1.
Public university
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A public university is a university that is predominantly funded by public means through a national or subnational government, as opposed to private universities. Whether a national university is considered public varies from one country to another, in Egypt, Al-Azhar University opened in 975 AD as the second oldest university in the world. In Nigeria Public Universities can be established by both the Federal Government and by State Governments, students are enrolled after completing the 8-4-4 system of education and attaining a mark of C+ or above. They are also eligible for a low interest loan from the Higher Education Loan Board and they are expected to pay back the loan after completing higher education. South Africa has 23 public tertiary institutions, either categorised as a traditional university or a comprehensive university. Almost entire national universities in Brunei are public universities and these are major universities in Brunei, University of Brunei Darussalam Brunei Technological University Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University There are 40 public universities in Bangladesh. The University Grant Commission is the body for all the public universities in Bangladesh. The universities do not deal directly with the government, but with the University Grants Commission, recently many private universities are established under the Private University Act of 1992. In mainland China, nearly all universities and research institutions are public and currently, the public universities are usually run by the provincial governments, there are also circumstances where the municipal governments administer the universities. Some public universities are national, which are administered by the central government. Private undergraduate colleges do exist, which are vocational colleges sponsored by private enterprises. The majority of universities are not entitled to award bachelors degrees. Public universities usually enjoy higher reputation domestically, eight institutions are funded by the University Grants Committee. The Academy for Performing Arts also receives funding from the government, the Open University of Hong Kong is also a public university, but it is largely self-financed. The Shue Yan University is the private institution with the status of a university. There are public and private institutes in Indonesia. The government provide public universities, institutes, high schools and academies in each province, the private educational institution usually provided by religious organizations, public organizations, and some big companies. In India, most universities and nearly all research institutions are public, There are some private undergraduate colleges, mostly engineering schools, but a majority of these are affiliated to public universities
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Financial endowment
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A financial endowment is a donation of money or property to a nonprofit organization for the ongoing support of that organization. An endowment may come with stipulations regarding its usage, the total value of an institutions investments is often referred to as the institutions endowment and is typically organized as a public charity, private foundation, or trust. Among the institutions that commonly manage endowments are academic institutions, cultural institutions, service organizations, the earliest endowed chairs were those established by the Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher Marcus Aurelius in Athens in AD176. Aurelius created one endowed chair for each of the schools of philosophy, Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism. Later, similar endowments were set up in other major cities of the Empire. Today, the University of Glasgow has fifteen Regius Professorships, private individuals soon adopted the practice of endowing professorships. Isaac Newton held the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge beginning in 1669, unrestricted endowment can be used in any way the recipient chooses to carry out its mission. Term endowment funds stipulate that all or part of the principal may be expended only after the expiration of a period of time or occurrence of a specified event. Quasi endowment funds must retain the purpose and intent as specified by the donor or source of the original funds, Endowment revenue can be restricted by donors to serve many purposes. Endowed professorships or scholarships restricted to a subject are common. Ignoring the restriction is called invading the endowment, but change of circumstance or financial duress like bankruptcy can preclude carrying out the donors intent. A court can alter the use of restricted endowment under a doctrine called cy-près meaning to find an alternative as near as possible to the donors intent, the restricted/unrestricted distinction focuses on the use of the funds, see quasi-endowment below for a distinction about whether principal can be spent. Academic institutions, such as colleges and universities, will control a endowment fund that finances a portion of the operating or capital requirements of the institution. In addition to an endowment fund, each university may also control a number of restricted endowments that are intended to fund specific areas within the institution. The most common examples are endowed professorships, and endowed scholarships or fellowships, in the United States, the endowment is often integral to the financial health of educational institutions. Alumni or friends of institutions sometimes contribute capital to the endowment, the endowment funding culture is strong in the United States and Canada but less pronounced overseas, with the exceptions of Cambridge and Oxford universities. Endowment funds have also created to support secondary and elementary school districts in several states in the United States. An endowed professorship is a position permanently paid for with the revenue from an endowment fund set up for that purpose
3.
South African rand
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The South African rand is the currency of South Africa. The rand is subdivided into 100 cents, unlike the US dollar, the decimal separator between a rand and cent is expressed by a comma. The ISO4217 code is ZAR, from Dutch Zuid-Afrikaanse Rand, the rand is the currency of the Common Monetary Area between South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Namibia. Historical users of the South African rand included South West Africa, the rand takes its name from the Witwatersrand, the ridge upon which Johannesburg is built and where most of South Africas gold deposits were found. The cent and rand was introduced in the then Union of South Africa on 14 February 1961, a Decimal Coinage Commission had been set up in 1956 to consider a move away from the denominations of pounds, shillings, and pence, submitting its recommendation on 8 August 1958. It replaced the South African pound as legal tender, at the rate of 2 rand to 1 pound, the government introduced a mascot, Decimal Dan, the rand-cent man. This was accompanied by a jingle, to inform the public about the new currency. By February 1985, it was trading over R2 per dollar, by the time that State President PW Botha made his Rubicon speech on 15 August 1985, it had weakened to R2.40 per dollar. The currency recovered somewhat between 1986–88, trading near the R2 level most of the time and even breaking beneath it sporadically. The recovery was short-lived, however, and by the end of 1989, a host of local and international events influenced the currency after that, most notably the 1994 democratic election which had it weaken to over R3. This sudden depreciation in 2001 led to an investigation, which in turn led to a dramatic recovery. By the end of 2002, the currency was trading under R9 to the dollar again, the currency softened somewhat in 2005, and was trading around R6.35 to the dollar at the end of the year. At the start of 2006, however, the currency resumed its rally, however, during the second and third quarters of 2006, the rand weakened significantly. In sterling terms, it fell from around 9. 5p to just over 7p, late in 2007, the rand rallied modestly to just over 8p, only to experience a precipitous slide during the first quarter of 2008. This downward slide could be attributed to a range of factors, South Africas worsening current account deficit, the rand depreciation was exacerbated by the Eskom electricity crisis, which arose from the utility being unable to meet the countrys rapidly growing energy demands. By the end of 2014, the rand had weakened to R15.05 per dollar, the rapid drop in value was stemmed when the President back-tracked and announced that the better-known previous Minister of Finance, Pravin Gordhan, would instead be appointed to the post. By mid-January, economists were speculating that the rand could expect to see further volatility for the rest of 2016, by 29 April, it reached its highest performance over the previous 5 months, exchanging at a rate of 14. Coins were introduced in 1961 in denominations of 1⁄2,1, 2 1⁄2,5,10,20, in 1965, 2-cent coins replaced the 2 1⁄2-cent coins
4.
Johann Rupert
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Johann Peter Rupert is the eldest son of South African business tycoon Anton Rupert and his wife Huberte. He is the chairman of the Swiss-based luxury-goods company Richemont as well as of the South Africa-based company Remgro and it was announced on 13 November 2009 that as of 1 April 2010, he would assume the position of Chief Executive Officer of Compagnie Financiere Richemont. Together with his family he was estimated to be worth $7.7 billion as of September 2013, Rupert grew up in Stellenbosch, where he attended Paul Roos Gymnasium and the University of Stellenbosch, studying economics and company law. He dropped out of the university to pursue a career in business, however, in 2004, in 2008, he was awarded an honorary doctorate in Commerce from Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University. Described as reclusive by the Financial Times and Barrons, Rupert rarely gives interviews, in 2006 the same newspaper also called him Rupert the Bear for predicting a world economic crisis. As of 2013, Rupert is currently on a one-year sabbatical, Rupert served his business apprenticeship in New York City, where he worked for Chase Manhattan for two years and for Lazard Freres for three years. He then returned to South Africa in 1979 and founded Rand Merchant Bank of which he was CEO,1984, Merged RMB and Rand Consolidated Investments, and left to join his fathers company, the Rembrandt Group. 1988 Founded Compagnie Financiere Richemont in 1988 and was appointed Non-Executive Director of Rothmans International plc in 1988 and he was named Businessman of the Year by the Sunday Times in the same year. 1989, Appointed Vice Chairman of the Rembrandt Group,1990, Named business leader of the year by Die Burger newspaper and the Cape Town Chamber of Commerce. Formed the Vendôme Luxury Group SA,1991, Appointed Chairman of Rembrandt Group Limited and in 1992 he was named one of 200 Global Leaders of Tomorrow by the World Economic Forum, Davos, Switzerland. 1996, Named Sunday Times Business Timess Businessman of the Year for second time,1997, Appointed Non-Executive Chairman of Gold Fields South Africa Ltd. 1999, Awarded the 1999 Free Market Award by The Free Market Foundation of South Africa,2000, Restructured Rembrandt Group Limited and formed Remgro Limited and VenFin Limited. Appointed Chairman and Chief Executive of Compagnie Financière Richemont SA, Voted Most influential Business Leader in South Africa by CEOs of top 100 Listed Companies 2004, Awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Economics by the University of Stellenbosch. 2008 Voted South Africas Business Leader of the Year by the CEOs of the Top 100 Companies, laureus funds 65 projects globally, with the goal of using sport to tackle social issues, having a particular emphasis on underprivileged children. He co-founded the Sports Science Institute with his friends Morne du Plessis and he has also played in the annual Gary Player Invitational golf tournament to assist fellow South African and friend Gary Player raise funds for various childrens charities. He serves as Chairman of the South African PGA Tour and Chairman of the South African Golf Development Board, in 2007 he was elected into South African Sports Hall of Fame and in 2009 was inducted into South African Golf Hall of Fame. Following his younger brother Anthonijs death in a car accident in 2001 he took over the LOrmarins wine estate, anthonij, was head of Rupert & Rothschild Vignerons. Rupert initiated a project to enhance the farm in memory of his late brother and he served on the Daimler Chrysler International Advisory Board
5.
Postgraduate education
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In North America, this level is generally referred to as graduate school. The organization and structure of education varies in different countries. This article outlines the types of courses and of teaching and examination methods. There are two types of degrees studied for at the postgraduate level, academic and vocational degrees. The term degree in this means the moving from one stage or level to another. University studies took six years for a degree and up to twelve additional years for a masters degree or doctorate. The first six years taught the faculty of the arts, which was the study of the seven liberal arts, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, the main emphasis was on logic. Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been obtained, the student could choose one of three faculties—law, medicine, or theology—in which to pursue masters or doctors degrees. Because theology was thought to be the highest of the subjects, the main significance of the higher, postgraduate degrees was that they licensed the holder to teach. In most countries, the hierarchy of postgraduate degrees is as follows, in Scottish Universities, the Master of Philosophy degree tends to be by research or higher masters degree and the Master of Letters degree tends to be the taught or lower masters degree. In many fields such as social work, or library science in North America. Professional degrees such as the Master of Architecture degree can last to three and a years to satisfy professional requirement to be an architect. Professional degrees such as the Master of Business Administration degree can last up to two years to satisfy the requirement to become a business leader. These are often divided into academic and professional doctorates. An academic doctorate can be awarded as a Doctor of Philosophy degree or as a Doctor of Science degree, a doctorate is the terminal degree in most fields. In the United States, there is distinction between a Doctor of Philosophy degree and a Doctor of Science degree. In the second half of the 19th century, however, US universities began to follow the European model by awarding doctorates, in the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the NVQ5 or QCF8. Most universities award degrees, usually at the postgraduate level
6.
Stellenbosch
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Stellenbosch is a town in the Western Cape province of South Africa, situated about 50 kilometres east of Cape Town, along the banks of the Eerste River. It is the second oldest European settlement in the province, after Cape Town, Stellenbosch has its own municipality, adjoining the metropolitan area of the City of Cape Town. The town is home to Stellenbosch University, technopark is a modern science park situated on the southern side of the town near the Stellenbosch Golf Course. In 1899 Louis Péringuey discovered Paleolithic stone tools of the Acheulean type at a site named Bosmans Crossing near the Adam Tas Bridge at the entrance to Stellenbosch. The town was founded in 1679 by the Governor of the Cape Colony, Simon van der Stel, the town grew so quickly that it became an independent local authority in 1682 and the seat of a magistrate with jurisdiction over 25,000 square kilometers in 1685. Early visitors commented on the oak trees and gardens, during 1690 some Huguenot refugees settled in Stellenbosch, grapes were planted in the fertile valleys around Stellenbosch and soon it became the centre of the South African wine industry. In 1710 a fire destroyed most of the town, including the first church, all the Company property, only two or three houses were left standing. When the church was rebuilt in 1723 it was located on what was then the outskirts of the town and this church was enlarged a number of times since 1723 and is currently known as the Moederkerk. The first school had opened in 1683, but education in the town began in earnest in 1859 with the opening of a seminary for the Dutch Reformed Church. Rhenish Girls High School, established in 1860, is the oldest school for girls in South Africa, a gymnasium, known as het Stellenbossche Gymnasium, was established in 1866. In 1874 some higher classes became Victoria College and then in 1918 University of Stellenbosch, the first mens hostel to be established in Stellenbosch was Wilgenhof, in 1903. In 1905 the first womens hostel to be established in Stellenbosch was Harmonie, Harmonie and Wilgenhof were part of the Victoria College. In 1909 an old boy of the school, Paul Roos, on his retirement the schools name was changed to Paul Roos Gymnasium. Stellenbosch had a population of around 155,733 in 2011. This estimate is based on formally housed residents, as such it is almost certainly understated, as the Stellenbosch region also includes a number of informal settlements. The population of Stellenbosch is primarily Afrikaans speaking, with English, the black population mostly speaks Xhosa as their home language, with whites speaking Afrikaans or English, the coloured is primarily Afrikaans speaking and are in the majority. In 1833 the population for the Stellenbosch District was 16,137 and this comprised 8,555 slaves,6,066 Whites,1,220 Hottentots, and 296 Free Blacks. Stellenbosch is 53 km east of Cape Town via National Route N1, Stellenbosch is in a hilly region of the Cape Winelands, and is sheltered in a valley at an average elevation of 136 m, flanked on the west by Papegaaiberg, which is actually a hill
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Western Cape
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The Western Cape is a province of South Africa, situated in the south-western part of the country. It is the fourth largest of the nine provinces in terms of area and population, with an area of 129,449 square kilometres and 5.8 million inhabitants. About two-thirds of these live in the metropolitan area of Cape Town. The Western Cape was created in 1994 from part of the former Cape Province, the Western Cape Province is roughly L-shaped, extending north and east from the Cape of Good Hope, in the southwestern corner of South Africa. It stretches about 400 kilometres northwards along the Atlantic coast and about 500 kilometres eastwards along the South African south coast and it is bordered on the north by the Northern Cape and on the east by the Eastern Cape. The total land area of the province is 129,462 square kilometres and it is roughly the size of England or the State of Louisiana. Its capital city and largest city is Cape Town, and some major cities include Stellenbosch, Worcester, Paarl. The Garden Route and the Overberg are popular tourism areas. The Western Cape is the southernmost region of the African continent with Cape Agulhas as its southernmost point, the coastline varies from sandy between capes, to rocky to steep and mountainous in places. The only natural harbour is Saldanha Bay on the west coast, however a lack of fresh water in the region meant that it has only recently been used as a harbour. But fresh water coming off Table Mountain and Devils Peak allowed the early European settlers to build Cape Town on the shores of this less than satisfactory anchorage, the province is topographically exceptionally diverse. Most of the province falls within the Cape Fold Belt, a set of parallel ranges of sandstone folded mountains of Cambrian-Ordovician age. The valleys between ranges are very fertile as they contain the weathered loamy soils of the Bokkeveld mustones. The far interior forms part of the Karoo and this region of the Province is generally arid and hilly with a prominent escarpment that runs close to the Provinces most inland boundary. The Escarpment marks the edge of South Africas central plateau. The principal rivers of the province are the Berg and Olifants which drain into the Atlantic Ocean, and the Breede and Gourits which drain into the Indian Ocean. The vegetation is extremely diverse, with one of the worlds seven floral kingdoms almost exclusively endemic to the province, namely the Cape Floral Kingdom. These evergreen heathlands are extremely rich in diversity, with at least as many plant species occurring on Table Mountain as in the entire United Kingdom
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Suburb
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A suburb is a residential area or a mixed use area, either existing as part of a city or urban area or as a separate residential community within commuting distance of a city. In some areas, such as Australia, China, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and a few U. S. states, new suburbs are routinely annexed by adjacent cities. In others, such as Arabia, Canada, France, and much of the United States, Suburbs first emerged on a large scale in the 19th and 20th centuries as a result of improved rail and road transport, which led to an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities that have an abundance of adjacent flat land, the English word is derived from the Old French subburbe, which is in turn derived from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub and urbs. The first recorded usage of the term in English, was made by John Wycliffe in 1380, in Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalised as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas in both countries, their equivalents are called localities, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs in proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. The term middle suburbs is also used, Suburbs, in this sense, can range from areas that seem more like residential areas of a city proper to areas separated by open countryside from the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages that have been gradually absorbed during a growth and expansion. In the United States and Canada, suburb can refer either to an residential area of a city or town or to a separate municipality or unincorporated area outside a town or city. The earliest appearance of suburbs coincided with the spread of the first urban settlements, large walled towns tended to be the focus around which smaller villages grew up in a symbiotic relationship with the market town. The word suburbani was first used by the Roman statesman Cicero in reference to the large villas, as populations grew during the Early Modern Period in Europe, urban towns swelled with a steady influx of people from the countryside. In some places, nearby settlements were swallowed up as the city expanded. The peripheral areas on the outskirts of the city were generally inhabited by the very poorest, by the mid-19th century, the first major suburban areas were springing up around London as the city became more overcrowded and unsanitary. A major catalyst in suburban growth came from the opening of the Metropolitan Railway in the 1860s, the line joined the capitals financial heart in the City to what were to become the suburbs of Middlesex. Harrow was reached in 1880, and the line extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles from Baker Street. Unlike other railway companies, which were required to dispose of surplus land, in 1912, it was suggested that a specially formed company should take over from the Surplus Lands Committee and develop suburban estates near the railway. However, World War I delayed these plans and it was only in 1919, with expectation of a housing boom. The term Metro-land was coined by the Mets marketing department in 1915 when the Guide to the Extension Line became the Metro-land guide and this promoted the land served by the Met for the walker, visitor and later the house-hunter
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Maroon
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Maroon is a dark brownish red color which takes its name from the French word marron, or chestnut. The Oxford English Dictionary describes it as a crimson or claret color. In the RGB model used to create colors on computer screens and televisions, Maroon is derived from French marron, itself from the Italian marrone, from the medieval Greek maraon. The first recorded use of maroon as a name in English was in 1789. Displayed on the right is the tone of maroon that was designated as maroon in Crayola crayons beginning in 1949. It is a medium shade of maroon halfway between brown and rose. The color halfway between brown and rose is crimson, so color is also a tone of crimson. Displayed on the right is the color maroon, i. e. maroon as defined in the X11 color names. See the chart Color name clashes in the X11 color names article to see those colors which are different in HTML/CSS, displayed on the right is the web color dark red. Books In The Silence of the Lambs by Thomas Harris, the serial killer Dr Hannibal Lecter has eyes that are described as being maroon brown, Maroon is frequently associated with Ron Weasley, a character in J. K. Rowlings Harry Potter series, though Ron tells Harry that he dislikes the color, business Maroon is the main color of the Hollister Co. logo. Maroon was the livery applied to coaching stock of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, Maroon is the signature color of the Japanese private rail company, Hankyu Railway, decided by a vote of women customers in 1923. In the 1990s, Hankyu planned an alternative color as it was developing new vehicles and that plan was called off following opposition by local residents. Government Maroon is the color associated with the historic County of Midlothian. While the declared shade of maroon is RGB 115/24/44, Queenslanders display the spirit of the state by wearing all shades of maroon at sporting, Maroon is the official color of the Socialist Party of America. Military The distinctive maroon beret has been worn by airborne forces around the world since 1942, Maroon 5 is a pop rock band. Religion Vajrayana Buddhist monks, such as the Dalai Lama, wear maroon robes, Maroon, along with golden yellow, is worn in the Philippines by Catholic devotees of the Black Nazarene, especially during its procession on 9 January. School colors Many universities, colleges, high schools and other institutions have maroon as one of their school colors
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Association of Commonwealth Universities
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The Association of Commonwealth Universities represents 535 universities from 37 Commonwealth countries. It is the worlds first and oldest international university network, established in 1913, a UK-registered charity, the ACU has over 500 member institutions in developed and developing countries across the Commonwealth. Drawing on the experience and expertise, the ACU seeks to address issues in international higher education through a range of projects, networks. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is governed by its member institutions through an elected Council, as the ACU is a UK-registered charity, Council members also act as its Trustees. The ACU Council comprises up to 23 members,20 elected Council members, in 1912, the University of London took the initiative to assemble 53 representatives of universities in London to hold a Congress of Universities of the Empire. They decided they needed a bureau of information and its affairs would be handled by a committee representing universities at home and abroad. In 1913 the office opened as the Universities Bureau of the British Empire, in 1948 the name was changed to Association of Universities of the British Commonwealth, and in 1963 it changed to its current name. Dr Anastasios Christodoulou was the Secretary General of the Association of Commonwealth Universities from 1980 to 1996, in 1986, Queen Elizabeth II became patron of the Association of Commonwealth Universities. Currently 37 countries from the Commonwealth are represented in the Association
11.
Universities South Africa
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Universities South Africa is an association of the 23 public universities in South Africa. Its function is to form a voice for the interests of its members, to form common policy for its members on matters of national importance. HESA represents all 23 public universities and universities of technology in South Africa and is a section 21 company, SAUVCA was established as a statutory body for the 21 public universities in South Africa by the Universities Act. The CTP was a higher education association established in 1967 in terms of the Advanced Technical Education Act. It comprised the rectors, principals and Vice-Chancellors of technikons in South Africa, HESA changed its name to Universities South Africa on 22 July 2015
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Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
13.
Research university
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Such universities can be recognized by their strong focus on innovative research and the prestige of their brand names. From the late 20th century to the present, U. S. research universities have dominated most international college and university rankings
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University of Cape Town
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The University of Cape Town is a public research university located in Cape Town in the Western Cape province of South Africa. The language of instruction is English, the roots of UCT lie in the establishment of the South African College in 1829 as a school for boys. In 1874 the South African College Schools, teaching up to level, were separated from the College. In 1887 the first male residence in Southern Africa was established, known as College House Residence, in 1918 the South African College was elevated to full university status with the power to award degrees, and renamed the University of Cape Town. UCT moved to the Groote Schuur Estate campus in 1928, during the apartheid era, roughly 1960-1990, many UCT students consistently opposed apartheid, and the university was a bastion of liberalism. However, the demographics of the university did not begin to change meaningfully until the 1980s,1987 saw frequent clashes between protesting students and police, with reporting of police presence on the campus being censored by the government. On 24 April 1987 the police entered the campus and this marked the first time since 1972 that South Africas police services had suppressed a demonstration at a white university, the UCT crest was designed in 1859 by Charles Davidson Bell, Surveyor-General of the Cape Colony at the time. Bell was an accomplished artist who also designed medals and the triangular Cape stamp, the main teaching campus, known as Upper Campus, is located on the Rhodes Estate on the slopes of Devils Peak. This campus contains, in a compact site, the faculties of Science, Engineering, Commerce. Upper Campus is centered on Jameson Hall, the location for graduation and other ceremonial events, the original buildings and layout of Upper Campus were designed by JM Solomon and built between 1928 and 1930. Since that time, many buildings have been added as the university has grown. Upper Campus is also home to the library, The Chancellor Oppenheimer library which holds the majority of the Universitys 1.3 million volume collection. Contiguous with Upper Campus, but separated from it by university sports fields, the state of the art artificial grass soccer field has been approved by FIFA for training for World Cup teams. The Upper, Middle and Lower Campuses together are referred to as the main campus. The Faculty of Health Sciences is located on the Medical School campus next to the Groote Schuur Hospital in Observatory, the Fine Arts and Drama departments are located on the Hiddingh Campus in central Cape Town. The Universitys original building, now known as the Egyptian Building, the only other campus built in this style was the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond, Virginia in the United States. The UCT Graduate School of Business is located on the Breakwater Lodge Campus at the Victoria & Alfred Waterfront. For his contribution of the tract of land which the campus was founded on, the statue was removed in April 2015 following pressure from student groups due to its perceived representation of South Africas racist past and the universitys inadequate representation of blacks
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South African College
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The South African College was an educational institution in Cape Town, South Africa, which developed into the University of Cape Town and the South African College Schools. The founding committee met in the Groote Kerk to discuss funding and accommodation for the school, diplomat Edmund Roberts visited the college in 1833. He noted that only young men attended the school and that classes were offered in both English and Dutch languages. The original location of the school was in the Weeshuis on Long Street and it was decided in 1874 that the younger students should be separated from their older counterparts. The South African College was separated into the College, which became the University of Cape Town, University of Cape Town South African College Schools
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Queen Victoria
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Victoria was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. From 1 May 1876, she adopted the title of Empress of India. Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. She inherited the throne aged 18, after her fathers three brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already a constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments, publicly, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together, after Alberts death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength and her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration. Her reign of 63 years and seven months is known as the Victorian era and it was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover and her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father. Victorias father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, until 1817, Edwards niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl and Feodora —by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen and her brother Leopold was Princess Charlottes widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kents only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a. m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London. Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace and she was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina, Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of the Dukes eldest brother, George, the Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarences daughters died as infants. Victorias father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old, a week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827, when George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive
17.
Rankings of universities in South Africa
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Rankings of universities in South Africa are largely based on international university rankings, since there are no South African rankings as of yet. The 2015-2016 edition of URAP ranked the top South African Universities as follows, the global number one for 2013 is by a considerable margin, Harvard University. The only African Universities that appear on the Global top 100 are the University of the Witwatersrand, the 2013 South African rankings are as follows, This is a global ranking of universities by the perceived quality of their graduates by top employers around the world. The only African university in the top 150 is the University of the Witwatersrand, the 2013 ranking is as follows, This ranks universities according to their popularity among US based billionaires. The only ranked South African university is the University of the Witwatersrand, the 2014 ranking is as follows, A2010 report by Centre for Higher Education Transformation identified 3 different university clusters in South Africa, grouped according to function. The Blue cluster consists of institutions focused primarily on technical training, the clusters are, http, //www. 4icu. org/topAfrica/ Rankings of business schools in South Africa College and university rankings
18.
Rankings of business schools in South Africa
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Rankings of business schools in South Africa are largely based on international business schools rankings, no current publication attempts to rank South African business schools in a definitive way. PMR. africa conducts annual national survey on Accredited Business Schools offering MBA degrees in South Africa, note, This is the only ranked South African business school in this category. Note, These are the only ranked South African business schools in this category, note, These are the only ranked South African business schools in this category. Rankings of universities in South Africa College and university rankings
19.
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
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Times Higher Education World University Rankings is an annual publication of university rankings by Times Higher Education magazine. The publisher had collaborated with Quacquarelli Symonds to publish the joint THE–QS World University Rankings from 2004 to 2009 before it turned to Thomson Reuters for a new ranking system. It is considered as one of the most widely observed university measures together with Academic Ranking of World Universities and it is praised for having a new improved methodology but undermining non-English-instructing institutions and being commercialized are the major criticisms. Times Higher Education chose to partner with educational and careers advice company QS to supply the data, the publication developed a new rankings methodology in consultation with its readers, its editorial board and Thomson Reuters. Thomson Reuters will collect and analyse the data used to produce the rankings on behalf of Times Higher Education, the first ranking was published in September 2010. In fact, the surveys of reputation, which made up 40 percent of scores, and its clear that our research measures favored the sciences over the humanities. He went on to describe previous attempts at peer review as embarrassing in The Australian, The sample was too small. THE published its first rankings using its new methodology on 16 September 2010, the Globe and Mail in 2010 described the Times Higher Education World University Rankings to be arguably the most influential. The inaugural 2010-2011 methodology contained 13 separate indicators grouped under five categories, Teaching, research, citations, international mix, the number of indicators is up from the Times-QS rankings published between 2004 and 2009, which used six indicators. A draft of the methodology was released on 3 June 2010. The names of the categories and the weighting of each was modified in the final methodology, the overall ranking score was calculated by making Z-scores all datasets to standardize different data types on a common scale to better make comparisons among data. The reputational component of the came from an Academic Reputation Survey conducted by Thomson Reuters in spring 2010. The survey gathered 13,388 responses among scholars statistically representative of global higher educations geographical, the magazines category for industry income – innovation came from a sole indicator, institutions research income from industry scaled against the number of academic staff. The magazine stated that it used this data as proxy for high-quality knowledge transfer, the Times stated that articles published in 2009–2010 have not yet completely accumulated in the database. The magazine announced on 5 September 2011 that its 2011–2012 World University Rankings would be published on 6 October 2011, at the same time, the magazine revealed changes to the ranking formula that will be introduced with the new rankings. The methodology will continue to use 13 indicators across five categories and will keep its fundamental foundations. Teaching and research will each remain 30 percent of the overall score, however, a new international outlook – staff, students and research will be introduced and will make up 7.5 percent of the final score. One 2011–2012 indicator, the public research income, will be dropped
20.
Leiden University
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Leiden University, located in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. The university was founded in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange, the Dutch Royal Family and Leiden University still have a close relationship, Queens Juliana and Beatrix and King Willem-Alexander are all former students. Leiden University has seven faculties, over 50 departments and enjoys an international reputation. Shanghai Jiao Tong Universitys 2011 Academic Ranking of World Universities ranked Leiden University as the 29th best university worldwide, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings consistently rank Leiden University as the best university in Continental Europe for Arts and Humanities. During this time Leiden was home to figures as René Descartes, Rembrandt, Christiaan Huygens, Hugo Grotius, Baruch Spinoza. The university is a member of the Coimbra Group, the Europaeum, Leiden University houses more than 40 national and international research institutes. In 1575, the emerging Dutch Republic did not have any universities in its northern heartland, the only other university in the Habsburg Netherlands was the University of Leuven in southern Leuven, firmly under Spanish control. It is said the choice fell on Leiden as a reward for the defence of Leiden against Spanish attacks in the previous year. Ironically, the name of Philip II of Spain, Williams adversary, appears on the foundation certificate. Philip II replied by forbidding any subject to study in Leiden, renowned philosopher Baruch Spinoza was based close to Leiden during this period and interacted with numerous scholars at the university. At the end of the century, Leiden University again became one of Europes leading universities. At the world’s first university low-temperature laboratory, professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes achieved temperatures of one degree above absolute zero of −273 degrees Celsius. In 1908 he was also the first to succeed in liquifying helium, Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913. In 2005 the manuscript of Einstein on the theory of the monatomic ideal gas was discovered in one of Leidens libraries. Of the seventy-seven Spinozapremie, nineteen were granted to professors of the Universiteit Leiden, literary historian Frits van Oostrom was the first professor of Leiden to be granted the Spinoza award for his work on developing the NLCM centre into a top research centre. Among other leading professors are Wim Blockmans, professor of Medieval History, the portraits of many famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history of science. The University Library, which has more than 5 and it houses the largest collections worldwide on Indonesia and the Caribbean. Scholars from all over the world visit Leiden University Library, the oldest in the Netherlands, the anatomical and pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored
21.
CWTS Leiden Ranking
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The CWTS Leiden Ranking is an annual global university ranking based exclusively on bibliometric indicators. The rankings are compiled by the Centre for Science and Technology Studies at Leiden University in the Netherlands, the Thomson Reuters bibliographic database Web of Science is used as the source of the publication and citation data. The Leiden Ranking ranks universities worldwide by number of academic publications according to the volume, the rankings take into account differences in language, discipline and institutional size. In addition to impact, the Leiding Ranking also ranks universities by scientific collaboration, including collaboration with other institutions. The first edition of the Leiden Ranking was produced in 2007, as in other university rankings, Leidens top 20 is heavily dominated by American universities. King Abdulaziz University and King Saud University in Saudi Arabia led the list in 2014 when measured by international collaboration, the Leiden Ranking ranks universities by the following indicators, MCS - mean citation score. The average number of citations of the publications of a university, MNCS - mean normalized citation score. The average number of citations of the publications of a university, normalized for field differences, for example, an MNCS value of 2 means that the publications of a university have been cited twice above world average. PP - proportion of top 10% publications, the proportion of the publications of a university that belong to the top 10% most frequently cited, compared with other publications in the same field and in the same year. PP - proportion of collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored with one or more other organizations, PP - proportion of internationally collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored by two or more countries, PP - proportion of collaborative publications with industry. The proportion of the publications of a university that have been co-authored with one or more industrial partners, PP - proportion of short-distance collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university with a geographical collaboration distance of less than 100 km, PP - proportion of long-distance collaborative publications. The proportion of the publications of a university with a geographical collaboration distance of more than 1000 km, in a 2010 article, Loet Leydesdorff criticized the method used by the Leiden Ranking to normalize citation impact by subject field. Website of the CWTS Leiden Ranking
22.
College and university rankings
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College and university rankings are rankings of institutions in higher education ordered by various combinations of various factors. Rankings have most often conducted by magazines, newspapers, websites, governments. In addition to ranking entire institutions, organizations perform rankings of specific programs, departments, various rankings mostly evaluating on institutional output by research. Some rankings evaluate institutions within a country, while others assess institutions worldwide. The subject has produced much debate about rankings usefulness and accuracy, the expanding diversity in rating methodologies and accompanying criticisms of each indicate the lack of consensus in the field. The variety of academic rankings provide an overview and insightful overlook of different academic institutions on composite capabilities in academia. For rankings of United States universities in particular, see Rankings of universities in the United States, several organizations produce worldwide university rankings, including the following. The ranking is funded by the Chinese government and its purpose was to measure the gap between Chinese and world class universities. In the 2015 Academic Ranking of World Universities there are no Chinese universities in the first 100 of 500 places, ARWU rankings have been cited by The Economist magazine. It has been lauded for being consistent and transparent based on an article, the education ministers of France, Norway and Denmark traveled to China to discuss and find ways to improve their rankings. ARWU does not rely on surveys and school submissions, among other criteria, ARWU includes the number of articles published by Nature or Science and the number of Nobel Prize winners and Fields Medalists. Harvard has topped the ranking for years, one of the primary criticisms of ARWUs methodology is that it is biased towards the natural sciences and English language science journals over other subjects. This Saudi Arabia-based consulting organization has published rankings of world universities since 2012. This university ranking is owned by the French consulting company and rating agency SMBG and it ranks masters and MBA in its 9 geographical regions. G-factor ranks university and college web presence by counting the number of only from other university websites. G-factor is an indicator of the popularity or importance of each universitys website from the perspectives of other institutions. The annual U. S. News Best Global Universities rankings were produced to provide insight into how universities compare globally. The Best Global Universities rankings also provide insight into how U. S. universities – which U. S. News has been ranking separately for more than 30 years – stand globally
23.
Academic Ranking of World Universities
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Academic Ranking of World Universities, also known as Shanghai Ranking, is an annual publication of university rankings by Shanghai Ranking Consultancy. The publication currently includes worlds overall and subject league tables, alongside independent regional Greater China Ranking, ARWU is regarded as one of the three most influential and widely observed university measures, alongside QS World University Rankings and Times Higher Education World University Rankings. It is praised for its objective methodology but draws some condemnation for narrowly focusing on raw power, undermining humanities. ARWU is praised by media and institutions for its methodology. A survey on higher education published by The Economist in 2005 commented ARWU as the most widely used annual ranking of the research universities. In 2010, The Chronicle of Higher Education called ARWU the best-known, EU Research Headlines reported the ARWUs work on 31 December 2003, The universities were carefully evaluated using several indicators of research performance. Chancellor of University of Oxford, Chris Patten and former Vice-Chancellor of Australian National University, Ian Chubb, said and it looks like a pretty good stab at a fair comparison. And The SJTU rankings were reported quickly and widely around the offer an important comparative view of research performance. Philip G. Altbach named ARWUs consistency, clarity of purpose, whilst ARWU has originated in China, the ranking have been praised for being unbiased towards Asian institutions. Like all other rankings, ARWU has criticism and it is condemned for relying too much on award factors thus undermining the importance of quality of instruction and humanities. A2007 paper published in the journal Scientometrics found that the results from the Shanghai rankings could not be reproduced from raw data using the described by Liu. A2013 paper in the journal finally showed how the Shanghai ranking results could be reproduced. In a report from April 2009, J-C, billaut, D. Bouyssou and Ph. Vincke analyse how the ARWU works, using their insights as specialists of Multiple Criteria Decision Making. The ARWU researchers themselves, N. C Liu and Y Cheng, think that the quality of universities cannot be measured by mere numbers. They suggest that university and college rankings should be used with caution, ARWU has been criticised by the European Commission as well as some EU member states for favour Anglo-Saxon higher education institutions. It is also criticised in France for its use as a motivation for fusing universities into larger ones, indeed, number of publications or award winners will mechanically add as universities are grouped, independently of research quality. The weighting of all the other remains unchanged, thus the grand total of 70%. There are two categories in ARWUs disciplinary rankings, broad subject fields and specific subjects, the methodology is similar to that adopted in the overall table, including award factors, paper citation, and the number of highly cited scholars
24.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
25.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
26.
Geography
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Geography is a field of science devoted to the study of the lands, the features, the inhabitants, and the phenomena of Earth. The first person to use the word γεωγραφία was Eratosthenes, Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding of the Earth and its human and natural complexities—not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. It is often defined in terms of the two branches of geography and physical geography. Geography has been called the world discipline and the bridge between the human and the physical sciences, Geography is a systematic study of the Earth and its features. Traditionally, geography has been associated with cartography and place names, although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the space and the temporal database distribution of phenomena, processes, because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the approach depends on an attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena and its spatial patterns. Names of places. are not geography. know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself and this is a description of the world—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause, just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main fields, human geography and physical geography. The former largely focuses on the environment and how humans create, view, manage. The latter examines the environment, and how organisms, climate, soil, water. The difference between these led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines physical and human geography. Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science and it aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns. Physical geography can be divided into broad categories, including, Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns. It encompasses the human, political, cultural, social, and it requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways that human societies conceptualize the environment. Integrated geography has emerged as a bridge between the human and the geography, as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Examples of areas of research in the environmental geography include, emergency management, environmental management, sustainability, geomatics is concerned with the application of computers to the traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography
27.
Theology
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Theology is the critical study of the nature of the divine. It is taught as a discipline, typically in universities, seminaries. Augustine of Hippo defined the Latin equivalent, theologia, as reasoning or discussion concerning the Deity, the term can, however, be used for a variety of different disciplines or fields of study. Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument to help understand, explain, test, critique, the English equivalent theology had evolved by 1362. Greek theologia was used with the discourse on god in the fourth century BC by Plato in The Republic, Book ii. Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of discourse, mythical, rational and civil. Theologos, closely related to theologia, appears once in some manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation, apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy. The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a subdivision of philosophy as a subject of study, dealing with the motionless. Boethius definition influenced medieval Latin usage, Theology can also now be used in a derived sense to mean a system of theoretical principles, an ideology. They suggest the term is appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently. Kalam. does not hold the place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for theology in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who argues that the use of theology is appropriate, can only do so, he says, I take theology not to be restricted to its etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it does the notion of God, within Hindu philosophy, there is a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God and of the Atman. The Sanskrit word for the schools of Hindu philosophy is Darshana. Nevertheless, Jewish theology historically has been active and highly significant for Christian. It is sometimes claimed, however, that the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law, the history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history of such institutions themselves. Modern Western universities evolved from the institutions and cathedral schools of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
28.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
29.
Forestry
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Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
30.
Webometrics
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The science of webometrics tries to measure the World Wide Web to get knowledge about the number and types of hyperlinks, structure of the World Wide Web and usage patterns. The term webometrics was first coined by Almind and Ingwersen, similar scientific fields are Bibliometrics, Informetrics, Scientometrics, Virtual ethnography, and Web mining. One relatively straightforward measure is the Web Impact Factor introduced by Ingwersen, however the use of WIF has been disregarded due to the mathematical artifacts derived from power law distributions of these variables. Other similar indicators using size of the institution instead of number of webpages have been proved more useful, altmetrics Impact factor PageRank Network mapping Search engine Webometrics Ranking of World Universities Tomas C. Informetric analyses on the World Wide Web, Methodological approaches to webometrics, toward a basic framework for webometrics. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, the calculation of web impact factors. Mike Thelwall, Liwen Vaughan, Lennart Björneborn, annual Review of Information Science and Technology. Introduction to Webometrics, Quantitative Web Research for the Social Sciences, mazalov, Vladimir, Pechnikov, Andrey, Chirkov, Alexandr, Chuyko, Julia. Web-communicator creation costs sharing problem as a cooperative game
31.
University of Stellenbosch Business School
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University of Stellenbosch Business School is the business school of the University of Stellenbosch in Bellville, Western Cape, South Africa. The University of Stellenbosch Business School was founded in 1964 with 14 MBA students, four years later the first DBA degree was conferred. In 1981 the current premises in Bellville has been acquired and five years later the department relocated to the Bellville Park Campus, in 1989 MBA student numbers reached 580. The name of the Department of Business Management and Administration changed to the Graduate School of Business in 1992, in 2003 the first students enrol for the new Masters in Development Finance. The USB received the EQUIS accreditation in 2001 followed by the AMBA accreditation in 2002, USB publishes USB Agenda and Leaders Lab Journal biannually. The USB is also the business school to be included in the Top 100 list. It was named the top school in South Africa by the Professional Management Review. The USB has been an EQUIS Accredited school for the past 5 years and is accredited by the Association of MBAs. In 2012, the USB became the business school in Africa to earn Triple accreditation. The most recent accreditation was bestowed on the school from the AACSB. The University of Cape Town Graduate School of Business has since also received triple accreditation. Students must attend classes on campus over a period of 11 months, modular MBA The modular MBA is a block release programme that enables business executives to attend lectures without infringing too much upon their work obligations, irrespective of where they live. Students attend one orientation block and ten blocks of classes spread over three years and finish their research reports during the third year. Graduation usually takes place in March after the completion of the three years, two of the three modular MBA programmes at the USB are presented in English. The one English programme commences in January while a second one commences in June, part-time MBA The part-time MBA is presented in English and runs over three years. Lectures are scheduled over a period of two years and students finish their research reports in the third year, however, it is possible to complete the research report while still doing the lecture programme. As from the 2012 intake, classes will be presented on Friday evenings, the learners in the part-time class are usually full-time working professionals who come from diverse backgrounds and industries which encourages a stimulating learning environment. The USB has various centres of specialised research, with focus on African leadership, founded in 2012, the Small Business Academy is a specialized program aimed at small and micro-business in low income communities in South Africa. Large corporate sponsors and partners work with the SBA to develop skill set training for business owners
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Triple accreditation
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The diagram on the right shows the 54 triple-accredited schools outside of North America as of March 2012. Another two triple-accredited schools used to be found in Canada, bringing the total to 56 in 2012. Some analysts claim that most top US business schools cannot meet this criterion as they sometimes admit applicants with only a bachelors degree and they claim that it is why triple-crown accreditation is pursued primarily by European institutions. However, it is not the case when some triple accredited institutes, City University of Hong Kong for example, AMBA has the most focused scope as it accredits only the business schools portfolios of MBA programs, MBM programs and DBA. EQUISs scope ranks in the middle, as it accredits the school but not the university. AMBAs assessment team includes deans, associate deans, program directors, AMBA has internationalization criteria for research, curriculum and student enrolment. However, these are reviewed in a context for less internationalized regions. EQUIS has strict requirements on internationalization, AMBA allows the visiting faculty model, as long as the visiting faculty are managed by the core faculty. EQUIS disapproves of heavy use of visiting faculty, research AACSB requires research in line with the mission of the school. AMBA requires research and publications in refereed journals or proof of impactful research at national level. EQUIS requires research with an international dimension, program-specific criteria AACSB has no program-specific standards since it evaluates the entire university. Accreditation fees AACSB,17,500 USD for initial business accreditation, in addition, an annual business accreditation fee is charged,4,500 USD annually for a 5-year accreditation cycle or 2,500 USD annually for a 10-year accreditation cycle. AMBA,22,000 GBP for initial accreditation or 15,000 GBP for re-accreditation, EQUIS,38,675 EUR for a 5-year initial accreditation or re-accreditation and 32,725 EUR for a 3-year initial accreditation or re-accreditation. Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Mexico City, one reason for this is that some of the top business schools choose not to incur the financial cost of international accreditation and rely only on accreditation by their national accrediting body. Another reason is that the top schools in some regions do not meet one or more of the criteria of the accrediting institutions. List of AMBA-accredited institutions List of EQUIS accredited institutions
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Association of MBAs
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The Association of MBAs is a global organisation founded in 1967 which focuses primarily on international business school accreditation and membership. Based in London, AMBA is one of the three main global accreditation bodies in business education and styles itself as the worlds authority on postgraduate management education. It differs from AACSB in the US and EQUIS in Brussels as it accredits a schools portfolio of postgraduate management programmes but does not accredit undergraduate programmes, all MBA students and alumni of the 245 accredited member schools join AMBA as individual members free of charge. AMBA also accredits generalist MBM programmes and DBA programmes, and admits as members students, AMBAs long-serving president is Sir Paul Judge, the founding benefactor of Cambridge Judge Business School. AMBAs current Chief Executive is Andrew Main Wilson, who joined the organisation from the Institute of Directors in 2013, len Jones was elected Chairman of the AMBA Board of Trustees in 2014. The founders saw a lack of awareness in Europe of the value of the MBA degree and they decided to form a lobby and membership group to promote the benefits of postgraduate business education, under the name of Business Graduates Association. The Associations first Director General was Vice-Admiral David Clutterbuck who assumed this position in 1969, in 1983 BGA began to accredit the growing number of MBA programmes, while preserving its functions as a membership organization. BGA was renamed Association of MBAs in 1987, the Associations current president is Sir Paul Judge, who helped establish Cambridge Judge Business School in 1990 and whose name the school continues to carry. The Association of MBAs accredits MBA, MBM and DBA degree programmes, the Associations process of accrediting a schools MBA programmes portfolio includes reviewing compliance AMBAs MBA criteria, most of them qualitative rather than quantitative. AMBA holds three annual conferences for business school deans and directors, a Global Conference, an Asia Pacific Conference. Participation is open to both accredited and non-accredited schools, AMBA also hosts an annual Gala Dinner in London, which is open only to accredited schools. AMBA also organizes webinars, lectures and networking events on a regular basis catering to MBA alumni, current MBA students, prospective MBA students and these on-campus events are held at accredited business schools and often feature distinguished speakers and practitioners in fields such as leadership, entrepreneurship and innovation
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EFMD Quality Improvement System
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The EFMD Quality Improvement System is a school accreditation system. It specializes in higher institutions of management and business administration. As of February 2017, EQUIS has accredited 167 institutions in 41 countries around the world, EQUIS was created in 1997 under Gordon Shenton and the current director is Michael Osbaldeston. In the past 20 years of existence the organization has accredited 167 institutions in 41 countries, the accreditation is awarded to business schools based on general quality. So far all fully accredited EQUIS business schools applying for AACSB accreditation have succeeded, EQUIS accreditation can be granted for three years or for five years. Association of MBAs Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business List of EQUIS accredited institutions Triple accreditation EQUIS on EFMD official website
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Financial Times
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The Financial Times is an English-language international daily newspaper with a special emphasis on business and economic news. The paper, published and owned by Nikkei Inc. in Tokyo, was founded in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley, and merged in 1945 with its closest rival, the Financial Times has an average daily readership of 2.2 million people worldwide. FT. com has 4.5 million registered users and over 285,000 digital subscribers, FT Chinese has more than 1.7 million registered users. The world editions of the Financial Times newspaper had an average daily circulation of 234,193 copies in January 2014. In February 2014 the combined sale of the editions of the Financial Times was 224,000 copies. In October 2013 the combined print and digital circulation of the Financial Times reached nearly 629,000 copies. In December 2016 print sales for the paper stood at 193,211, on 23 July 2015 Nikkei Inc. agreed to buy the Financial Times from Pearson for £844m. On 30 November 2015 Nikkei completed the acquisition, the FT was launched as the London Financial Guide on 10 January 1888, renaming itself the Financial Times on 13 February the same year. Describing itself as the friend of The Honest Financier, the Bona Fide Investor, the Respectable Broker, the Genuine Director, the readership was the financial community of the City of London, its only rival being the slightly older and more daring Financial News. After 57 years of rivalry the Financial Times and the Financial News were merged in 1945 by Brendan Bracken to form a single six-page newspaper, the Financial Times brought a higher circulation while the Financial News provided much of the editorial talent. The Lex column was introduced from Financial News. Pearson bought the paper in 1957, over the years the paper grew in size, readership and breadth of coverage. It established correspondents in cities around the world, reflecting early moves in the economy towards globalisation. On 1 January 1979 the first FT was printed outside the UK, since then, with increased international coverage, the FT has become a global newspaper, printed in 22 locations with five international editions to serve the UK, continental Europe, the U. S. The European edition is distributed in continental Europe and Africa and it is printed Monday to Saturday at five centres across Europe reporting on matters concerning the European Union, the Euro and European corporate affairs. In 1994 FT launched a lifestyle magazine, How To Spend It. In 2009 it launched a website for the magazine. On 13 May 1995 the Financial Times group made its first foray into the world with the launch of FT. com
