is that it is workable as it is found, meaning that no technology beyond a stone hammer and anvil to work the metal is needed. This is a result of properties of malleability and ductility. The earliest tools were stone, bone, wood, and sinew, at some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized, remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE, the end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia. Ancient civilisations knew of seven metals. Here they are arranged in order of their potential, Iron +0.44 V
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Bandsaw
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A bandsaw is a saw with a long sharp blade consisting of a continuous band of toothed metal stretched between two or more wheels to cut material. They are used principally in woodworking, metalworking, and lumbering, advantages include uniform cutting action as a result of an evenly distributed tooth load, and the ability to cut irregular or curved shapes like a jigsaw. The minimum radius of a curve is determined by the width of the band, most bandsaws have two wheels rotating in the same plane, one of which is powered, although some may have three or four to distribute the load. The blade itself can come in a variety of size and tooth pitch which enables the machine to be versatile and able to cut a wide variety of materials including wood, metal. Almost all bandsaws today are powered by an electric motor, line shaft versions were once common but are now antiques. Constant flexing of the blade over the wheels caused either the material or the joint welding it into a loop to fail, nearly 40 years passed before Frenchwoman Anne Paulin Crepin devised a welding technique overcoming this hurdle. She applied for a patent in 1846, and soon sold the right to employ it to manufacturer A. Perin & Company of Paris. Combining this method with new alloys and advanced tempering techniques allowed Perin to create the first modern band saw blade. The first American band saw patent was granted to Benjamin Barker of Ellsworth, Maine, the first factory produced and commercially available band saw in the U. S. was by a design of Paul Prybil. Power hacksaws were once common in the industries, but bandsaws. Many workshops in residential garages or basements and in light industry contain small or medium-sized bandsaws that can cut wood, metal, often a general-purpose blade is left in place, although blades optimized for wood or metal can be switched out when volume of use warrants. Most residential and commercial bandsaws are of the vertical type mounted on a bench or a cabinet stand, Portable power tool versions, including cordless models, are also common in recent decades, allowing building contractors to bring them along on the truck to the jobsite. Saws for cutting meat are typically of all steel construction with easy to clean features. The blades either have fine teeth with heat treated tips, or have plain or scalloped knife edges, bandsaws dedicated to industrial metal-cutting use, such as for structural steel in fabrication shops and for bar stock in machine shops, are available in vertical and horizontal designs. Typical band speeds range from 40 feet per minute to 5,000 feet per minute, although specialized bandsaws are built for friction cutting of hard metals, metal-cutting bandsaws are usually equipped with brushes or brushwheels to prevent chips from becoming stuck in between the blades teeth. Systems which cool the blade with cutting fluid are also common equipment on metal-cutting bandsaws, the coolant washes away swarf and keeps the blade cool and lubricated. Horizontal bandsaws hold the workpiece stationary while the blade swings down through the cut and this configuration is used to cut long materials such as pipe or bar stock to length. Thus it is an important part of the facilities in most machine shops, the horizontal design is not useful for cutting curves or complicated shapes
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Cold saw
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This is contrast to an abrasive saw, which abrades the metal and generates a great deal of heat absorbed by the material being cut and saw blade. As metals expand when heated, abrasive cutting causes both the material being cut and blade to expand, resulting in increased effort to produce a cut and this produces more heat through friction, resulting in increased blade wear and greater energy consumption. Cold saws use either a high speed steel or tungsten carbide-tipped. They are equipped with a motor and a gear reduction unit to reduce the saw blades rotational speed while maintaining constant torque. This allows the HSS saw blade to feed at a constant rate with a high chip load per tooth. Cold saws are capable of machining most ferrous and non-ferrous alloys, additional advantages include minimal burr production, fewer sparks, less discoloration and no dust. Saws designed to employ a flood coolant system to keep saw blade teeth cooled and lubricated may reduce sparks, cold saw blades are circular metal cutting saw blades categorized into two types, solid HSS or tungsten carbide-tipped. Both types of blades are resharpenable and may be used many times before being discarded. Cold saw blades are used to cut metal using a relatively slow speed, usually less than 5000 surface feet per minute. These blades are driven by a high motor and high-torque gear reduction unit or an AC vector drive. During the cutting process, the metal is released in an action by the teeth as the blade turns. They are called cold saw blades because they transfer all the energy and this enables the blade and the work material to remain cold. The first type of cold saw blade, solid HSS, may be made from either M2 tool steel or M35 tool steel, solid HSS saw blades are heat treated and hardened to 64/65 HRC for ferrous cutting applications and 58/60 HRC for non-ferrous cutting applications. This high hardness gives the cutting edges of the teeth a high resistance to heat, however, this increased hardness also makes the blades brittle and not very resistant to shock. In order to produce a high quality HSS cold saw blade, you must start with very flat, the blades must be press quenched after hardening to prevent them from being warped. HSS saw blades are typically hollow ground for clearance during the cutting process, the term HSS doesnt necessarily mean what it implies. These blades are usually never run at speeds higher than 350 SFM. Solid HSS cold saw blades may be used for cutting many different shapes and types of metal including, tubes, extrusions, structural sections, billets, bars, ingots, castings, forgings etc
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