1.
Ship's wheel
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A ships wheel or boats wheel is a device used aboard a water vessel to change that vessels course. Together with the rest of the mechanism, it forms part of the helm. It is connected to a mechanical, electric servo, or hydraulic system which alters the angle of the vessels rudder relative to its hull. A typical ships wheel is composed of eight wooden spokes shaped like balusters. The outer rim is composed of each made up of stacks of three felloes, the facing felloe, the middle felloe, and the after felloe. Because each group of three felloes at one time made up a quarter of the distance around the rim, the outer wooden wheel was sometimes called the quadrant. Each spoke ran through the middle felloe creating a series of handles beyond the wheels rim, the completed ships wheel and associated axle and pedestal might even be taller than the person using it. The steering gear of earlier shipss wheels sometimes consisted of a wheel where each wheel was connected to the other with a wooden spindle that ran through a barrel or drum. The spindle was held up by two pedestals that rested on a platform, often no more than a grate. Movement of the wheels caused the rope to wind in one of two directions and angled the tiller left or right. Having two wheels connected by an axle allowed two people to take the helm in severe weather when one person alone might not have had enough strength to control the ships movements
2.
Tractor
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A tractor is an engineering vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially tillage, but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, the word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent noun of trahere to pull. The first recorded use of the meaning an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or ploughs occurred in 1901. In Canada and the USA, the word may refer to the road tractor portion of a tractor trailer truck. The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century were portable engines – steam engines on wheels that could be used to drive farm machinery by way of a flexible belt. Richard Trevithick designed the first semi-portable stationary steam engine for use, known as a barn engine in 1812. The truly portable engine was invented in 1839 by William Tuxford of Boston, a large flywheel was mounted on the crankshaft, and a stout leather belt was used to transfer the drive to the equipment being driven. In the 1850s, John Fowler used a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine to drive apparatus in the first public demonstrations of the application of cable haulage to cultivation. In parallel with the portable engine development, many engineers attempted to make them self-propelled – the fore-runners of the traction engine. In most cases this was achieved by fitting a sprocket on the end of the crankshaft and these experiments met with mixed success. The alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle. The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the standard form of the engine had evolved. It was widely adopted for agricultural use, the first tractors were steam-powered plowing engines. They were used in pairs, placed on side of a field to haul a plow back. In Britain Manns and Garrett developed steam tractors for direct ploughing, in the United States, where soil conditions permitted, steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows. Steam-powered agricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century until reliable internal combustion engines had been developed, in 1892, John Froelich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor in Clayton County, Iowa, USA. A Van Duzen single-cylinder gasoline engine was mounted on a Robinson engine chassis, after receiving a patent, Froelich started up the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company and invested all of his assets
3.
VDL Bova
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Bova, later rebranded to VDL Bova, was a luxury coachbuilder based in Eindhoven, Netherlands which began building coaches in 1931. In particular, it is known for the Bova Futura, a streamlined coach usually with a DAF engine. The Bova name was discontinued in 2010 and is now known as VDL. The founder, J. D. Bots, later to be known as J. D. Bova first started the company that would come to be known as Bova in 1878 with the creation of a business in Valkenswaard. When J. D. Bots died, he left the business to his eldest son Simon who first introduced the name Bova, in 1931 the company began building coaches, and in 1969 introduced the Benelux, a self-supporting integral coach. The company was purchased by VDL Groep in 2003, who also own Berkhof, VDL Bus Chassis, from 2010 the individual brands have been discontinued. The VDL Futura coach references Bovas best known model, however, Futura Lexio Magiq Synergy X-press Europa Calypso Bova website
4.
Steering
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Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allows any vehicle to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of transport by which rail tracks combined together with railroad switches provide the steering function. The primary purpose of the system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle. Other arrangements are found on different types of vehicles, for example. The basic aim of steering is to ensure that the wheels are pointing in the desired directions and this is typically achieved by a series of linkages, rods, pivots and gears. The angle the wheels make with the plane also influences steering dynamics as do the tires. The rack and pinion design has the advantages of a degree of feedback. A disadvantage is that it is not adjustable, so that when it does wear and develop lash, BMW began to use rack and pinion steering systems in the 1930s, and many other European manufacturers adopted the technology. American automakers adopted rack and pinion steering beginning with the 1974 Ford Pinto, older designs use two main principles, the worm and sector design and the screw and nut. Both types were enhanced by reducing the friction, for screw and nut it is the ball mechanism. The steering column turns a large screw which meshes with nut by recirculating balls and this design is still in use in trucks and other large vehicles, where rapidity of steering and direct feel are less important than robustness, maintainability, and mechanical advantage. The worm and sector was a design, used for example in Willys and Chrysler vehicles. To reduce friction the sector is replaced by a roller or rotating pins on the rocker shaft arm, other systems for steering exist, but are uncommon on road vehicles. Power steering helps the driver of a vehicle to steer by directing some of its power to assist in swiveling the steered road wheels about their steering axes. To alleviate this auto makers have developed power steering systems, or more correctly power-assisted steering, there are two types of power steering systems, hydraulic and electric/electronic. A hydraulic-electric hybrid system is also possible, a hydraulic power steering uses hydraulic pressure supplied by an engine-driven pump to assist the motion of turning the steering wheel. In EPS, the amount of assistance is easily tunable to the type, road speed. An added benefit is the elimination of environmental hazard posed by leakage, an outgrowth of power steering is speed sensitive steering, where the steering is heavily assisted at low speed and lightly assisted at high speed
5.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
6.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
7.
Recirculating ball
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Recirculating ball, also known as recirculating ball and nut or worm and sector, is a steering mechanism commonly found in older automobiles, off-road vehicles, and some trucks. A few, including Chrysler and General Motors, still use this technology in certain models including the Jeep Wrangler, the steering wheel connects to a shaft, which rotates the worm gear inside of the block. The worm gear is similar in design to a ball screw, the balls serve to reduce friction and wear in the gear, and reduce slop. Slop, when the come out of contact with each other, would be felt when changing the direction of the steering wheel. Power steering in a system works similarly to that in a rack-and-pinion system. Assistance is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block, burman and Sons Ltd - defunct manufacturer of recirculating ball steering gear
8.
Rack and pinion
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A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which convert rotational motion into linear motion. For example, in a railway, the rotation of a pinion mounted on a locomotive or a railcar engages a rack between the rails and forces a train up a steep slope. For every pair of conjugate involute profile, there is a basic rack and this basic rack is the profile of the conjugate gear of infinite pitch radius. A generating rack is a rack outline used to indicate tooth details and dimensions for the design of a generating tool, such as a hob or a gear shaper cutter. Rack and pinion combinations are used as part of a simple linear actuator. The rack carries the load of the actuator directly and so the driving pinion is usually small. This force, thus torque, may still be substantial and so it is common for there to be a reduction gear immediately before this by either a gear or worm gear reduction, Rack gears have a higher ratio, thus require a greater driving torque, than screw actuators. Most Stairlifts today are operating using the Rack & Pinion system, a rack and pinion is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars or other wheeled, steered vehicles. Rack and pinion provides an efficient mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recirculating ball. The mechanism may be power-assisted, usually by hydraulic or electrical means, the use of a variable rack was invented by Arthur Ernest Bishop in the 1970s, so as to improve vehicle response and steering feel, especially at high speeds. He also created a low cost press forging process to manufacture the racks, Rack railways are mountain railways that use a rack built into the center of the track and a pinion on their locomotives. This allows them to work on steep gradients, up to 45 degrees, additionally, the rack and pinion addition provides these trains with controlled brakes, and reduces the effects of snow or ice on the rails. A rack and pinion with two racks and one pinion is used in actuators, an example is pneumatic rack and pinion actuators that can be used to control valves in pipeline transport. The actuators in the picture on the right are used to control the valves of large water pipeline, in the top actuator, a gray control signal line can be seen connecting to a solenoid valve, which is used as the pilot for the actuator. The solenoid valve controls the air coming from the input air line. The output air from the valve is fed to the chamber in the middle of the actuator. The pressure in the actuators chamber pushes the pistons away, while the pistons are moving apart from each other, the attached racks are also moved along the pistons in the opposite directions of the two racks. The two racks are meshed to a pinion at the direct opposite teeth of the pinion, when the two racks move, the pinion is turned, causing the attached main valve of the water pipe to turn
9.
Power steering
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In automobiles, power steering helps drivers steer by augmenting steering effort of the steering wheel. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels, hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone, electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system, other power steering systems have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage, they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no connection, are sometimes called drive by wire or steer by wire. In this context, wire refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle, this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the relative to each other to steer. The first power steering system on an automobile was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where an electric motor was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels. Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery vehicles for the British. Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the name Hydraguide, the Chrysler system was based on some of Daviss expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier. Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in 1958. Most new vehicles now have power steering, owing to the trends toward front wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds
10.
Tiller
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A tiller or till is a lever attached to a rudder post or rudder stock of a boat that provides leverage in the form of torque for the helmsman to turn the rudder. The tiller can be used by the helmsman directly pulling or pushing it, rapid or excessive movement of the tiller results in an increase in drag and will result in braking or slowing the boat. In steering a boat, the tiller is moved in the direction opposite of which the bow of the boat is to move. If the tiller is moved to side, the bow will turn to starboard. If the tiller is moved to starboard, the bow will turn port, sailing students often learn the alliterative phrase Tiller Towards Trouble to remind them of how to steer. Since the tiller is forward of the pivot point, and the rudder aft of it. For example, to turn a ship to port, the helmsman would be given the order starboard helm or x degrees starboard, the ships tiller was then moved to starboard, turning the rudder to the vessels port side, producing a turn to port. The opposite convention applied in France, but Austria and Italy kept to the English system, there was no standardisation in vessels from Scandinavian countries, where the practice varied from ship to ship. Most French vessels with steering wheels had their steering chains reversed, when large steamships appeared in the late 19th century with telemotors hydraulically connecting the wheel on the bridge to the steering gear at the stern, the practice continued. However the helmsman was now no longer controlling the tiller. Tiller Orders remained however, although many maritime nations had abandoned the convention by the end of the 19th century, Britain retained it until 1933, during the transition period the wording of the order was changed, to specify Wheel to starboard or Wheel to port. A well-known and often-depicted example occurred on the RMS Titanic in 1912 just before she collided with an iceberg. When the iceberg appeared directly in front of the ship, her officer-of-the-watch, First Officer William Murdoch and he ordered Hard-a-Starboard, which was a Tiller Order directing the helmsman to turn the wheel to port as far as it would go. The Titanics steering gear then pushed the tiller toward the side of the ship, swinging the rudder over to port. These actions are portrayed in the 1997 film of the disaster. Although frequently described as an error, the order was given, however, according to the granddaughter of the highest-ranking officer to survive the sinking, Second Officer Charles Lightoller, the order was not correctly executed. Quartermaster Hitchins, who had trained under Rudder Orders, mistakenly turned the wheel to starboard. It took two minutes to recognise and correct the error, by time it was too late to avoid collision with the iceberg
11.
Panhard
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Panhard is a French manufacturer of light tactical and military vehicles. Its current incarnation, now owned by Renault Trucks Defense, was formed by the acquisition of Panhard by Auverland in 2005, Panhard had been under Citroën ownership, then PSA after the 1974 takeover of Citroën by Peugeot, for 40 years. The combined company now uses the Panhard name, this was decided based on studies indicating that the Panhard name had better brand recognition worldwide than the Auverland name, Panhard once built innovative civilian cars but ceased production of those in 1968. Many of its military products however end up on the market via third sources. Panhard also built railbuses between the wars, Panhard was originally called Panhard et Levassor, and was established as a car manufacturing concern by René Panhard and Émile Levassor in 1887. Panhard et Levassor sold their first automobile in 1890, based on a Daimler engine license, Levassor obtained his licence from Paris lawyer Edouard Sarazin, a friend and representative of Gottlieb Daimlers interests in France. Following Sarazins 1887 death, Daimler commissioned Sarazins widow Louise to carry on her late husbands agency, the Panhard et Levassor license was finalised by Louise, who married Levassor in 1890. Daimler and Levassor became fast friends, and shared improvements with one another and these first vehicles set many modern standards, but each was a one-off design. They used a pedal to operate a chain-driven gearbox. The vehicle also featured a front-mounted radiator, an 1895 Panhard et Levassor is credited with the first modern transmission. For the 1894 Paris–Rouen Rally, Alfred Vacheron equipped his 4 horsepower with a steering wheel and this was to become the standard layout for automobiles for most of the next century. The same year, Panhard et Levassor shared their Daimler engine license with bicycle maker Armand Peugeot, in 1895,1,205 cc Panhard et Levassors finished first and second in the Paris–Bordeaux–Paris race, one piloted solo by Levassor, for 48¾hr. However during the 1896 Paris–Marseille–Paris race, Levassor was fatally injured due to a crash while trying to avoid hitting a dog, arthur Krebs succeeded Levassor as General Manager in 1897, and held the job until 1916. He turned the Panhard et Levassor Company into one of the largest and most profitable manufacturer of automobiles before World War I, Panhards won numerous races from 1895 to 1903. Panhard et Levassor developed the Panhard rod, which used in many other types of automobiles as well. From 1910 Panhard worked to develop engines without conventional valves, using under license the sleeve valve technology that had been patented by the American Charles Yale Knight. Between 1910 and 1924 the Panhard & Levassor catalogue listed plenty of models with conventional valve engines, following various detailed improvements to the sleeve valve technology by Panhards own engineering department, from 1924 till 1940 all Panhard cars used sleeve valve engines. Under the presidency of Raymond Poincaré, which ran from 1913 till 1920, the military were also keen on the sleeve valve engined Panhard 20HP
12.
Charles Rolls
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Charles Stewart Rolls was an English born Welshman who was a motoring and aviation pioneer. Together with Henry Royce he co-founded the Rolls-Royce car manufacturing firm, Rolls was born in Berkeley Square, London, third son of the 1st Baron Llangattock and Lady Llangattock. Despite his London birth, he retained a family connection with his ancestral home of The Hendre, near Monmouth. After attending Mortimer Vicarage Preparatory School in Berkshire, he was educated at Eton College where his developing interest in engines earned him the nickname dirty Rolls. In 1894 he attended a private crammer in Cambridge which helped him gain entry to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1896, at the age of 18, he travelled to Paris to buy his first car, a Peugeot Phaeton, and joined the Automobile Club of France. His Peugeot is believed to have been the first car based in Cambridge, Rolls was a keen cyclist and spent time at Cambridge bicycle racing. In 1896, he won a Half Blue and the year became captain of the Cambridge University Bicycle Club. Rolls was a man, standing at about 1.95 m. Rolls was introduced to Henry Royce by a friend at the Royal Automobile Club, Henry Edmunds, Edmunds showed him Royces car and arranged the historic meeting between Rolls and Royce at the Midland Hotel, Manchester, on 4 May 1904. These would be of two, three, four and six cylinders and would be badged as Rolls-Royces. The first Rolls-Royce car, the Rolls-Royce 10 hp, was unveiled at the Paris Salon in December 1904, Rolls provided the financial backing and business acumen to complement Royces technical expertise. In 1907 Rolls-Royce Limited bought out C. S, Rolls put much effort into publicising the quietness and smoothness of the Rolls-Royce, and at the end of 1906 travelled to the USA to promote the new cars. The company was winning awards for the quality and reliability of its cars by 1907, but by 1909 Rolls interest in the business was waning, and at the end of the year he resigned as Technical managing director and became a non-executive director. Rolls was also an aviator and initially, balloonist, making over 170 balloon ascents. He was a member of the Royal Aero Club in 1903 and was the second person in Britain to be licensed to fly by it. In 1903 he also won the Gordon Bennett Gold Medal for the longest single flight time, by 1907 Rolls interest turned increasingly to flying, and he tried unsuccessfully to persuade Royce to design an aero engine. In 1909 he bought one of six Wright Flyer aircraft built by Short Brothers under licence from the Wright Brothers, on 2 June 1910, he became the first man to make a non-stop double crossing of the English Channel by plane, taking 95 minutes. For this feat, which included the first East-bound aerial crossing of the English Channel, there is a statue to commemorate the flight in Monmouth and another in Dover
13.
Arthur Constantin Krebs
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Arthur Constantin Krebs was a French officer and pioneer in automotive engineering. Collaborating with Charles Renard, he piloted the first fully controlled free-flight made in the French Army airship La France, the flight covered 8 km in 23 minutes. It was with a landing at the starting point, on its seven flights the La France dirigible returned five times to its starting point. Krebs shared the 1886 Ponti prize of the French Académie des sciences, with Charles Renard, Krebs inspired Jules Verne, in Vernes novel Robur The Conqueror written in 1886, he writes of the striking experiments of Captain Krebs and Captain Renard. In 1888 Krebs and Gustave Zédé designed the first modern French submarine, the submarine was fitted with the first naval periscope and the first naval electric gyrocompass. The latter allowed the Gymnote to force a naval block in 1890, from 1884 to 1897 Arthur Krebs modernized the Ville de Paris fire department, not only its equipment but its organisation as well. His work left an impression in this elite corps. The Panhard et Levassor company acquired a license to build 500 cars under the name of Clement-Panhard between 1898 and 1902 featuring this innovation, Krebs succeeded Levassor as Panhard et Levassors general manager from 1897 to 1916. He transformed the Panhard et Levassor Company into one of the largest and most profitable automobile manufacturers before World War I. In 1898 Krebs replaced the tiller with a steering wheel for the Panhard et Levassor car he designed for the Paris-Amsterdam race which ran from the 7 to 13 July 1898. Fernand Charron won that race on a four cylinders Panhard et Levassor, at the end of 1898, C S Rolls introduced the first car in Britain fitted with wheel steering when he imported a 6 hp Panhard et Levassor from France. In 1906 Krebs traveled to the United States of America to plead in the Selden Case, also, Krebs contributed significantly to improve the Systeme Panhard which became universally adopted before World War II. In 1909, he interested in the Knight patent and was first in France to build that type of engine which Panhard et Levassor would produce during the thirty years leading up to World War II. He made contributions to racing with his powerful cars and motorboats. In 1911 Krebs invented the first elastomeric flexible coupling and it is known in French as the Flector joint. This device is widely used today in industry for power transmission as a tyre coupling. The truck was meant for military and civil purposes, Krebs designed it in 1911, jointly with the Chatillon Co, the all-terrain truck named Tracteur Chatillon-Panhard, had four wheel drive and four wheel steering. Many of these trucks were used during World War I as artillery tractors, Krebs who constructed and flew, with Charles Renard, the first dirigible airship capable of steady flight under control, in 1884
14.
Thomas B. Jeffery
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Thomas Buckland Jeffery was an inventor of the clincher tire/rim and manufacturer of bicycles and early automobiles, founder of the Rambler brand. Jeffery was born on 5 February 1845 at 3 Mill Pleasant in Stoke, Devon, England to Thomas Hellier, at sixteen years of age he was working as a mathematical instrument maker. At eighteen years of age, he emigrated to the United States and became a resident of Chicago, later he was engaged in making models for the patent office and in 1879 started in the bicycle business, being one of the pioneers in that field. He, with R. Philip Gormully, organized the Gormully & Jeffery Manufacturing Company, the Rambler was still a proud piece of machinery when low prices took precedence over high quality. Its body featured flared metal tubing for extra strength at the joints, by 1900, Gormully & Jeffery was the countrys second-largest bicycle maker and Jeffery had gained fame for developing, among other things, the clincher rim that enabled pneumatic tires to be used. Dunlops pneumatic tires were very similar to garden hoses and frequently were shed from the rim, Jeffery came up with an improved tire, held on the rim by a wire embedded in the rubber of the tire, and the wire could be tightened onto the rim. He got a patent on the ancestor of all clincher tires in 1882 and he was one of Americas first men interested in automobiles, and in 1897, he built the first Rambler motor car. Jeffery was serious about motor cars so he sold his stake in G&J and he used the G&J money to buy the old Sterling Bicycle Co. factory in Kenosha, Wisconsin, where he set up shop to manufacture automobiles on a large scale. From 1902 until 1908, Jeffery moved steadily to bigger, more reliable models and his cars were built on assembly lines, and in 1903 he sold 1,350 Ramblers. By 1905, Jeffery more than doubled this number, one reason may have been because he went to the steering wheel before 1904. In 1907, he was building a variety of different body styles and sizes. Among them was a five-passenger, $2,500 Rambler weighing 2,600 pounds, Jeffery died in 1910 while on holiday in Pompeii, in Italy, and after his death, Charles T. Jeffery changed the automotive branding from Rambler to Jeffery in the founders honor. Ultimately, Jefferys family sold the business to Charles W. Nash. Jeffrey contested several patents, Fought the Pope bicycle patent and won, Fought the Selden bicycle patent and won. 1845 – Thomas Jeffery is born in Devon, England,1863 – Jeffery emigrates to the US and moves to Chicago, Illinois. 1878 – Jeffery partners with Phillip Gormally and starts the Gormally & Jeffery Bicycling Manufacturing Company in Chicago,1882 – Jeffery invents the Clincher Tire. 1900 – Jeffery sells his stake in G&J to the American Bicycle Company,1902 – First production Ramblers – the $750 Model C open runabout and the $850 Model D. Both are powered by an 8-hp, 98cu, engine mounted beneath the seat, and both are steered by a pioneering right-side tiller
15.
Rambler (automobile)
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Rambler was an automobile brand name used by the Thomas B. It was often nicknamed the Kenosha Cadillac after its place of manufacture, the first use of the name Rambler for an American made automobile dates to 1897 when Thomas B. Jeffery of Chicago, Illinois and builder of the Rambler bicycle, after receiving positive reviews at the 1899 Chicago International Exhibition & Tournament and the first National Automobile Show in New York City, Jeffery decided to enter the automobile business. In 1900, he bought the old Sterling Bicycle Co. factory in Kenosha, Wisconsin, Jeffery started commercially mass-producing automobiles in 1902 and by the end of the year had produced 1,500 motorcars, one-sixth of all existing in the USA at the time. Jeffery Company was the second largest auto manufacturer at that time, Rambler innovated various design features and was the first to equip cars with a spare wheel-and-tire assembly. This allowed the driver, when experiencing a common puncture to exchange the spare wheel & tire for the flat one, in 1914, Charles T. Jeffery, Thomas B. Jefferys son, replaced the Rambler brand name with Jeffery in honor of his now deceased father, Jeffery Company was purchased by Charles W. Nash and became Nash Motors Company in 1917. The Jeffery brand name was dropped at the time of the sale, in 1937, the concern became the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation through a merger with the well-known appliance maker. Under the direction of Charles Nashs successor George W. Mason, when introduced, the Rambler was an immediate success for Nash. As steel quotas eased, the Rambler line was broadened in both its model types on a stretched wheelbase, which proved to be as successful as the first generation of two-door sedan convertibles. The first generation of modern Ramblers carried a version of Nashs Airflyte styling. Where the wheel openings of any car are a source of wind resistance. Many people surmised that the skirted fenders limited the turning radius of the wheels but was not a handicap for having a comparatively narrow front track. Ramblers continued to use this styling until 1955, when the front wheels were revealed by a design update. In 1954, American Motors Corporation was formed from the merger of Nash-Kelvinator, following the merger,1955 and 1956 Ramblers were badged as both Nashes and Hudsons, with no visible difference between the two. Rambler became a marque in its own right for the 1957 model year, the Nash and Hudson makes were continued as senior model only through 1957, after which all of AMCs offerings were marketed as Ramblers, with the exception of the imported 1958–1962 Metropolitan. At the start of the 1960s George Romney made a decision that more fully unified the various Rambler model names under the Rambler brand. In 1962, the Ambassador, a top-trim level model, was brought under the Rambler name
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AMC Matador
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The AMC Matador is a mid-size car built and marketed by American Motors Corporation from 1971 to 1978. The Matador came in two generations,1971 to 1973, and a redesign from 1974 to 1978. The second-generation four-door sedan and station wagon models were classified as full-size cars, factory-backed AMC Matador hardtops and coupes competed in NASCAR stock car racing with drivers that included Mark Donohue and Bobby Allison winning several races. The new Matador coupe was featured in The Man with the Golden Gun, Matadors were a popular vehicle for the police, as it outperformed most other police cars. It was also featured in television shows and movies during the 1970s. The Matador became AMCs largest automobile following the discontinuation of its flagship, premium trim level Oleg Cassini and Barcelona versions of the Matador coupe were positioned in the personal luxury car market segment. The Matador replaced the AMC Rebel, which had been marketed since 1967, with a facelift and a new name, the AMC Matadors were available as a two-door hardtop as well as a four-door sedan and station wagon. The Matador was based on AMCs senior automobile platform shared with the full-size Ambassador line, the sedan and wagon models offered excellent value and were fairly popular, including as a prowl car. Matadors were offered to buyers with various police, taxicab. Government agencies, military units, and police departments in the U. S. equipped Matador sedans and wagons with 360 cu in or 401 cu in V8 engines. American Motors advertising assured that the new Matador was not just a change and facelift, but in reality it was the 1970 Rebel restyled with a longer front clip. The 1971 model year Matadors acquired a beefier front end look for all three designs, two-door hardtop, four-door sedan, and station wagon. Interior wise, it shared the same dash, instrument cluster, steering wheel, also reused was the 1967–1970 Rebel Weather Eye three-lever fan/heat control unit. The 1971 model came with a front seat with individual fold-down center arm rests for passenger and driver seats. Externally the 1971 model retained the same trunk lid chrome strip, the rear bumper was also the same as the 1970 Rebel but with a new tail light lens assembly of three-in-line square lenses with rounded corners. This self-disparaging marketing campaign turned the styling of anonymity into an asset, consumer-research polls conducted by AMC found it meant virility and excitement to consumers. However, American Motors ran into problems in Puerto Rico, where matador has connotations of killer on the island where bullfighting was abolished when the U. S. took its control. The Matador station wagons had an available rear-facing third-row bench seat increasing total seating from six to eight passengers, the Matador came with a straight-6 or a number of V8 engines
17.
Left- and right-hand traffic
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This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. About two-thirds of the population use RHT, with the remaining 76 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the worlds area, in the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, in 1919,104 of the worlds territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986,34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT, many of the countries with LHT are former British colonies in the Caribbean, Southern Africa, Southeast Asia, Australia, and New Zealand. Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Mozambique, Suriname, East Timor, in Europe, only four countries still drive on the left, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Malta, and Cyprus, all of which are islands. Nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory, most exceptions are due to historical considerations and involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of China of Hong Kong, the United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar, according to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations provide for passing on the right, light rail vehicles generally operate on the same side as other road traffic in the country. Many countries use RHT for automobiles but LHT for trains, often because of the influence of the British on early railway systems, in some countries rail traffic remained LHT after automobile traffic switched to RHT, for example in China, Brazil, and Argentina. However, France, Belgium, and Switzerland have used RHT for automobiles since their introduction, there is no technical reason to prefer one side over the other. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching, in 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left, in the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no seat, so a postilion sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons, in France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left
18.
Airbag
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An airbag is a type of vehicle safety device and is an occupant restraint system. The airbag module is designed to inflate extremely rapidly then quickly deflate during a collision or impact with a surface or a sudden deceleration. It consists of the cushion, a flexible fabric bag, inflation module. The airbag provides an absorbing surface between the vehicles occupant and a steering wheel, instrumental panel, A-B-C- structural body frame pillars, headliner. Working as a restraint system to the vehicles seat-belt systems. Newer side-impact airbag modules consist of compressed air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a side impact vehicle impact, the first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s with limited success. Over time, various manufacturers have used different terms for airbags, in the 1970s, General Motors marketed its first airbag modules under the unwieldy name Air Cushion Restraint System. Common terms in North America refer to a role as a supplement to active restraints. Because no action by an occupant is required to activate or use the airbag. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered active devices because the occupant must act to enable them. In this usage, a car Anti-lock Braking System will qualify as an active-safety device, further confusing the terminology, the aviation safety community uses the terms active and passive in the opposite sense from the automotive industry. In patent applications, various airbag manufacturers sometimes use the term inflatable occupant restraint systems for vehicle airbags. The airbag specified for automobile use traces its origins to air-filled bladders as early as 1941, the invention is also credited independently to the German engineer Walter Linderer, and to the American John W. Hetrick who in 1951 registered for the first of his airbag patents. Linderers airbag was based on an air system, either released by bumper contact or by the driver. Later research during the 1960s showed that air could not inflate Linderers airbag fast enough for maximum safety. Hetrick was an engineer and member of the United States Navy. Hetrick worked with the major American automobile corporations at the time, in Japan, Yasuzaburou Kobori started developing an airbag safety net system in 1964, for which he was later awarded patents in 14 countries. He died in 1975 without seeing widespread adoption of airbag systems, in 1967, a breakthrough occurred in the development of airbag crash sensors when Allen K
19.
Vehicle audio
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Vehicle audio is equipment installed in a car or other vehicle to provide in-car entertainment and information for the vehicle occupants. Until the 1950s it consisted of a simple AM radio, additions since then have included FM radio, CD players, navigation systems, Bluetooth telephone integration, and smartphone controllers like CarPlay and Android Auto. Once controlled from the dashboard with a few buttons, they can now be controlled by steering wheel controls and it is also used to create fake engine noise. For the 2015 Ford Mustang EcoBoost, an Active Noise Control system was developed that amplifies the sound through the car speakers. A similar system is used in the F-150 pickup truck, volkswagen uses a Soundaktor, a special speaker to play sounds in cars such as the Golf GTi and Beetle Turbo. BMW plays a sample of its motors through the car speakers, using a different samples according to the engine’s load. Around 1920, vacuum tube technology had matured to the point where the availability of receivers made radio broadcasting viable. A technical challenge was that the tubes in the radio receivers required 50 to 250 volt direct current. Voltage was stepped up with a vibrator that provided a pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, in 1930, the American Galvin Manufacturing Corporation marketed a Motorola branded radio receiver for $130. It was expensive, the contemporary Ford Model A cost $540, a Plymouth sedan, wired for Philco Transistone radio without extra cost, is advertised in Ladies Home Journal in 1931. In 1932 in Germany the Blaupunkt AS5 medium wave and longwave radio was marketed for 465 Reichsmark, because it took nearly 10 litres of space, it could not be located near the driver, and was operated via a steering wheel remote control. In 1933 Crossley Motors offer a factory fitted car radio, by the late 1930s, push button AM radios were considered a standard feature. In 1946 there were an estimated 9 million AM car radios in use, an FM receiver was offered by Blaupunkt in 1952. In 1953, Becker introduced the AM/FM Becker Mexico with a Variometer tuner, in April 1955, the Chrysler Corporation had announced that it was offering a Mopar model 914HR branded Philco all transistor car radio, as a $150 option for its 1956 Chrysler and Imperial car models. In 1963 Becker introduced the Monte Carlo, a solid state radio. In 1964 Philips launched the Compact Cassette, and in 1965 Ford, in subsequent years cassettes supplanted the 8-track, and improved with longer play times, better tape quality, auto-reverse, and Dolby noise reduction. They were popular throughout the 1970s and 80s, while the CD had been on the market since 1982, it was in 1984 that Pioneer introduced the CDX-1, the worlds first car CD player. It was known for its sound quality, instant track skipping
20.
Cruise control
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Cruise control is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle. The system is a servomechanism that takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a speed as set by the driver. Speed control was used in automobiles as early as 1900 in the Wilson-Pilcher, Peerless advertised that their system would maintain speed whether up hill or down. The technology was adopted by James Watt and Matthew Boulton in 1788 to control steam engines, on an engine the governor adjusts the throttle position as the speed of the engine changes with different loads, so as to maintain a near constant speed. Modern cruise control was invented in 1948 by the inventor and mechanical engineer Ralph Teetor and his idea was born out of the frustration of riding in a car driven by his lawyer, who kept speeding up and slowing down as he talked. The first car with Teetors system was the 1958 Imperial using a dial on the dashboard. This system calculated ground speed based on driveshaft rotations off the rotating speedometer-cable, patent for a Constant Speed Regulator was filed in 1950 by M-Sgt Frank J. Riley. He installed his invention, which he conceived while driving on the Pennsylvania Turnpike, despite this patent, the inventor, Riley, and the subsequent patent holders were not able to collect royalties for any of the inventions using cruise control. In 1965, American Motors introduced an automatic speed control for its large-sized cars with automatic transmissions. Daniel Aaron Wisner invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control in 1968 as an engineer for RCAs Industrial and Automation Systems Division in Plymouth, Michigan. His invention described in two patents filed that year, with the second modifying his design by debuting digital memory, was the first electronic device in controlling a car. Two decades passed before a circuit for his design was developed by Motorola. As the MC14460 Auto Speed Control Processor in CMOS, the advantage of electronic speed control over its mechanical predecessor was that it could be integrated with electronic accident avoidance and engine management systems. Following the 1973 oil crisis and rising prices, the device became more popular in the U. S. Cruise control can save gas by avoiding surges that expel fuel while driving at steady speeds, in 1974, AMC, GM, and Chrysler priced the option at $60 to $70, while Ford charged $103. The driver must bring the vehicle up to speed manually and use a button to set the control to the current speed. The cruise control takes its speed signal from a driveshaft, speedometer cable, wheel speed sensor from the engines RPM. Most systems do not allow the use of the cruise control below a certain speed - typically around 25 mph, all cruise control systems must be capable of being turned off both explicitly and automatically when the driver depresses the brake, and often also the clutch
21.
Spoke
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A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel, connecting the hub with the round traction surface. The term originally referred to portions of a log that had split lengthwise into four or six sections. The radial members of a wagon wheel were made by carving a spoke into their finished shape, a spokeshave is a tool originally developed for this purpose. Eventually, the spoke was more commonly applied to the finished product of the wheelwrights work. The spoked wheel was invented to allow the construction of lighter and swifter vehicles, the earliest known examples are in the context of the Sintashta culture, dating to ca.2000 BC. Soon after this, horse cultures of the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war chariots for the part of three centuries. Celtic chariots introduced an iron rim around the wheel in the 1st millennium BC, the spoked wheel was in continued use without major modification until the 1870s, when wire wheels and rubber tires were invented. Spokes can be made of wood, metal, or synthetic fiber depending on whether they will be in tension or compression, the original type of spoked wheel with wooden spokes was used for horse-drawn carriages and wagons. In early motor cars, wooden spoked wheels of the type were normally used. In a simple wooden wheel, a load on the hub causes the wheel rim to flatten slightly against the ground as the lowermost wooden spoke shortens, the other wooden spokes show no significant change. They are also dished, usually to the outside of the vehicle, also, the dishing allows the wheel to compensate for expansion of the spokes due to absorbed moisture by dishing more. For use in bicycles, heavy wooden-spoked wheels were replaced by wheels with spokes made of tensioned, adjustable metal wires. These are also used in wheelchairs, motorcycles, and automobiles, some types of wheels have removable spokes that can be replaced individually if they break or bend. These include bicycle and wheelchair wheels, high quality bicycles with conventional wheels use spokes of stainless steel, while cheaper bicycles may use galvanized or chrome plated spokes. While a good quality spoke is capable of supporting about 225 kgf of tension, since bicycle and wheelchair wheel spokes are only in tension, flexible and strong materials such as synthetic fibers, are also occasionally used. Metal spokes can also be ovalized or bladed to reduce aerodynamic drag, a variation on the wire-spoked wheel was Tiogas Tension Disk, which appeared superficially to be a solid disk but was in fact constructed using the same principles as a normal tension-spoked wheel. Instead of individual spokes, a continuous thread of Kevlar was used to lace the hub to the rim under high tension. The threads were encased in a translucent disk for protection and some aerodynamic benefit, Wire spokes can be radial to the hub but are more often mounted tangentially to the hub
22.
Vehicle horn
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A horn is a sound-making device that can be equipped to motor vehicles, buses, bicycles, trains, trams, and other types of vehicles. The sound made usually resembles a honk, the vehicle operator uses the horn to warn others of the vehicles approach or presence, or to call attention to some hazard. Motor vehicles, ships and trains are required by law in countries to have horns. Bicycles like trams, trolley cars and streetcars in many areas are legally required to have an audible warning device, but not universally. Bicycles often have a bulb horn, operated by squeezing a rubber bulb attached to a metal horn. Squeezing the bulb forces air through a reed located in the throat of the horn, making it vibrate. The flaring horn matches the impedance of the reed to the open air, radiating the sound waves efficiently. Other types of horns used on bicycles include battery-operated horns and small air powered by a small can of compressed gas. Oliver Lucas of Birmingham, England, developed an electric car horn in 1910. This arrangement works like a buzzer or electric bell and is known as sounding or honking ones horn. There is usually a screw to adjust the distance/tension of the contacts for best operation. A spiral exponential horn shape is cast into the body of the horn, to match the acoustical impedance of the diaphragm with open air. Sound levels of car horns are approximately 107–109 decibels. Typical frequencies of a pair of horns of this design are 500 Hz, sound levels of such horns are approximately 109–112 decibels, and they typically draw 2. 5–5 amperes of current. Again, these horns can be single, or arranged in pairs, typical frequencies for a pair are 420–440 Hz. A horn grille is a part of designs of car or other motor vehicle that has an electric horn. Now grilles are usually designed so the sound of a horn can readily come out through them and those designs that echo the shape of the grille no longer have front fenders with rather large crevices that accommodate trumpet-shaped horns. Thus some cars, often British ones, have a pair of round horn grilles either side of the radiator grille, a luxury cars horn grilles are usually chrome-plated
23.
Semi-automatic transmission
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It uses electronic sensors, pneumatics, processors and actuators to execute gear shifts on input from the driver or by a computer. The system was designed by manufacturers to provide a better driving experience through fast overtaking maneuvers on highways. Some motorcycles also use a system with a conventional gearchange but without the need for manual clutch operation, in the 1930s, automakers began to market cars with some sort of device that would reduce the amount of clutching and de-clutching and shifting required in stop and go driving. Most typically, a fluid coupling or a centrifugal clutch replaced the manual clutch to allow for stop. More sophisticated systems allowed for shifting while driving using the clutch. Semi-automatic transmissions were phased out as technology advanced and automatic controls were developed to take care of changing gear ratios, smaller, lower powered cars used Semi-automatic transmissions with a dry clutch because the mechanical connection offered a more efficient powertrain compared to a fluid coupling. Another early semi-automatic transmission was the Sinclair S. S. S, which was applied to Huwood-Hudswell diesel mines locomotives. It was also applied to road vehicles. It is covered by US patent 2505842, the ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automatic transmissions and continuous variable transmissions. Despite superficial similarity to other automated transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from manumatics, many sport luxury manufacturers such as BMW offer the manumatic transmissions for their mainstream lineup and the semi-automatic gearbox for their high-performance models. The operation of semi-automatic transmissions has evolved as vehicle manufacturers experimented with different systems, in one early mass-production example, Ferrari offered their Mondial model with a clutchless manual, which Ferrari called the Valeo transmission. In this system, the stick of a traditional manual transmission was retained. Saabs Sensonic transmission worked in a similar fashion, the Bugatti Veyron uses this approach for its seven-speed transmission. Numerous road cars have inherited the same mechanism, the central processing unit powers a hydro-mechanical unit to either engage or disengage the clutch, which is kept in close synchronization with the gear-shifting action the driver has started. In other cases, the clutch actuator may be completely electric, for the needs of parking, reversing and neutralizing the transmission, the driver must engage both paddles at once, after this has been accomplished, the car will prompt for one of the three options. The clutch is really only needed to get the car in motion, for a quicker upshift, the engine power can be cut, and the collar disengaged until the engine drops to the correct speed for the next gear. For the teeth of the collar to slide into the teeth of the rings and this needs sensors to measure not only the speed, but the positions of the teeth, and the throttle may need to be opened softer or harder. The even-faster shifting techniques like powershifting require a heavier gearbox or clutch or even a dual clutch transmission, selespeed was introduced in 1999 in the Alfa Romeo 156
24.
Impalement
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Impalement, as a method of execution, is the penetration of a human by an object such as a stake, pole, spear, or hook, often by complete or partial perforation of the torso. It was used particularly in response to crimes against the state and regarded across a number of cultures as a very harsh form of punishment and recorded in myth. Impalement was also used during wartime to suppress rebellion, punish traitors or collaborators, offenders have also been impaled for a variety of cultural, sexual and religious reasons. References to impalement in Babylonia and the Neo-Assyrian Empire are found as early as the 18th century BC, within the Ottoman Empire, this form of execution continued into the 20th century. The survival time on the stake is quite variedly reported, from a few seconds or minutes to a few hours or 1 to 3 days. A critical determinant for survival length seems to be precisely how the stake was inserted, If it went into the parts, vital organs could easily be damaged. However, by letting the stake follow the spine, the impalement procedure would not damage the vital organs, a detailed description of an execution in this manner comes from 17th century Košice. A woman was to be executed for infanticide, the executioner had two assistants to help him, first, a grave, some one-and-a-half ell deep was dug. The woman was placed within it, her hands and feet secured by driving nails through them, then, the executioner placed a small thorn bush upon her face. He then placed and held vertically a wooden stave at her heart and her head, though, was kept free of earth, at the behest of the clerics, because that would have quickened her death process. Once the earth had been piled upon her, the executioner grabbed with a pair of tongs a rod made of iron, which had been made red hot. He positioned the glowing iron rod beside the wooden stave, and as one of his assistants hammered the rod in and it is said that a scream was heard, and that the earth actually moved upwards for a moment, before all was over. He is then released, and depending on how the hooks enter his body, forty years earlier than de Tournefort, de Thévenot described much the same process, adding that it was seldom used because it was regarded as too cruel. Some 80 years prior to de Thevenot, in 1579, Hans Jacob Breuning von Buchenbach witnessed a variant of the gaunching ritual, on top of the cross bar, the executioner situated himself and performed various torture on the impaled man below him. Thomas Shaw, who was chaplain for the Levant Company stationed at Algiers during the 1720s, according to one source, these hooks in the wall as an execution method were introduced with the construction of the new city gate in 1573. Before that time, gaunching as described by de Tournefort was in use, as for the actual frequency of throwing persons on hooks in Algiers, Capt. Davies adds that these deaths are very seldom, but that he had personally witnessed it. A slightly variant way of executing people by means of impalement was to force an iron meat hook beneath a persons ribs, a recurring horror story on many websites and popular media outlets is that Japanese soldiers during World War II inflicted bamboo torture upon prisoners of war. The victim was supposedly tied securely in place above a young bamboo shoot, over several days, the sharp, fast growing shoot would first puncture, then completely penetrate the victims body, eventually emerging through the other side
25.
Mercury Park Lane
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The Mercury Park Lane is a fullsize automobile which was produced by the Mercury division of Ford Motor Company. While not officially introduced as the replacement of the Mercury Turnpike Cruiser, the second-generation Park Lane was positioned above the Mercury Montclair. In 1969 the Mercury Marquis was expanded to a model line. In 1956, the Park Lane name was used by the Ford division as it created a station wagon intended as a competitor for the Chevrolet Nomad. The Mercury Park Lane was introduced for the 1958 model year as a model line for the division. Sharing its chassis with the Colony Park station wagon, the Park Lane had a 125-inch wheelbase, in 1959, the Park Lane wheelbase was stretched to 128 inches. For 1960, the Park Lane wheelbase was again changed, matching the 126 inches of the standard Mercury line, the Park Lane was powered by a single engine, a 430 cubic-inch Ford MEL V8. Initially rated at 360 hp for 1958, the Super Marauder engine option package allowed any Mercury with the 430 to increase its output to 400 hp. For 1959, the Super Marauder was discontinued, with the engine rated at 345 hp. All Park Lanes were equipped with a 3-speed Merc-O-Matic automatic transmission, in 1961, the Park Lane name was dropped as the division reorganized its marketing efforts towards the better-selling Monterey alongside the introduction of the Mercury Comet compact. For the 1964 model year, the Mercury Park Lane made its return as the Mercury division expanded its model line, above the Monterey and newly reintroduced Montclair, the Park Lane again topped the Mercury line. In contrast to the generation, the Park Lane used the same wheelbase as other Mercury lines. As the highest-priced, premium trim, many Park Lanes were fitted with the option of a breezeway reverse-slant retractable rear window. In addition, Mercury offered the Park Lane with a fastback roofline as part of Marauder option package, for 1965, the chassis of full-size Ford and Mercury cars were redesigned, the Mercury line was given a much more slab-sided appearance. For 1967, to complement the Mercury Marquis, the Park Lane Brougham was introduced as a sub-model of the Park Lane, for an option on hardtop coupe/convertible models, the Brougham introduced yacht deck paneling body trim, yacht deck paneling was a rarely ordered option. As the division redesigned its full-size line for 1969, the Marquis was expanded to a model range. The Park Lane Brougham was the Ford Motor Companys flagship Mercury model during its run from 1967-1968. Powerful and luxurious, it was offered as a four-door sedan, viewers of the 1968-1980 CBS crime drama Hawaii Five-O may recall Jack Lords character frequently squealing tires throughout Honolulu in a triple-black 1968 Mercury Park Lane Brougham 4-door hardtop
26.
United States Department of Transportation
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The United States Department of Transportation is a federal Cabinet department of the U. S. government concerned with transportation. It was established by an act of Congress on October 15,1966 and it is governed by the United States Secretary of Transportation. Prior to the Department of Transportation, the Under Secretary of Commerce for Transportation administered the functions now associated with the DOT, the awardees include light rail projects. Other projects include both a rail extension and a subway project in New York City, and a bus rapid transit system in Springfield. The budget provided funding for all of the projects currently receiving Recovery Act funding. It also continued funding for another 18 transit projects that are currently under construction or soon will be. Following the same the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2014 delegates $600 million for Infrastructure Investments, the Department of Transportation was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2016 of $75.1 billion. e. Did not earn an overall grade
27.
Motor vehicle theft
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Motor vehicle theft or, grand theft auto, is the criminal act of stealing or attempting to steal a car. Nationwide in the US in 2012, there were an estimated 721,053 motor vehicle thefts, property losses due to motor vehicle theft in 2012 were estimated at $4.3 billion. In London the police say that 50% of the annual 20,000 car thefts are now from high tech OBD key cloning kits, Theft with access to keys, Known in some places as Taken Without Owners Consent. The unauthorized use of a vehicle in which the owner has allowed the driver to have possession of or easy access to the keys. Often, this is the adolescent or grown child or employee of the owner who, at other times. This may be treated differently, depending on the laws. Alternatively, some cars offered for sale are stolen during a test drive, a test drive may also provide a potential thief with insight into where the vehicle keys are stored, so that the thief may return later to steal the vehicle. Carjacking, Refers to the taking of a vehicle by force or threat of force from its owner or operator, in most places, this is the most serious form of theft, since assault also occurs. Some less common carjackings result in the operator being forced to drive the assailant in accordance with the assailants demands, many vehicles stolen via fraud are resold quickly thereafter. Using this approach, the thief can quietly evade detection and continue stealing vehicles in different jurisdictions, Car rental and Car dealership companies are also defrauded by car thieves into renting, selling, financing, or leasing them cars with fake identification, checks, and credit cards. This is a practice in areas near borders which tracking devices do nothing because jurisdiction cannot be applied into a foreign country to recover a lost vehicle. Slide hammer puller to break into the locks and the cylinder lock. A common one is called the Slim Jim, many keyless ignition/lock cars have weak or no cryptographic protection of the unlock signal. In particular, the security systems in older vehicles may not be up to the standard as current vehicles. Scrap metal and spare part prices may also influence thieves to prefer older vehicles, in Bangkok, Thailand, the most frequently stolen vehicles are Toyota cars, Toyota Hilux and Isuzu D-Max pickups. In Malaysia, Proton models are the most frequently stolen vehicles, with Proton Wira being the highest, followed by the Proton Waja, there are various methods of prevention to reduce the likelihood of a vehicle getting stolen. These include physical barriers, which make the effort of stealing the more difficult. Some of these include, Devices used to lock a part of the necessary in its operation, such as the wheel
28.
Key (lock)
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A key is a device that is used to operate a lock. A key is usually intended to one specific lock or a small number of locks that are keyed alike. The key serves as a security token for access to the area, only persons having the correct key can open the lock. Keys provide an inexpensive, though imperfect, method of control for access to physical properties like buildings, vehicles. As such, keys are a feature of modern living. It is common for people to carry the set of keys they need for their activities around with them, often linked by a keyring. The earliest known lock and key device was discovered in the ruins of Nineveh, Locks such as this were later developed into the Egyptian wooden pin lock, which consisted of a bolt, door fixture, and key. When the key was inserted, pins within the fixture were lifted out drilled holes within the bolt, when the key was removed, the pins fell part-way into the bolt, preventing movement. The warded lock was also present from antiquity and remains the most recognizable lock, the first all-metal locks appeared between the years 870 and 900, and are attributed to the English craftsmen. It is also said that the key was invented by Theodore of Samos in the 6th century BC, affluent Romans often kept their valuables in secure boxes within their households, and wore the keys as rings on their fingers. The practice had two benefits, It kept the key handy at all times, while signaling that the wearer was wealthy and important enough to have money and jewelry worth securing. The lever tumbler lock, which uses a set of levers to prevent the bolt from moving in the lock, was perfected by Robert Barron in 1778. His double acting lever lock required the lever to be lifted to a height by having a slot cut in the lever. This type of lock is currently used today. The lever tumbler lock was improved by Jeremiah Chubb in 1818. A burglary in Portsmouth Dockyard prompted the British Government to announce a competition to produce a lock that could be opened only with its own key, Chubb was awarded £100 after a trained lock-picker failed to break the lock after 3 months. In 1820, Jeremiah joined his brother Charles in starting their own lock company, the Chubb brothers also received a patent for the first burglar-resisting safe and began production in 1835. The designs of Barron and Chubb were based on the use of levers, but Joseph Bramah
29.
Ignition system
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The widest application for spark ignition internal combustion engines is in petrol road vehicles, cars, four-by-fours, motorcycles, pickups, vans, trucks, and buses. Compression ignition Diesel engines ignite the mixture by the heat of compression. They usually have glowplugs that preheat the combustion chamber to allow starting in cold weather, other engines may use a flame, or a heated tube, for ignition. While this was common for very early engines it is now rare, the first electric spark ignition was probably Alessandro Voltas toy electric pistol from the 1780s. The simplest form of ignition is that using a magneto. The spark plugs are connected directly from the magneto output, early magnetos had one coil, with the contact breaker inside the combustion chamber. In about 1902, Bosch introduced a double-coil magneto, with a fixed sparking plug, and they are also used on piston-engined aircraft engines. Although an electrical supply is available, magneto systems are used mainly because of their higher reliability, magnetos were used in these engines because their simplicity and self-contained operation was more reliable, and because magnetos weighed less than having a battery and dynamo or alternator. The Wright brothers used a magneto invented in 1902 and built for them in 1903 by Dayton, Ohio inventor and this gave the benefits of easy starting with reliable sparking at speed. Many modern magneto systems have removed the second coil from the magneto itself, in this development, the induced current in the coil in the magneto also flows through the primary of the external coil, generating a high voltage in the secondary as a result. Such a system is referred to as a transfer system. Energy transfer systems provide the ultimate in ignition reliability, the output of a magneto depends on the speed of the engine, and therefore starting can be problematic. Some magnetos include a system, which spins the magnet quickly at the proper moment. Some engines, such as aircraft but also the Ford Model T, used a system which relied on non rechargeable dry cells, the operator would manually switch the ignition over to magneto operation for high speed operation. To provide high voltage for the spark from the low voltage batteries, a tickler was used, in this mode of operation, the coil would buzz continuously, producing a constant train of sparks. The entire apparatus was known as the Model T spark coil, in the UK these devices were commonly known as trembler coils and were popular in cars pre-1910, and also in commercial vehicles with large engines until around 1925 to ease starting. In either case, the low voltage was switched to the spark plug by the timer mounted on the front of the engine. This performed the equivalent function to the distributor, although by directing the low voltage
30.
Volkswagen Beetle
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Hitler contracted Ferdinand Porsche in 1934 to design and build it. Porsche and his team took until 1938 to finalise the design, the influence on Porsches design of other contemporary cars, such as the Tatra V570 and the work of Josef Ganz remains a subject of dispute. The result was one of the first rear-engined cars since the Brass Era, with 21,529,464 produced, the Beetle is the longest-running and most-manufactured car of a single platform ever made. Although designed in the 1930s, the Beetle was only produced in significant numbers from 1945 on when the model was designated the Volkswagen Type 1. Later models were designated Volkswagen 1200,1300,1500,1302 or 1303, the model became widely known in its home country as the Käfer and was later marketed as such in Germany, and as the Volkswagen in other countries. For example, in France it was known as the Coccinelle, the original 25 hp Beetle was designed for a top speed around 100 km/h, which would be a viable speed on the Reichsautobahn system. As Autobahn speeds increased in the years, its output was boosted to 36, then 40 hp. The Beetle ultimately gave rise to variants, including the Karmann Ghia, Type 2, the 1948 Citroën 2CV and other European models marked a later trend to front-wheel drive in the European small car market, a trend that would come to dominate that market. In 1974, Volkswagens own front-wheel drive Golf model succeeded the Beetle and it remained in production through 2010, being succeeded in 2011 by the more aggressively styled Beetle. In the 1999 Car of the Century competition, to determine the worlds most influential car in the 20th century, the Type 1 came fourth, after the Ford Model T, the Mini, and the Citroën DS. In April 1934, Adolf Hitler gave the order to Ferdinand Porsche to develop a Volkswagen, the epithet Volks- literally, peoples- had been applied to other Nazi-sponsored consumer goods such as the Volksempfänger. The engine had to be powerful for sustained cruising on Germany’s new Autobahnen, everything had to be designed to ensure parts could be quickly and inexpensively exchanged. The engine had to be air-cooled because, as Hitler explained, the Peoples Car would be available to citizens of Nazi Germany through a savings scheme, or Sparkarte, at 990 Reichsmark, about the price of a small motorcycle. Ferdinand Porsche developed the Type 12, or Auto für Jedermann for Zündapp in 1931, Porsche already preferred the flat-four engine, and selected a swing axle rear suspension, while Zündapp insisted on a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine. In 1932, three prototypes were running, all of those cars were lost during World War II, the last in a bombing raid in Stuttgart in 1945. The Zündapp prototypes were followed by the Porsche Type 32, designed in 1933 for NSU Motorenwerke AG, the Type 32 was similar in design to the Type 12, but it had a flat-four engine. NSUs exit from car manufacturing resulted in the Type 32 being abandoned at the prototype stage, initially designated Type 60 by Porsche, the design team included Erwin Komenda and Karl Rabe. In October 1935, the first two Type 60 prototypes, known as the V1 and V2, were ready, in 1936, testing began of three further V3 prototypes, built in Porsches Stuttgart shop
31.
McLaren F1
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The McLaren F1 is a sports car designed and manufactured by McLaren Cars. Originally a concept conceived by Gordon Murray, he convinced Ron Dennis to back the project and engaged Peter Stevens to design the exterior and interior of the car. On 31 March 1998, the XP5 prototype set the record for the worlds fastest production car, the F1 surpassed the Jaguar XJ220s 213 mph record from 1992, as well as the low production number RUF CTR2s 217 mph record from 1995. The McLarens record lasted until the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 beat it in 2005 with a top speed of 253.81 mph and it features a powerful engine and is somewhat track oriented, but not to the degree that it compromises everyday usability and comfort. It was conceived as an exercise in creating what its designers hoped would be considered the road car. Production began in 1992 and ended in 1998, in all,106 cars were manufactured, with some variations in the design. In 1994, the British car magazine Autocar stated in a road test regarding the F1, The McLaren F1 is the finest driving machine yet built for the public road. They further stated, The F1 will be remembered as one of the events in the history of the car. In 2005, Channel4 placed the car at one on their list of the 100 greatest cars. In popular culture, the McLaren F1 has earnt its spot as The greatest automobile ever created and The Most Excellent Sports Car Of All Time amongst a variety of car enthusiasts. Notable past and present McLaren F1 owners include Elon Musk, Jay Leno, chief engineer Gordon Murrays design concept was a common one among designers of high-performance cars, low weight and high power. This was achieved through use of high-tech and expensive materials such as fibre, titanium, gold, magnesium. The F1 was the first production car to use a carbon-fibre monocoque chassis, Gordon Murray had been thinking of a three-seat sports car since his youth. When Murray was waiting for a home from the Italian Grand Prix in 1988, he drew a sketch of a three-seater sports car. Murray declared that During this time, we were able to visit with Ayrton Senna, the visit related to the fact that at the time, McLarens F1 Grand Prix cars were using Honda engines. Of course the car we would create, the McLaren F1, needed to be faster than the NSX, but the NSXs ride quality and handling would become our new design target. Being a fan of Honda engines, I later went to Hondas Tochigi Research Center on two occasions and requested that they consider building for the McLaren F1 a 4.5 litre V10 or V12. I asked, I tried to persuade them, but in the end could not convince them to do it, and the McLaren F1 ended up equipped with a BMW engine
32.
Human factors and ergonomics
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The field has seen some contributions from numerous disciplines, such as psychology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design, physiology, and anthropometry. In essence, it is the study of designing equipment, devices and processes that fit the human body, the two terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. HF&E is employed to fulfill the goals of health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines, proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability. Human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the fit between the user, equipment and their environments and it takes account of the users capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, functions, information and the environment suit each user. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had engaged during. The expression human factors is a predominantly North American term which has adopted to emphasise the application of the same methods to non work-related situations. A human factor is a physical or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological systems, the terms human factors and ergonomics are essentially synonymous. Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research, Physical, cognitive and organisational ergonomics, there are many specializations within these broad categories. Specialisations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual ergonomics, specialisations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may include usability, human–computer interaction, and user experience engineering. New terms are being generated all the time, for instance, user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials. Physical ergonomic principles have been used in the design of both consumer and industrial products. Physical ergonomics is important in the field, particularly to those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by these disorders may be painful, or render a device unusable. Many ergonomically designed products are used or recommended to treat or prevent such disorders. One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder, every year,1.8 million U. S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly 600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss work. Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort. These types of jobs are often those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions, frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts, awkward work positions, or use of vibrating equipment
33.
Magnesium
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Magnesium is a chemical element with symbol Mg and atomic number 12. Magnesium is the ninth most abundant element in the universe and it is produced in large, aging stars from the sequential addition of three helium nuclei to a carbon nucleus. When such stars explode as supernovas, much of the magnesium is expelled into the medium where it may recycle into new star systems. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the Earths crust and the fourth most common element in the Earth, making up 13% of the planets mass and it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater, after sodium and chlorine. Magnesium occurs naturally only in combination with elements, where it invariably has a +2 oxidation state. The free element can be produced artificially, and is highly reactive, the free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant-white light. The metal is now obtained mainly by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine, Magnesium is less dense than aluminium, and the alloy is prized for its combination of lightness and strength. Magnesium is the eleventh most abundant element by mass in the body and is essential to all cells. Magnesium ions interact with polyphosphate compounds such as ATP, DNA, hundreds of enzymes require magnesium ions to function. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids, elemental magnesium is a gray-white lightweight metal, two-thirds the density of aluminium. Magnesium has the lowest melting and the lowest boiling point 1,363 K of all the alkaline earth metals, Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal. When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal—though, if powdered, the reaction occurs faster with higher temperatures. Magnesiums reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy, Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid, producing the metal chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals. Magnesium is highly flammable, especially when powdered or shaved into thin strips, flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach 3,100 °C, although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than 300 mm. Once ignited, such fires are difficult to extinguish, with combustion continuing in nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Magnesium may also be used as an igniter for thermite, a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide powder that ignites only at a very high temperature. When burning in air, magnesium produces a light that includes strong ultraviolet wavelengths. Magnesium powder was used for illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium filament was used in electrically ignited single-use photography flashbulbs, Magnesium powder is used in fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required
34.
Brodie knob
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A brodie knob is a knob that attaches to the steering wheel of an automobile or other vehicle or equipment with a steering wheel. Other names for this include, suicide, necker, granny, knuckle buster. The device is a small, independently rotating knob facing the driver that is mounted on the outside rim of a steering wheel. The protruding knob is an aftermarket accessory, the free rotation is intended to help make steering with one hand less difficult or faster. Brodie knobs had limited popularity on trucks and tractors before the advent of power steering and their main use today is still in trucks, particularly semi trucks where they allow simultaneous steering and operation of the radio or gearshift. They are also used on forklifts, riding lawnmowers, and ice resurfacers, some boats are equipped with a helm featuring a stainless-steel wheel with a brodie knob. The Steering Wheel Spinner Knob was invented by Joel R. Thorp of Wisconsin in 1936, the Brodie name is a reference to Steve Brodie and was meant to describe all manner of reckless stunts. The device is called a suicide knob because of being notoriously useless for controlling the wheel during an emergency. Brodie knobs are also known as necker knobs, because they allow steering with one hand while necking with the passenger. If the driver is wearing a long shirt, the protruding accessory on the rim of the steering wheel can also become caught in the sleeves open cut by the button. Other names include granny knob and wheel spinner, Brodie knobs are legal on private vehicles in most U. S. states. Occupational Safety & Health Administration regulations restrict use of devices for specific construction vehicles. OSHA prohibits modification of industrial equipment without the approval of the equipment manufacturer
35.
Yoke (aeronautics)
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A yoke, alternatively known as a control wheel is a device used for piloting some fixed-wing aircraft. The pilot uses the yoke to control the attitude of the plane, rotating the control wheel controls the ailerons and the roll axis. Fore and aft movement of the control column controls the elevator, when the yoke is pulled back the nose of the aircraft rises. When the yoke is pushed forward the nose is lowered, when the yoke is turned left the plane rolls to the left and when it is turned to the right the plane rolls to the right. Small to medium-size aircraft, usually limited to propeller driven, feature a system whereby the yoke is connected directly to the control surfaces with cables. Human muscle power alone is not enough for larger and more aircraft, so hydraulic systems are used, in which yoke movements control hydraulic valves. In more modern aircraft, inputs may first be sent to a fly-by-wire system, yokes may feature a stick shaker, which is designed to help indicate the onset of stall, or even a stick pusher, which assists in stall recovery. Yokes come in a variety of shapes and sizes, the most common being of a U or W design, some aircraft use an M style, such as Embraer and Concorde. There are some rarer exotic or archaic styles, such as circular designs much like a steering wheel, in larger aircraft they are usually mounted on a post protruding vertically from the floor, referred to as a control column. In most other planes, they are mounted on a tube that comes out of the instrument panel. Side-sticks and centre-sticks are better for making rapid control inputs and dealing with high g-forces, hence their use in military, sport, however, yokes are less sensitive thanks to a larger range of motion and provide more visual feedback to the pilot. Most yokes are connected and will move together, thus providing instant indication to the other pilot when one makes a control input. A yoke, unlike a side-stick, may be used comfortably with either hand and this can be useful if one needs to write or manipulate other controls in the cockpit. This advantage is shared with the centre-stick, the yoke often incorporates other key functions such as housing thumb or finger buttons to enable the radio microphone, disengage the autopilot, and trim the aircraft. In addition, there may be a clipboard, checklist, or chronometer located in the yokes centre, yokes are not used on all aircraft. Helicopters use a cyclic and the majority of fighter aircraft use a centre or side-stick. Some light aircraft use a stick because some sport pilots prefer that control system, the latest Airbus family of passenger jets use a side-stick, not unlike a computer game controller, to actuate control surfaces. There are also computer input devices designed to simulate a yoke, aircraft flight control system HOTAS, Hands On Throttle-And-Stick Joystick, computer input device
36.
Driving glove
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A driving glove is a hand covering, typically constructed of very thin, soft leather, used to give a driver increased control of the vehicle through enhanced grip of the steering wheel and gear stick. The grain present on the leather and the present in the leather give the gloves the unique ability to assist the wearer as he or she grips the steering wheel. As soft as a leather glove may be, its pores, the gloves usually have separate sheaths or openings for each finger and the thumb. They are designed for holding a steering wheel and these gloves also provide a good feel and add comfort to the hands. They fit tight and do not interfere with the hands movements, the increased grip allows for more control, and increased safety at high speeds. Driving gloves were worn to keep the hands clean when driving a motor car. Early racing cars used steering wheels taken directly from road cars, Driver’s gloves fulfill at least two functions, grip and protection. Although maximum tactility is a starting point for driving gloves, any glove can be marketed as a driver’s glove. Some owners of cars still wear driving gloves in order to protect the vintage wooden or ivory steering wheel. True driving gloves can be identified by the fact that they offer advantages to drivers handling a car near the limits of adhesion. Racing gloves are designed not only for increased grip and performance. Racing gloves must have cuffs to provide thermal shielding in conjunction with racing driver’s suits, because leather shrinks considerably when exposed to flame, the gloves are usually limited only to the tactile areas of the hand. There is usually no leather on the cuff, on the back of the hand, the racing glove is supposed to be tight either at the wrist or at the extremity of the cuff. The leather is meant to be used as a layer of material. The seams for attaching the leather have to be separate from the seams of the glove. The thickness of the leather is preferably as thin as possible, unlined - The unlined designs allow the fingers senses through, so that drivers do not lose a layer of sensitivity lost with lined gloves. Lined - Driver’s gloves are used to keep the hands warm. The design of cars is such that the hands remain on the steering wheel while driving
37.
DKW Monza
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The DKW Monza was a sports car built on an Auto Union DKW base. Named after the world-famous Italian Grand Prix circuit, the car set five records in 1956. After the series of wins by the DKW 3=6 Sonderklasse in European touring car racing and rallying in 1954 and 1955, two racing drivers started to develop a sporty body for the successful model. Günther Ahrens and Albrecht W. Mantzel designed a car on the basis of the 3=6, incorporating an extremely lightweight plastic body built at Dannenhauer & Stauss in Stuttgart. The complete vehicles were first built by Dannenhauer & Stauss in Stuttgart, then by Massholder in Heidelberg, in December 1956 a team consisting of two Germans and two Swiss spent alternating times driving a DKW Monza around the race track at Monza, Italy. With an average speed of 140 km/h, the team of drivers set five international records, the glass-fiber reinforced polyester coupe body had a smaller aerodynamic resistance due to its rounded frontal area and low profile. This made it faster than the standard DKW. Like all DKWs of those days, the Monza had a chassis,1.61 metres wide and 1.35 metres high. This was 115 kilograms less than the DKW 3=6 limousine, the two stroke three produced a power stroke with each rotation of the crankshaft, unlike a four stroke which produced a power stroke with every other rotation of the crankshaft. With the complete cycle of the three-cylinder engine, DKW people thought of it as a “6” of a six-cylinder machine. Consequently, the use of the emblem, “3=6”, the three-cylinder engine, displacing 900cc and producing 40 hp, allowed the 3=6 sedan model to reach 125 km/h. It could accelerate from 0–100 km/h in 31 seconds, with the same engine, the Monza could reach 140 km/h and accelerate from 0–100 km/h in 20 seconds. Conflicting reports as to the numbers built has been circulated. One of the reasons for this is there was never an accurate record kept. With several companies making them at times it was difficult to maintain a good production record. Therefore, it was difficult to suggest a final production report on the actual number of Monzas built. Making it more difficult was the additional used vehicles at the company, the number of produced Monzas varies between 230 -240, to 155 to 73. According to the number of items appear to be about 70 -80
38.
Jaguar XK120
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The Jaguar XK120 is a sports car manufactured by Jaguar between 1948 and 1954. It was Jaguars first sports car since the SS100, which ceased production in 1940, the XK120 was launched in open two-seater or roadster form at the 1948 London Motor Show as a testbed and show car for the new Jaguar XK engine. The display car was the first prototype, chassis number 660001 and it looked almost identical to the production cars except that the straight outer pillars of its windscreen would be curved on the production version. The roadster caused a sensation, which persuaded Jaguar founder and design boss William Lyons to put it into production, beginning in 1948, the first 242 cars wore wood-framed open 2-seater bodies with aluminium panels. Production switched to the 1cwt or 112 lb heavier all-steel in early 1950, the 120 in the name referred to the aluminium cars 120 mph top speed, which made it the worlds fastest production car at the time of its launch. In 1949 the first production roadster, chassis number 670003, was delivered to Clark Gable, roadsters were also successful in racing and rallying. The first roadsters, hand-built with aluminium bodies on ash frames mounted on modified Jaguar Mark V chassis, were constructed between late 1948 and early 1950, to meet demand, and beginning with the 1950 model year, all subsequent XK120s were mass-produced with pressed-steel bodies. They retained aluminium doors, bonnet, and boot lid, the DHC and FHC versions, more luxuriously appointed than the roadsters, had wind-up windows and also wood veneers on the dashboard and interior door caps. With standard 8,1 compression ratio it developed 160 bhp, the Jaguar factory, with access to 80 octane fuel, provided roadsters with the higher compression ratio to the press. Journalists could then test the models performance in Belgium, on a long. The XK engines basic design, later modified into 3.8 and 4.2 litre versions, some cars were fitted with Alfin brake drums to help overcome the fade. The windscreen could be removed for aeroscreens to be fitted, the drophead coupé had a padded, lined canvas top, which folded onto the rear deck behind the seats when retracted, and roll-up windows with opening quarter lights. The flat glass two-piece windscreen was set in a frame that was integrated with the body. Dashboards and door-caps in both the DHC and the closed coupé were wood-veneered, whereas the more spartan roadsters were leather-trimmed, all models had removable spats covering the rear wheel arches, which enhanced the streamlined look. On cars fitted with optional centre-lock wire wheels, the spats were omitted as they gave insufficient clearance for the chromed, two-eared Rudge-Whitworth knockoff hubs, chromium-plated wire wheels were optional from 1953. When leaving the factory it originally fitted 6.00 ×16 inch cross ply tyres on 16 × 5K solid wheels, later cars could also specify 185VR16 Pirelli Cinturato tyres as a radial option. In addition to wheels, upgrades on the Special Equipment, or SE, version included increased power, stiffer suspension. The Motor magazine road-tested an XK120 roadster in November 1949 and this pre-production car, chassis number 660001, road-registered as HKV455, was the first prototype built
39.
Ford Thunderbird
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The Ford Thunderbird is a rear wheel drive automobile which was manufactured by Ford in the United States over eleven model generations from 1955 through 2005. The Thunderbird created a niche that eventually became known as the personal luxury car. The Thunderbird entered production for the 1955 model year as a sporty two-seat convertible, unlike the Chevrolet Corvette, it was not marketed as a sports car. Ford positioned the Thunderbird as a model and is credited in developing a new market segment. In 1958, the Thunderbird gained a second row of seats, succeeding generations became larger until the line was downsized in 1977, again in 1980, and once again in 1983. Sales were good until the 1990s, when large 2-door coupes became unpopular, in 2002 production of the Thunderbird started again, a revived 2-seat model was launched, which was available through the end of the 2005 model year. From its introduction in 1955 to its phaseout in 2005, Ford produced over 4.4 million Thunderbirds, the Second to Fourth Generation Thunderbird convertibles were similar in design to the Lincoln convertible of the time and borrowed from earlier Ford hardtop/convertible designs. While these Thunderbird models had a convertible soft top, the top was lowered to stow in the forward trunk area. This design reduced available space when the top was down. The trunk lid was rear-hinged, raised and lowered via hydraulic cylinders during the top raising or lowering cycle, the forward end of the trunk lid contained a metal plate that extended upward to cover the area that the top is stowed in. With the top down and the trunk lid lowered, there is no sight of the soft top, the overall appearance was a sleek look with no trace of a convertible top at all. However, this design could present a challenge to one who is troubleshooting a convertible top malfunction, the system consists of a spiderweb of solenoids, relays, limit switches, electric motors, a hydraulic pump/reservoir, hydraulic directional valves and cylinders. While the hydraulics are not often a cause for trouble, the relays are known to fail. Failure of any of the relays, motors or limit switches will prevent the system from completing the cycle. Unlike hardtop models that utilized a conventional key-secured, forward hinged design, as a result of this design, the trunks of convertible models were notorious for leaking. A smaller two-seater sports roadster was created at the behest of Henry Ford II in 1953 called the Vega, the completed one-off generated interest at the time, but had meager power, European looks, and a correspondingly high cost, so it never proceeded to production. The Thunderbird was similar in concept, but would be more American in style, more luxurious, the men and their teams generally credited with the creation of the original Thunderbird are, Lewis D. Boyer was lead stylist on the original 1955 two-seater Thunderbird and also had a hand in designing the series of Thunderbirds including the 30th Anniversary Edition
40.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
41.
Nexteer Automotive
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Nexteer Automotive is an automotive parts supplier owned by Pacific Century Motors and headquartered in Auburn Hills, Michigan, United States. Nexteer is a manufacturer of steering and driveline products. With more than 10,000 employees, Nexteer operates 20 manufacturing plants worldwide,14 local customer support centers and five regional engineering centers, Nexteer is the fourth-largest steering-parts supplier by market share. Nexteers original predecessor was founded in 1906 under the name Jackson, Wilcox and their product was named the Jacox gear. In 1909, the unit was purchased by Buick then was transferred to parent company General Motors as the Jackson, Church, the division was renamed Saginaw Product Company in 1919 and Saginaw Steering Gear Division in 1928. The trade name of Jacox was changed to Saginaw in 1930, Saginaw Steering for 90 years was a part of GM. Saginaw Division became the name in 1985. The Saginaw Division is group with other GM component units into Automotive Components Group, GM in 1999 spun off its parts group as Delphi Automotive including Saginaw Steering. Saginaw Division was renamed Delphi Steering, with Delphi entering a lengthy bankruptcy proceeding, GM purchased Delphi Steering through their subsidiary, GM Global Steering Holdings LLC, in 2009 and renamed the company, Nexteer Automotive. GM moved to have the union change their contract with Nexteer in order to prepare the company for a sale as Nexteer had multiple customers besides GM. After the first offered agreement, GM warned the employees that this may hamper finding a buyer, a second agreement was ratified by the union. The Michigan Economic Growth Authority gave a $70.7 million state tax credit over ten years to Nexteer in November 2009, Nexteer announced that same month investment plans totaling $400 million across the board and keeping its headquarters in Buena Vista Township. The Township responded with a 100 percent 20 year tax abatement, Nexteer was acquired by Pacific Century Motors on November 29,2010. After the purchase, Nexteer was split into two separate companies Nexteer originally was going to go public on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange in June 2013, the company has announced its decision to relocate its headquarters to the Detroit area.3 billion US gallons of fuel
42.
Cadillacs
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Cadillac /ˈkædᵻlæk/, formally the Cadillac Motor Car Division, is a division of the U. S. -based General Motors that markets luxury vehicles worldwide. Its primary markets are the United States, Canada, and China, historically, Cadillac automobiles have always held a place at the top of the luxury field within the United States. In 2016, Cadillacs U. S. sales were 170,006 vehicles, Cadillac is among the oldest automobile brands in the world, second in America only to fellow GM marque Buick. The firm was founded from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company in 1902 and it was named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, who founded Detroit, Michigan. The Cadillac crest is based on his coat of arms, by the time General Motors purchased the company in 1909, Cadillac had already established itself as one of Americas premier luxury carmakers. The complete interchangeability of its parts had allowed it to lay the foundation for the modern mass production of automobiles. It was at the forefront of advances, introducing full electrical systems, the clashless manual transmission. The brand developed three engines, with its V8 setting the standard for the American automotive industry and it won the trophy again in 1912 for incorporating electric starting and lighting in a production automobile. Cadillac was formed from the remnants of the Henry Ford Company, after a dispute between Henry Ford and his investors, Ford left the company along with several of his key partners in March 1902. Instead, Leland persuaded the pair to continue manufacturing automobiles using Lelands proven single-cylinder engine, a new company called the Cadillac Automobile Company was established on 22 August 1902, re-purposing the Henry Ford Company factory at Cass Street and Amsterdam Avenue. It was named after French explorer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, Cadillacs first automobiles, the Runabout and Tonneau, were completed in October 1902. They were two-seat horseless carriages powered by a 10 hp single-cylinder engine and they were practically identical to the 1903 Ford Model A. Cadillac displayed the new vehicles at the New York Auto Show in January 1903, Cadillacs biggest selling point was precision manufacturing, and therefore, reliability, a Cadillac was simply a better-made vehicle than its competitors. Runabout Rear-entrance tonneau Special bodies The Cadillac Automobile Company merged with Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing, forming The Cadillac Motor Company in 1905. From its earliest years, Cadillac aimed for precision engineering and stylish luxury finishes, Cadillac was the first volume manufacturer of a fully enclosed car in 1906. Cadillac participated in the 1908 interchangeability test in the United Kingdom, in 1912, Cadillac was the first automobile manufacturer to incorporate an electrical system enabling starting, ignition, and lighting. Cadillac was purchased by the General Motors conglomerate in 1909, Cadillac became General Motors prestige division, devoted to the production of large luxury vehicles. It was positioned at the top of GMs vehicle hierarchy, above Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland, in 1915, Cadillac introduced a 90-degree flathead V8 engine with 70 horsepower at 2400 rpm and 180 pound force-feet of torque, allowing its cars to attain 65 miles per hour
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Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
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