1.
Stone Building
–
The Stone Building, built in 1833, is an historic Greek Revival style building located at 735 Massachusetts Avenue in Lexington, Massachusetts. It was originally a hall for East Lexington, which had its own civic identity and its own church. Notable speakers at the hall included Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Charles Sumner, Wendell Phillips, Theodore Parker, and Josiah Quincy, Jr. The building was offered to the trustees of the Cary Memorial Library for $2,000 in 1891, by Ellen Stone, granddaughter of Eli Robbins, who built it, and it was named for her. The East Lexington branch library which had established in 1883. On April 30,1976, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places, in August,2007, the building suffered damage from burst pipes, and was closed for repairs. In February 2009, the Cary Memorial Library Board of Trustees announced their decision to use the Stone Building as a Lexington Heritage Center, National Register of Historic Places listings in Middlesex County, Massachusetts East Branch of Cary Memorial Library home page
2.
Lincoln's Inn
–
The Honourable Society of Lincolns Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. It is recognised to be one of the worlds most prestigious professional bodies of judges and it is the largest Inn and it covers 11 acres. The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Grays Inn, the Inn is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. The Inn is also known for its large garden and library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane, Lincolns Inn does not declare a specific foundation date, as there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court regards itself to be any older than the others. The Inn was home to influential people, including Prime Ministers, Chief Judges. During the 12th and 13th century, the law was taught in the City of London primarily by the clergy, as a result, the system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, as with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincolns Inn is unknown. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn and it is felt that Lincolns Inn became a formally organised Inn of Court soon after the Earls death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the part of Lincolns Inn, as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville. They retained Thavies and Furnivals Inn, using them as training houses for young lawyers, in 1537, the land Lincolns Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincolns Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, during the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Lincolns Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories, Clerks who were admitted to Clerks Commons, and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows Commons. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those at the Bar, by 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as inner barristers, in contrast to the utter or outer barristers. A Bencher, Benchsitter or Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincolns Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have far earlier than elsewhere, there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, the Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. By the late 15th century, the group were the Governors with assistance and advice from the other masters of the Bench
3.
Robert Taylor (architect)
–
Sir Robert Taylor was a notable English architect of the mid- to late 18th century. Born at Woodford, Essex, Taylor followed in his fathers footsteps and started working as a stonemason and sculptor, among his earliest projects was Asgill House, built for a wealthy banker, Sir Charles Asgill, in Richmond upon Thames, and nearby Oak House. Through such connections, he came to be appointed as architect to the Bank of England until his death when he was succeeded by Sir John Soane, in 1769 he succeeded Sir William Chambers as Architect of the Kings Works. His pupils included John Nash, Samuel Pepys Cockerell, George Byfield, in 1783, he served as a Sheriff of London and was knighted the same year. Sir Robert served as a president on the board of the Foundling Hospital. The money was invested and interest left to accrue to cover building costs. He had a son, Michael Angelo Taylor, who, as MP for Poole, father and son were both buried in the church of St Martin-in-the-Fields in Trafalgar Square, London. From Binneys book,14 St.1920 Pond House, Village Way, Dulwich was designed in 1759 by Sir Robert Taylor for John Tinkler as a hunting lodge
4.
Listed building
–
A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
5.
The Prime Minister (novel)
–
The Prime Minister is a novel by Anthony Trollope, first published in 1876. It is the fifth of the Palliser series of novels, the Duchess, formerly Lady Glencora Palliser, attempts to support her husband by hosting lavish parties at Gatherum Castle in Barsetshire, a family residence barely used until now. His own inflexible nature does not help, a significant sub-plot centres on Ferdinand Lopez, a financially overextended City adventurer of undisclosed parentage and doubtful ethnicity, who wins the favour of Emily Wharton. She marries Lopez despite her fathers objections in preference to Arthur Fletcher who has always been in love with her, Lopez meets the Duchess at one of her parties and Glencora unwisely encourages him to stand for Parliament. He campaigns against Arthur Fletcher, Emilys popular former suitor, as well as a local tradesman and he then insists that the Duke reimburse him for the election expenses, since the Duchess had led him to believe that he would have the Dukes endorsement. This causes a political scandal when it becomes known, as it appears to many people that Palliser has used his great influence. After a period of mourning, Emily is persuaded, without too much difficulty, eventually the coalition government breaks apart and the Duke resigns, with both regret and relief, and withdraws into private life, hoping to be of use to his party again one day. The Prime Minister at Project Gutenberg The Prime Minister public domain audiobook at LibriVox
6.
John Leach (judge)
–
Sir John Leach, KC was an English judge, and Master of the Rolls. The son of Richard Leach, a coppersmith of Bedford, he was born in town on 28 August 1760. After leaving Bedford School he became a pupil of Sir Robert Taylor the architect, on the recommendation of his old fellow-pupil, Samuel Pepys Cockerell, and other friends, Leach abandoned architecture for the law, and was admitted a student of the Middle Temple on 26 January 1785. Having studied of conveyancing and equity drafting in the chambers of William Alexander, he was called to the bar in Hilary term 1790, in 1792 he was engaged as counsel in the Seaford election petition, and in 1795 was elected recorder of that Cinque port. Having previously purchased the Pelham interest, he contested the constituency against Charles Rose Ellis and Elliss cousin, George Ellis. In 1800 Leach gave up all common law work, and confined himself to the equity courts, at a by-election in July 1806, he was returned for Seaford, but owing to the prorogation did not take his seat in that parliament. He was again returned at the election in the following October. In Hilary term 1807 Leach was made a kings counsel, and was elected a bencher of the Middle Temple. Leach spoke rarely in the House of Commons, in March 1809 he defended the conduct of the Duke of York and Albany, and on 31 December 1810 supported William Lambs amendment to the first regency resolution. In 1811 he carried through the House of Commons the Foreign Ministers Pension Bill, in August 1817 he became chief justice of Chester, in succession to Sir William Garrow. On John Copley becoming lord chancellor Leach was appointed master of the rolls, by an act of parliament passed in August 1833 Leach became, by virtue of his office as master of the rolls, a member of the judicial committee of the privy council. He died at Simpsons Hotel in Edinburgh on 14 September 1834, aged 74, Leachs decisions were lucid and brief, but as he often decided on his own judgment in preference to that of his predecessors, they were not infrequently over-ruled. His demeanour on the bench brought him into constant collision with members of the bar, while he was master of the rolls the customary evening sittings of the court were abandoned, and on 22 June 1829 the practice of sitting in the daytime began. Though Leach was professedly a Whig when he entered parliament, he adopted the politics of the Regent, at his instigation the Milan commission was instituted in 1818 to investigate the conduct of the Princess of Wales, he was strongly in favour of a divorce. Some of Leachs equity pleadings, signed J. L. were printed in F. M. Van Heythuysens Equity Draftsman and his speech of 31 December 1810 on the regency resolutions was published in 1811. He was created D. C. L. by the university of Oxford on 5 July 1810 and his nephew, Richard Howell Leach, a son of his youngest brother, Thomas Leach, was the senior chancery registrar from 1868 to 1882. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Barker. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by John Leach Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs
7.
William Pitt the Younger
–
William Pitt the Younger, PC was a British politician of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He became the youngest Prime Minister in 1783 at the age of 24 and he left office in 1801, but was Prime Minister again from 1804 until his death in 1806. He was also the Chancellor of the Exchequer throughout his premiership, born William Pitt, he is known as the Younger to distinguish him from his father, William Pitt the Elder, who had previously served as Prime Minister. The younger Pitts prime ministerial tenure, which came during the reign of George III, was dominated by events in Europe, including the French Revolution. Pitt, although referred to as a Tory, or new Tory. He is best known for leading Britain in the wars against France. Pitt was an administrator who worked for efficiency and reform. He raised taxes to pay for the war against France. To meet the threat of Irish support for France, he engineered the Acts of Union 1800, Pitt created the new Toryism, which revived the Tory Party and enabled it to stay in power for the next quarter-century. Historian Asa Briggs points out that his personality did not endear itself to the British mind, for Pitt was too solitary, too colourless and his greatness came in the war with France, with the adversary setting the pace. Pitt reacted to become what Lord Minto called the Atlas of our reeling globe and his integrity and industry and his role as defender of the threatened nation allowed him to inspire and access all the national reserves of strength. William Wilberforce said that, For personal purity, disinterestedness and love of this country, for this he is ranked highly amongst British Prime Ministers. The Honourable William Pitt, second son of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham, was born at Hayes Place in the village of Hayes, Pitt was from a political family on both sides. His mother, Hester Grenville, was sister to former prime minister George Grenville, according to biographer John Ehrman, Pitt inherited brilliance and dynamism from his fathers line, and a determined, methodical nature from the Grenvilles. Suffering from occasional poor health as a boy, he was educated at home by the Reverend Edward Wilson, an intelligent child, Pitt quickly became proficient in Latin and Greek. In 1773, aged fourteen, he attended Pembroke College, Cambridge, at Cambridge, Pitt was tutored by George Pretyman, who became a close personal friend. Pitt later appointed Pretyman Bishop of Lincoln then Winchester and drew upon his advice throughout his political career, while at Cambridge, he befriended the young William Wilberforce, who became a lifelong friend and political ally in Parliament. Pitt tended to socialise only with students and others already known to him
8.
Philip Hardwick
–
Philip Hardwick RA was an English architect, particularly associated with railway stations and warehouses in London and elsewhere. Hardwick is probably best known for Londons demolished Euston Arch and its twin station Birmingham Curzon Street, Hardwick was born at 9 Rathbone Place in Westminster, London. He was educated at Dr Barrows school in Soho Square and trained as an architect under his father, Thomas Hardwick, the Hardwick family name spans over 150 years in the history of British architecture. Philip Hardwick entered the Royal Academy Schools in 1808 and then studied in France, after travelling Europe, he took over from his father as Surveyor to St Bartholomews Hospital, London. This post later passed on to Philips son – Philip Charles Hardwick, in 1825 he was appointed architect to the St Katherines Dock Company, for whom he designed the dock buildings, Thomas Telford designing the docks themselves. In 1829 he became architect to the Goldsmiths Company, designing a new hall for them which was opened in 1835, in 1836 Hardwick became architect to the London and Birmingham Railway. He built a great Doric propylaeum, which known as the Euston Arch. In 1838 he built the Curzon Street Station as the railways Birmingham terminus and it is an austere cubic three-story building in the Ionic style, with a portico of four giant Ionic columns. At Babraham Hall in 1822-3, on the site of a long-demolished sixteenth-century house, Hardwick adopted a Jacobean style, brick was used again at Lincolns Inn, when, in 1843-5, Hardwick, in collaboration with his son, built a new hall and library. They used a Tudor style, the red brick varied with black brick decoration, Hardwick gained a reputation as a surveyor and was employed by the Westminster Bridge estates, the Portman London estate, Greenwich Hospital, and the estate of the 2nd Marquess of Salisbury. He was also surveyor to Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, in 1831 his father in law, architect John Shaw Senior, helped elect Hardwick as a fellow of the Royal Society. Hardwick was a member of the Institute of British Architects – later the RIBA – and was a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. In 1839 he was one of the judges for the new Royal Exchange building in the City of London and he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1839, and became a Royal Academician in 1841. In 1854, he received the seventh Royal Gold Medal for architecture, Philip married Julia Shaw in 1819, at St Jamess Church, Piccadilly. Julias father, John Shaw Sr. and brother, John Shaw Jr. were both architects, the two families lived close by within the boroughs of Westminster and Holborn. Philip Hardwick had two sons, the eldest died of smallpox whilst still at Eton, the younger, Philip Charles Hardwick, was born in 1822, Philip Charles began working in the firm around 1843. Philip Hardwicks pupils included John Loughborough Pearson, Gothic revival architect of Truro Cathedral, Thomas Henry Wyatt, T. Roger Smith, Hardwick was a close friend of the artist J. M. W. Turner, who had been a pupil of his father. In 1851 Turner chose Hardwick as an executor to his will, Hardwick and much of his extended family were buried at Kensal Green Cemetery
9.
Chancery Lane
–
Chancery Lane is a one-way street situated in the ward of Farringdon Without in the City of London. It has formed the boundary of the City since 1994. Chancery Lane, numbered the B400 in the British road numbering scheme and it gives its name to Chancery Lane tube station which lies at the junction of Holborn and Grays Inn Road, a short distance from Chancery Lanes northern end. Lincolns Inn occupies most of the side north of Carey Street. Chancery Lane takes its name from the historic High Court of Chancery, which started its association with the area when Robert de Chesney, the Bishop of Lincoln acquired the old Temple in 1161. In later centuries the Court convened in Lincolns Inn Old Hall and other buildings there for the Courts purposes, in the 14th century it became the estate of the Master of the Rolls, which included an official residence and storage for court records. The site later became the Public Record Office, the present Grade II* listed, in 1907 it became the museum of the Public Record Office and throughout the latter half of the 20th century records gradually moved to a new site located in Kew. In 2001 it underwent renovation and became the Maughan Library, the largest academic library of Kings College London, just to the south of the Maughan Library is the site of the former Serjeants Inn. The principal building of The Law Society, the body for solicitors in England. Ede and Ravenscroft, the oldest tailors in London, have their main outlet,93, which is also their outlet for legal dress. The London Silver Vaults are located at the end of Chancery Lane
10.
Corinthian pillar
–
The Corinthian order is the last developed of the three principal classical orders of ancient Greek and Roman architecture. The other two are the Doric order which was the earliest, followed by the Ionic order, when classical architecture was revived during the Renaissance, two more orders were added to the canon, the Tuscan order and the Composite order. The Corinthian, with its offshoot the Composite, is the most ornate of the orders, characterized by slender fluted columns and elaborate capitals decorated with acanthus leaves and it was employed in southern Gaul at the Maison Carrée, Nîmes and at the comparable podium temple at Vienne. Other prime examples noted by Mark Wilson Jones are the order of the Basilica Ulpia and the arch at Ancona the column of Phocas. The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, however, according to the architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. Its earliest use can be traced back to the Late Classical Period, the earliest Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. In its proportions, the Corinthian column is similar to the Ionic column, though it is more slender, the abacus upon the capital has concave sides to conform to the outscrolling corners of the capital, and it may have a rosette at the center of each side. Corinthian columns were erected on the top level of the Roman Colosseum, holding up the least weight and their height to width ratio is about 10,1. One variant is the Tivoli Order, found at the Temple of Vesta, the Tivoli Orders Corintinan Capital has two rows of Acanthus and its abacus is decorated with oversize fleuron in the form of hibiscus flowers with pronounced spiral pistils. The column flutes have flat tops, the frieze exhibits fruit swag suspended between bucrania. Above each swag is a rosette, the cornice does not have modillions. Indo-Corinthian capitals are capitals crowning columns or pilasters, which can be found in the northwestern Indian subcontinent and these capitals are typically dated to the 1st centuries of our era, and constitute important elements of Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. The classical design was adapted, usually taking a more elongated form. Indo-Corinthian capitals also incorporated figures of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas, usually as central figures surrounded, the Corinthian architrave is divided in two or three sections, which may be equal, or they may bear interesting proportional relationships, one with another. Above the plain, unadorned architrave lies the frieze, which may be carved with a continuous design or left plain. At the Capitol the proportions of architrave to frieze are exactly 1,1, above that, the profiles of the cornice moldings are like those of the Ionic order. If the cornice is deep, it may be supported by brackets or modillions. The Corinthian column is almost always fluted, if it is not, it is often worth pausing to unravel the reason why
11.
Entablature
–
An entablature refers to the superstructure of moldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entablatures are major elements of architecture, and are commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze. The Greek and Roman temples are believed to be based on wooden structures, the structure of the entablature varies with the three classical orders, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. In each, the proportions of the subdivisions are defined by the proportions of the column in the order, in Roman and Renaissance interpretations, it is usually approximately a quarter of the height of the column. Variants of entablature that do not fit these models are derived from them. Pure classical Doric entablature is simple, the architrave, the lowest band, is split, from bottom to top, into the guttae, the regulae, and the taenia. The frieze is dominated by the triglyphs, vertically channelled tablets, separated by metopes, which may or may not be decorated. The triglyphs sit on top of the taenia, a flat, thin, horizontal protrusion, and are finished at the bottom by decoration of drops, called guttae, the top of the triglyphs meet the protrusion of the cornice from the entablature. The underside of this protrusion is decorated with mutules, tablets that are finished with guttae. The cornice is split into the soffit, the corona, the soffit is simply the exposed underside. The corona and the cymatium are the parts of the cornice. The Ionic order of entablature adds the fascia in the architrave, which are flat horizontal protrusions, and the dentils under the cornice, which are tooth-like rectangular block moldings. The Corinthian order adds a far more ornate cornice, divided, from bottom to top, into the cyma reversa, the dentils, the ovulo, the modillions, the fascia, and the cyma recta. The modillions are ornate brackets, similar in use to dentils, the frieze is sometimes omitted—for example, on the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum—and probably did not exist as a structure in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. Neither is it found in the Lycian tombs, which are reproductions in the rock of timber based on early lonian work. The entablature is essentially an evolution of the lintel, which spans two posts, supporting the ends of the roof rafters. The entablature together with the system of columns is rarely found outside of classical architecture. It is often used to complete the upper portion of a wall where columns are not present, the use of the entablature, irrespective of columns, appeared after the Renaissance
12.
Pediment
–
The tympanum, the triangular area within the pediment, is often decorated with relief sculpture. The pediment is found in classical Greek temples, renaissance, a prominent example is the Parthenon, where it contains a tympanum decorated with figures in relief sculpture. This architectural element was developed in the architecture of ancient Greece, in Ancient Rome, the Renaissance, and later architectural revivals, the pediment was used as a non-structural element over windows, doors and aedicules. A variant is the segmental or arch pediment, where the normal angular slopes of the cornice are replaced by one in the form of a segment of a circle, both traditional and segmental pediments have broken and open forms. In the broken pediment the raking cornice is left open at the apex, the open pediment is open along the base – often used in Georgian architecture. A further variant is the Swan-necked pediment, where the cornice is in the form of two S-shaped brackets. The decorations in the tympanum frequently extend through these openings, in the form of Alto-relievo sculpture, tondo paintings and these forms were adopted in Mannerist architecture, and applied to furniture designed by Thomas Chippendale. The terms open pediment and broken pediment are often used interchangeably, a pediment is sometimes the top element of a portico
13.
Cornice
–
A simple cornice may be formed just with a crown molding. The function of the cornice of a building is to throw rainwater free of the building’s walls. In residential building practice, this function is handled by projecting gable ends, roof eaves, however, house eaves may also be called cornices if they are finished with decorative molding. The projecting cornice of a building may appear to be heavy and hence in danger of falling, particularly on commercial buildings, a rake is an architectural term for an eave or cornice which runs along the gable end of the roof of a modern residential structure. It may also be called a sloping cornice, a raking cornice, the trim and rafters at this edge are called rake-, verge-, or barge-board or verge- or barge-rafter. It is a sloped timber on the facing edge of a roof running between the ridge and the eave. On a typical house, any gable will have two rakes, one on each sloped side, the rakes are supported by a series of lookouts and may be enclosed with a rake fascia board on the outside facing edge and a rake soffit along the bottom. The cornices of a residential building will usually be one of three types, a box cornice, a close or closed cornice, or an open cornice. Box cornices enclose the cornice of the building with what is essentially a narrow box. A box cornice may further be divided into either the box cornice or the wide box cornice type. A narrow box cornice is one in which the projection of the rafter serves as a surface for the soffit board as well as the fascia trim. This is possible if the slope of the roof is fairly steep, box cornices often have ventilation screens laid over openings cut in the soffits in order to allow air to circulate within the cornice. A close, closed, or snub cornice is one in there is no projection of the rafters beyond the walls of the building. This type of cornice is easy to construct, but provides little aid in dispersing water away from the building, in an open cornice, the shape of the cornice is similar to that of a wide box cornice except that both the lookouts and the soffit are absent. It is a lower-cost treatment that requires fewer materials, and may not have a fascia board. Ancient Egyptian architectural tradition made special use of large cavetto mouldings as a cornice, with only a short fillet above, inspired by this precedent, it was then revived by Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. The cavetto took the place of the cymatium in many Etruscan temples, often painted with vertical tongue patterns, additional more-obscure varieties of cornice include the architrave cornice, bracketed cornice, and modillion cornice. A cornice return is a detail that occurs where the horizontal cornice of a roof connects to the rake of a gable
14.
Baluster
–
Multiplied in this way, they form a balustrade. Individually, a baluster shaft may describe the form taken by a brass or silver candlestick. According to OED, baluster is derived through the French, balustre, from Italian, balaustro, from balaustra, pomegranate flower, from Latin balaustium, from Greek βαλαύστιον. The earliest examples are shown in the bas-reliefs representing the Assyrian palaces. The application to architecture was a feature of the early Renaissance, late fifteenth-century examples are found in the balconies of palaces at Venice and these quattrocento balustrades are likely to be following yet-unidentified Gothic precedents. They form balustrades of colonnettes as an alternative to miniature arcading, sangallo passed the motif to Bramante and Michelangelo, through whom balustrades gained wide currency in the 16th century. Because of its low center of gravity, this vase-baluster may be given the modern term dropped baluster. The baluster, being a structure, tends to follow design precedents that were set in woodworking and ceramic practices, where the turners lathe. The profile a baluster takes is often diagnostic of a style of architecture or furniture. Some complicated Mannerist baluster forms can be read as a vase set upon another vase, modern baluster design is also in use for example in designs influenced by the Arts and Crafts movement in a 1905 row of houses in Etchingham Park Road Finchley London England. The modern term baluster shaft is applied to the shaft dividing a window in Saxon architecture, in the south transept of the Abbey in St Albans, England, are some of these shafts, supposed to have been taken from the old Saxon church. Norman bases and capitals have been added, together with plain cylindrical Norman shafts, balusters are normally separated by at least the same measurement as the size of the square bottom section. Placing balusters too far apart diminishes their aesthetic appeal, balustrades normally terminate in columns, building walls or more properly in heavy newel posts because otherwise they will not be structurally strong enough. Balusters may be formed in several ways, wood and stone can be shaped on the lathe, wood can be cut from square or rectangular section boards, while concrete, plaster, iron, and plastics are usually formed by molding and casting. Turned patterns or old examples are used for the molds, Cast iron Cast stone Hardwoods and softwoods Plaster Polymer stone Polyurethane/polystyrene Wrought iron The word banister refers to the balusters of a stairway. According to many dictionaries - a, a handrail, especially on a staircase. Such a handrail together with its supporting structures, the Renaissance baluster and Palladio in Palladio and English Palladianism
15.
Holborn
–
Holborn is a district in the West End, central London, forming part of the London Borough of Camden. The areas first mention is in a charter of Westminster Abbey, by King Edgar and this mentions the old wooden church of St Andrew. The name Holborn may be derived from the Middle English hol for hollow, and bourne, historical cartographer William Shepherd in his Plan of London about 1300 labels the Fleet as Hole Bourn where it passes to the east of St Andrews church. The exact course of the stream is uncertain, but according to Stow it started in one of the small springs near Holborn Bar. This is supported by a map of London and Westminster created during the reign of Henry VIII that clearly marks the street as Oldbourne, other historians, however, find the theory implausible, in view of the slope of the land. It was then outside the Citys jurisdiction and a part of Ossulstone Hundred in Middlesex, in the 12th century St Andrews was noted in local title deeds as lying on Holburnestrate—Holborn Street. The rest of the area below Bars was organised by the board of the parish of St Andrew. The Metropolitan Borough of Holborn was abolished in 1965 and its area now part of the London Borough of Camden. Holborn is also represented in the London Assembly as part of Barnet and Camden by Andrew Dismore, criminals from the Tower and Newgate passed up Holborn on their way to be hanged at Tyburn or St Giles. The theatre premièred the first full-length feature film in 1914, The World, the Flesh and the Devil, Charles Dickens took up residence in Furnivals Inn, on the site of Holborn Bars. Dickens put his character Pip, in Great Expectations, in residence at Barnards Inn opposite, staple Inn, notable as the promotional image for Old Holborn tobacco, is nearby. The three of these were Inns of Chancery, subsequently, the area diversified and become recognisable as the modern street. A plaque stands at number 120 commemorating Thomas Earnshaws invention of the Marine chronometer, at the corner of Hatton Garden was the old family department store of Gamages. Until 1992, the London Weather Centre was located in the street, the Prudential insurance company relocated in 2002. The Daily Mirror offices used to be directly opposite it, further east, in the gated avenue of Ely Place, is St Etheldredas Church, originally the chapel of the Bishop of Ely’s London palace. This ecclesiastical connection allowed the street to remain part of the county of Cambridgeshire until the mid-1930s and this meant that Ye Olde Mitre, a pub located in a court hidden behind the buildings of the Place and the Garden was subject to the Cambridgeshire Magistrates to grant its licence. St Etheldredas is the oldest church building used for Roman Catholic worship in London, however, this became so only after it ceased to be an Anglican chapel in the 19th century. Hatton Garden, the centre of the trade, was leased to a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I, Sir Christopher Hatton
16.
Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington
–
His defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 put him in the top rank of Britains military heroes. Wellesley was born in Dublin, belonging to the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland and he was commissioned as an ensign in the British Army in 1787, serving in Ireland as aide-de-camp to two successive Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. He was also elected as a Member of Parliament in the Irish House of Commons and he was a colonel by 1796, and saw action in the Netherlands and in India, where he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War at the Battle of Seringapatam. He was appointed governor of Seringapatam and Mysore in 1799 and, as a newly appointed major-general, following Napoleons exile in 1814, he served as the ambassador to France and was granted a dukedom. During the Hundred Days in 1815, he commanded the army which defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. Wellesleys battle record is exemplary, he participated in some 60 battles during the course of his military career. Wellington is famous for his defensive style of warfare, resulting in several victories against numerically superior forces while minimising his own losses. He is regarded as one of the greatest defensive commanders of all time, after ending his active military career, Wellington returned to politics. He was twice British prime minister as part of the Tory party, from 1828 to 1830 and he oversaw the passage of the Catholic Relief Act 1829, but opposed the Reform Act 1832. He continued as one of the figures in the House of Lords until his retirement. As such, he belonged to the Protestant Ascendancy and his biographers mostly follow the contemporary newspaper evidence in saying that he was born 1 May 1769, the day that he was baptised. He was most likely born at his parents townhouse,24 Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, but his mother Anne, Countess of Mornington, recalled in 1815 that he had been born at 6 Merrion Street, Dublin. He spent most of his childhood at his familys two homes, the first a house in Dublin and the second Dangan Castle,3 miles north of Summerhill on the Trim Road in County Meath. In 1781, Arthurs father died and his eldest brother Richard inherited his fathers earldom and he went to the diocesan school in Trim when at Dangan, Mr Whytes Academy when in Dublin, and Browns School in Chelsea when in London. He then enrolled at Eton, where he studied from 1781 to 1784, moreover, Eton had no playing fields at the time. In 1785, a lack of success at Eton, combined with a shortage of funds due to his fathers death, forced the young Wellesley. Until his early twenties, Arthur showed little sign of distinction and his mother grew concerned at his idleness, stating. A year later, Arthur enrolled in the French Royal Academy of Equitation in Angers, where he progressed significantly, becoming a good horseman and learning French, upon returning to England in late 1786, he astonished his mother with his improvement
17.
Portland stone
–
Portland stone is a limestone from the Tithonian stage of the Jurassic period quarried on the Isle of Portland, Dorset. The quarries consist of beds of white-grey limestone separated by chert beds and it has been used extensively as a building stone throughout the British Isles, notably in major public buildings in London such as St Pauls Cathedral and Buckingham Palace. It is also exported to many countries—Portland stone is used in the United Nations headquarters building in New York City, Portland stone formed in a marine environment, on the floor of a shallow, warm, sub-tropical sea probably near land. When seawater is warmed by the sun, its capacity to hold dissolved gas is reduced, calcium and bicarbonate ions within the water are then able to combine, to form calcium carbonate as a precipitate. The process of lime scale build up in a kettle in hard water areas is similar, calcium carbonate is the principal constituent of most limestones. Billions of minute crystals of precipitated calcium carbonate accumulated forming lime mud which covered the sea floor, small particles of sand or organic detritus, such as shell fragments, formed a nucleus, which became coated with layers of calcite as they were rolled around in the muddy micrite. The calcite gradually accumulated around the fragments of shell in concentric layers and this process is similar to the way in which a snowball grows in size as it is rolled around in the snow. Over time, countless billions of these balls, known as ooids or ooliths, became partially cemented together by more calcite and this is one of the reasons why Portland stone is so favoured as a monumental and architectural stone. Dr Geoff Townson conducted three years research on the Portlandian, being the first to describe the patch-reef facies. Stone has been quarried on Portland since Roman times and was being shipped to London in the 14th century, Extraction as an industry began in the early 17th century, with shipments to London for Inigo Jones Banqueting House. Wrens choice of Portland for the new St Pauls Cathedral was a great boost for the quarries, the island was connected by railway to the rest of the country from 1865. Albion Stone PLC has been quarrying and mining Portland stone since 1984, Portland Stone Firms Ltd have been quarrying Portland stone since 1994. Jordans is part of the Inmosthay Quarry in the centre of the Island, the quarry has been worked since the late 19th century. Albion Stone leases the section from The Crown Estate and purchased the northern part of the site in 2006. The majority of the southern reserves lie under the grounds of the cricket club. To avoid disturbing the site at surface level, the company has applied and received permission to extract the stone using mining rather than quarrying techniques, the reserves to the north will be quarried using the diamond bladed cutting machines, hydro bags and wire saws to shape the blocks. Albion Stone PLC now extract all their stone through mining which dramatically reduces the impact on the environment, jordans Mine is currently the biggest mine on Portland. Bowers Quarry has been operational since the late 18th century and it has been leased from The Crown Estate since 1979 and in 2002 it became the site of the first Portland stone mine by Albion Stone PLC
18.
Arthur Cayley
–
Arthur Cayley F. R. S. was a British mathematician. He helped found the modern British school of pure mathematics, as a child, Cayley enjoyed solving complex maths problems for amusement. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he excelled in Greek, French, German and he worked as a lawyer for 14 years. He postulated the Cayley–Hamilton theorem—that every square matrix is a root of its own characteristic polynomial and he was the first to define the concept of a group in the modern way—as a set with a binary operation satisfying certain laws. Formerly, when mathematicians spoke of groups, they had meant permutation groups, cayleys theorem is named in honour of Cayley. Arthur Cayley was born in Richmond, London, England, on 16 August 1821 and his father, Henry Cayley, was a distant cousin of Sir George Cayley the aeronautics engineer innovator, and descended from an ancient Yorkshire family. He settled in Saint Petersburg, Russia, as a merchant and his mother was Maria Antonia Doughty, daughter of William Doughty. According to some writers she was Russian, but her fathers name indicates an English origin and his brother was the linguist Charles Bagot Cayley. Arthur spent his first eight years in Saint Petersburg, in 1829 his parents were settled permanently at Blackheath, near London. Arthur was sent to a private school, at age 14 he was sent to Kings College School. The schools master observed indications of genius and advised the father to educate his son not for his own business, as he had intended. At the unusually early age of 17 Cayley began residence at Trinity College, Cambridge, the cause of the Analytical Society had now triumphed, and the Cambridge Mathematical Journal had been instituted by Gregory and Robert Leslie Ellis. To this journal, at the age of twenty, Cayley contributed three papers, on subjects that had been suggested by reading the Mécanique analytique of Lagrange, cayleys tutor at Cambridge was George Peacock and his private coach was William Hopkins. He finished his course by winning the place of Senior Wrangler. His next step was to take the M. A. degree and he continued to reside at Cambridge University for four years, during which time he took some pupils, but his main work was the preparation of 28 memoirs to the Mathematical Journal. Because of the tenure of his fellowship it was necessary to choose a profession, like De Morgan, Cayley chose law. He made a specialty of conveyancing and it was while he was a pupil at the bar examination that he went to Dublin to hear Hamiltons lectures on quaternions. During this period of his life, extending over fourteen years, at Cambridge University the ancient professorship of pure mathematics is denominated by the Lucasian, and is the chair that had been occupied by Isaac Newton
19.
James Kenneth Stephen
–
James Kenneth Stephen was an English poet, and tutor to Prince Albert Victor, eldest son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. Stephen was the son of Sir James Fitzjames Stephen, barrister-at-law. James Kenneth Stephen was known as Jem among his family and close friends, he was first cousin to Virginia Woolf. He was a Kings Scholar at Eton, where he proved to be a competent player of the Eton Wall Game. In the Michaelmas term of 1880, he was President of the Cambridge Union Society, in 1883 he became tutor to Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, and was made a Fellow of Kings College in 1885. He was an intellectual, and it was said that he spoke in a pedantic. Stephen became a poet, his work being identified by the initials J. K. S. His collections of poems Lapsus Calami and Quo Musa Tendis were both published in 1891, rudyard Kipling called him that genius and told how he dealt with Haggard and me in some stanzas which I would have given much to have written myself. Those stanzas, in which Stephen deplores the state of contemporary writing, regale, Stephen wrote a satirical pastiche of Thomas Grays Ode to the Distant Prospect of Eton College pillorying Eton for being Tory. A poem which gave him a reputation as a misogynist is Men and Women, the first part, subtitled In the Backs, concludes However many of his other poems show that this misogyny Is more accurately described as only one facet of a sardonic nature. Stephen was a member of the Cambridge Apostles, Stephen suffered a serious head injury in an accident in the winter of 1886/1887 which may have exacerbated the bi-polar disorder from which he suffered. His cousin Virginia Woolf suffered from the same throughout her adult life. Stephen was eventually committed to St Andrews Hospital, an asylum in Northampton. In January 1892 the former Royal tutor heard that his erstwhile pupil, on hearing the news, Stephen refused to eat, and died twenty days later, aged 32. His cause of death, according to the certificate, was mania. Stephen was noted for his prodigious size and physical strength, at Eton, he was an outstanding player of the Wall Game. He played for College on St Andrews Day four times, in 1874,1875,1876 and 1877, in the last two years he was Keeper of the College Wall. College beat the Oppidans by 4 shies to nil in his first year as Keeper, stapletons Eton School Lists 1853-1892, and the author refers to him in the preface as an Etonian of great promise, who died only too early for his numerous friends
20.
Barrister
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
21.
Queen's Counsel
–
A Queens Counsel, or Kings Counsel during the reign of a king, is an eminent lawyer who is appointed by the Queen to be one of Her Majestys Counsel learned in the law. The term is recognised as an honorific. Queens Counsel is a status, conferred by the Crown, that is recognised by courts, members have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a design, the award of Queens Counsel is known informally as taking silk. Appointments are made from within the profession on the basis of merit rather than a particular level of experience. However, successful applicants tend to be barristers, or advocates with 15 years of experience or more, the Attorney-General, Solicitor-General, and Kings Serjeants were Kings Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England. The first Queens Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon, who was given a patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, the new rank of Kings Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The Attorney-General and Solicitor-General had similarly succeeded the Kings Serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, but the Kings Counsel emerged into eminence only in the early 1830s, prior to when they were relatively few in number. It became the means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession. It became of greater importance to become a KC. The KCs inherited the prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts, the earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were Kings Counsel, a proportion of about 8. 5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice, in 1839 the number of Queens Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queens Counsel was 187, the list of Queens Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one-third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 181, in each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 208,209,221,236 and 262, respectively. In each of the years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 329,345,370,372,384 and 404, in 1989, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 736,760,797,845,891,925,974,1006,1043, the title traditionally depends on the sex of the sovereign. The current Queen, Elizabeth II has had a long reign and it can be assumed that, should the Queen die and the title pass to a descendant, the title will again become KC, as the next three in line to the throne are male heirs. Queens Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the century, from drafting pleadings alone
22.
Thomas Manners-Sutton, 1st Baron Manners
–
Thomas Manners-Sutton, 1st Baron Manners PC KC, was a British lawyer and politician who served as Lord Chancellor of Ireland from 1807 to 1827. Manners-Sutton was the son of Lord George Manners-Sutton, third son of John Manners. His father had assumed the surname of Sutton on succeeding to the estates of his maternal grandfather Robert Sutton. Manners-Sutton was educated at Charterhouse and Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and was called to the Bar, Lincolns Inn, Manners-Sutton was elected Member of Parliament for Newark in 1796, a seat he held until 1805, and served under Henry Addington as Solicitor-General from 1802 to 1805. From 1800 to 1802 he was Solicitor General to the Prince of Wales, in 1805 he became a Baron of the Exchequer, which he remained until 1807. A staunch protestant, Lord Manners was an opponent of Catholic emancipation, the increasing number of Catholic barristers also paid tribute to his lack of bias. Lord Manners married firstly, Anne Copley, daughter of Sir Joseph Copley, 1st Baronet, of Sprotborough, after his wifes death in 1814 he married secondly the Honourable Jane Butler, daughter of James Butler, 9th Baron Cahir. They had one son, John Manners-Sutton, Lord Manners died in May 1842, aged 86, and was succeeded in the barony by his only son, John. A family relation, Evelyn Levett Sutton, graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Lord Manners
23.
Exchequer of Pleas
–
The Exchequer of Pleas or Court of Exchequer was a court that dealt with matters of equity, a set of legal principles based on natural law and common law in England and Wales. Originally part of the curia regis, or Kings Council, the Exchequer of Pleas split from the curia during the 1190s, to sit as an independent, the Court of Chancerys reputation for tardiness and expense resulted in much of its business transferring to the Exchequer. As a result, the Exchequer lost its equity jurisdiction, with the Judicature Acts, the Exchequer was formally dissolved as a judicial body by an Order in Council of 16 December 1880. The Exchequers jurisdiction, at times, was common law, equity. Cases were formally taken by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, but in practice were heard by the Barons of the Exchequer, judicial officials led by the Chief Baron. Other court officials included the Kings Remembrancer, who appointed all officials and kept the Exchequers records, and the sworn and side clerks. The first reliable records come from the time of Henry I, the curia regis followed the king as he travelled rather than sitting at any one fixed location, and was held in York, London and Northampton at various times. The word Exchequer derives from the chequered cloth laid on a table for the purposes of counting money, although the Exchequer of Pleas was the first common law court, it was also the last to separate from the curia regis. There are few known to date from before 1580, as bills were not dated before then. Until the 16th century, the Exchequer carried out its duties with little variation in its function or practice. A small court, the Exchequer handled around 250 cases a year, under the Tudors, however, the Exchequers political, judicial and fiscal importance all increased. The appointment of the second and third Dukes of Norfolk as Lord High Treasurers from 1501 to 1546 led to a reduction in the Exchequers power. When William Paulet was appointed Treasurer in 1546 the Exchequer again increased in power, absorbing the Court of Augmentations and Court of First Fruits, fanshawes administrative reforms were considered excellent, and his work continued to be used as the standard until the 1830s. Exchequer business increased under James and Charles I, before the English Civil War disrupted the courts, as a result, the Exchequer increased in importance as a court, although it is not known whether its active transformation was a judicial or political decision. By the beginning of the 18th century, the equity jurisdiction of the Exchequer of Pleas was firmly cemented, as a result, each court cited the others cases as precedent, and drew closely together. In addition, 18th-century Acts of Parliament treated them in the same way, at the same time, the Treasury became more and more important, leading to a reduction in the inferior Exchequers influence. Despite these warning signs, the Exchequer continued to flourish, maintaining a large amount of business, the Court of Chancery, however, had long had an established method of appealing to the Lords, and later introduced an intermediary appellate court – the Court of Appeal in Chancery. The Exchequers fees were also higher than those of the Court of Chancery, as a result, the Administration of Justice Act 1841 formally dissolved the equitable jurisdiction of the court
24.
John Walpole Willis
–
John Walpole Willis was an English-born judge, and a judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales. The second son of Captain William Willis and his wife Mary Hamilton Smyth, Willis was born at Holyhead, Anglesey, Willis was educated at Rugby, Charterhouse and Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he took an M. A. He was called to the English bar and practised as a chancery barrister, in 1820-1 he published his Pleadings in Equity, and in 1827 A Practical Treatise on the Duties and Responsibilities of Trustees. In 1823, the Earl of Strathmore applied to Willis for legal advice, while a frequent guest in the Earls household, Willis met his daughter and they married the following year, and settled with Williss widowed mother and his sister at Hendon. Their son, Robert Bruce Willis, was born in 1826, Willis and his family arrived in Canada on 17 September. Willis had a low opinion of Robinson, having observed that any proposition that did not originate with himself was not generally attended with his approbation. Willis allied himself with a group of lawyers who were chief opposition spokesmen, John Rolph, William Warren Baldwin and his son Robert, another friend was the novelist- at that time Secretary of the Canada Company- John Galt. Willis returned to England in July with his mother, leaving his sister, wife and this separation led to the dissolution of his marriage, his wife, in May 1829, leaving her son with a maid and absconding with an infantry lieutenant. The question was referred to the council which ruled against Willis. His conduct was treated as an error of judgment and he was given appointment as a judge in Demerara, British Guiana, appointed Vice-President of the Court of Civil. He served as first puisne judge, i. e. second in rank after the Chief Justice, at first, Willis seemed well-suited to Guiana, he avoided becoming embroiled in local politics, and enjoyed close and cordial relations with a number of the colonys influential people. During this period, he married Ann Susanna Kent Bund, daughter and heir of Col. Thomas Henry Bund, of Wick House, on 3 November 1837 he arrived in Sydney with his new wife. He also brought forward the question whether the justice had forfeited his office by acting as judge of the admiralty court. Matters came to such a pass that in March 1840 the governor, Sir George Gipps, arriving in Melbourne with 43 tonnes of luggage, he soon came in conflict with the press, the legal fraternity, and members of the public. In October 1842 Gipps stated in a dispatch that, In February 1843 Gipps recommended to Lord Stanley that Willis should be removed from his position, Willis left Melbourne for London later in February and appealed to the English government. In August 1846 the privy council reversed the order for his dismissal on technical grounds, Willis then offered his resignation, but this was not accepted and his commission was revoked. He died on 10 September 1877, survived by the son of his first marriage, the novelist Rolf Boldrewood, Williss neighbour while posted in Sydney, described his genial and gracious personality while shooting, which when in court became impatience of contradiction. Infirmity of temper painful to witness and dangerous to encounter, despite a haughty and imperious manner, Willis was nonetheless popular with the public, receiving strong support from certain quarters
25.
Inns of Court Regiment
–
The Inns of Court Regiment was a British Army regiment that existed under that name between May 1932 and May 1961. However, the unit traces its lineage back further, to at least 1584. One such defence was organised in 1381 against Wat Tyler, during the Peasants Revolt, in 1467, the Chief Justice of the Exchequer, then Recorder of the city of London, was instrumental in defeating a Lancastrian attack on the city of London. The first organised body formed by the Inns of Court appears to have been in Holborn, London, at that time, associations known as trained bands were formed to assist in the defence of the country from the Spanish Armada. The deed itself, associating the members of Lincolns Inn, is still in existence, having been preserved by its first signatory, Thomas Egerton, then Solicitor-General, and afterwards Lord Chancellor. The history is ambiguous thereafter, although many lawyers were known to join the Royalists, certainly, members of The Inns were called out against the Jacobite rising of 1745 and the Gordon riots of 1780. Indeed, future prime minister William Pitt the Younger served in the Lincolns Inn Company, the Bloomsbury and Inns of Court Volunteers was reformed in 1797 during the Napoleonic Wars. It was shortly afterwards that the regiment gained its enduring nickname, during a review by King George III in Hyde Park in 1803, the King used his dislike for lawyers – particularly ones carrying arms – to name the massed ranks of the Law Association as The Devils Own. It is understood that the King was in health and excellent spirits at the time. When the Temple companies had defiled before him, his Majesty enquired of Lord David Erskine and they are all lawyers, Sire, said Erskine. Call them the Devils Own, call them the Devils Own, and the Devils Own they were called accordingly. Even in the present day this appellation has not wholly died away, the modern history of the regiment began again in 1859, shortly after Crimea, with the formation of the 23rd Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps. In 1881, the became a battalion of the Rifle Brigade and was renamed the 14th Middlesex Rifle Volunteer Corps in 1889. The regiment then formed part of the 2nd London Volunteer Brigade, the regiment had an establishment of one squadron of cavalry and three companies of infantry. In 1920, the regiment was reformed with an establishment of one squadron of cavalry and its designation was changed to the Inns of Court Regiment in 1932, when it was again reorganised along similar lines. The two infantry companies were converted to light cavalry squadrons in 1937 and two years later formed the Royal Armoured Corps Wing, Sandhurst. In 1939, the squadron joined a cavalry training regiment in Edinburgh. From 23 January 1941 until 15 January 1943, the regiment was part of the 9th Armoured Division in Great Britain, from 1943, it was under the direct command of 1 Corps, the assault formation of 21 Army Group and later led the advance of 11th Armoured Division
26.
Inns of Court & City Yeomanry
–
The Inns of Court & City Yeomanry is the modern incarnation of several predecessor units of the British Army. The Inns of Court & City Yeomanry has its headquarters in Chancery Lane, the Inns of Court & City Yeomanry was formed only in 1961, through the amalgamation of The Inns of Court Regiment and The City of London Yeomanry. By mid-nineteenth century, the Inns of Court Regiment had evolved from a Volunteer Rifle Corps and its nickname, The Rough Riders was taken from a famous body of volunteer horsemen who fought in the Spanish–American War of 1898. During the period prior to 1967, the IC&CY served as an armoured car regiment, the 1967 reorganisation of the TA then led to the regiment being reduced to an infantry company, and assigned as A Company, the London Yeomanry and Territorials. Personnel from A Company were then used to form 68 Signal Squadron, a Home Service Force Squadron was badged as IC&CY and designated as 348 Signals Squadron HSF from 1986 to 1993. The squadron was based at Lincolns Inn and wore the original IC&CY cap badge,348 Squadron was organised on the lines of an infantry rifle company and had a key point defence role. The HSF unit ran on for another 12 months as a semi-official Defence Platoon, following the reorganisation of the Royal Signals Reserves in 2009,68 Signal Squadron merged with 70 Signal Squadron to form 68 Signal Squadron, or ICCEY for short. Under SDSR in 2014907 Signal Troop was subordinated to 36 Signal Squadron,68 squadron reverted to the name of 68 Signal Squadron, with a footprint solely inside north London. The Signal Squadron is a Close Support Squadron within 71st Yeomanry Signal Regiment, the Regimental Museum, which contains a variety of records, photographs and other militaria relating to the IC&CY, ICR and COLY, is located at 10 Stone Buildings, Lincolns Inn, London. 68 Signal Squadron Inns of Court and City Yeomanry Inns of Court & City and Essex Yeomanry Museum
27.
Barristers
–
A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
28.
Trade
–
Trade, or commerce, involves the transfer of goods or services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. A network that allows trade is called a market, the original form of trade, barter, saw the direct exchange of goods and services for other goods and services. Barter is trading things without the use of money, later one side of the barter started to involve precious metals, which gained symbolic as well as practical importance. Modern traders generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money, as a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning. The invention of money greatly simplified and promoted trade, Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade, while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade. Trade exists due to the specialization and division of labor, in which most people concentrate on an aspect of production. As such, trade at prices between locations can benefit both locations. Trade originated with human communication in prehistoric times, trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who bartered goods and services from each other before the innovation of modern-day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In the Mediterranean region the earliest contact between cultures were of members of the species Homo sapiens principally using the Danube river, at a time beginning 35–30,000 BCE, Trade is believed to have taken place throughout much of recorded human history. There is evidence of the exchange of obsidian and flint during the stone age, Trade in obsidian is believed to have taken place in Guinea from 17,000 BCE. The earliest use of obsidian in the Near East dates to the Lower, Trade in the stone age was investigated by Robert Carr Bosanquet in excavations of 1901. Trade is believed to have first begun in south west Asia, obsidian was traded at distances of 900 kilometres within the Mediterranean region. Trade in the Mediterranean during the Neolithic of Europe was greatest in this material, networks were in existence at around 12,000 BCE Anatolia was the source primarily for trade with the Levant, Iran and Egypt according to Zarins study of 1990. Melos and Lipari sources produced among the most widespread trading in the Mediterranean region as known to archaeology, the Sari-i-Sang mine in the mountains of Afghanistan was the largest source for trade of Lapis Lazuli. The material was most largely traded during the Kassite period of Babylonia beginning 1595 BCE, ebla was a prominent trading centre during the third millennia, with a network reaching into Anatolia and north Mesopotamia. Materials used for creating jewelry were traded with Egypt since 3000 BCE, long-range trade routes first appeared in the 3rd millennium BCE, when Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley. The Phoenicians were noted sea traders, traveling across the Mediterranean Sea, for this purpose they established trade colonies the Greeks called emporia
29.
Arbitration
–
Arbitration, a form of alternative dispute resolution, is a technique for the resolution of disputes outside the courts. The parties to a dispute refer it to arbitration by one or more persons, a third party reviews the evidence in the case and imposes a decision that is legally binding on both sides and enforceable in the courts. Arbitration is often used for the resolution of disputes, particularly in the context of international commercial transactions. Arbitration can be voluntary or mandatory and can be either binding or non-binding. Non-binding arbitration is similar to mediation in that a decision cannot be imposed on the parties, by one definition arbitration is binding and non-binding arbitration is therefore technically not arbitration. Arbitration is a proceeding in which a dispute is resolved by an impartial adjudicator whose decision the parties to the dispute have agreed, or legislation has decreed, will be final, there are limited rights of review and appeal of arbitration awards. This is especially useful when the matter of the dispute is highly technical. Arbitration is often faster than litigation in court, because of the provisions of the New York Convention 1958, arbitration awards are generally easier to enforce in other nations than court verdicts. In most legal systems there are very limited avenues for appeal of an arbitral award, if the arbitration is mandatory and binding, the parties waive their rights to access the courts and to have a judge or jury decide the case. Although usually thought to be speedier, when there are multiple arbitrators on the panel, discovery may be more limited in arbitration or entirely nonexistent. The potential to generate billings by attorneys may be less than pursuing the dispute through trial, unlike court judgments, arbitration awards themselves are not directly enforceable. A party seeking to enforce an arbitration award must resort to judicial remedies, by their nature, the subject matter of some disputes is not capable of arbitration. For example, until the 1980s, antitrust matters were not arbitrable in the United States. Matters relating to crimes, status and family law are not considered to be arbitrable. However, most other disputes that involve private rights between two parties can be resolved using arbitration, in some disputes, parts of claims may be arbitrable and other parts not. Some legal orders exclude or restrict the possibility of arbitration for reasons of the protection of members of the public. Arbitration agreements are generally divided into two types, Agreements which provide that, if a dispute should arise, it will be resolved by arbitration, sometimes, legal significance attaches to the type of arbitration agreement. For example, in certain Commonwealth countries, it is possible to provide each party should bear their own costs in a conventional arbitration clause
30.
Mediation
–
All participants in mediation are encouraged to actively participate in the process. Mediation is a process in that it is focused primarily upon the needs, rights. The mediator uses a variety of techniques to guide the process in a constructive direction. A mediator is facilitative in that s/he manages the interaction between parties and facilitates open communication, Mediation is also evaluative in that the mediator analyzes issues and relevant norms, while refraining from providing prescriptive advice to the parties. Mediation, as used in law, is a form of dispute resolution. Typically, a party, the mediator, assists the parties to negotiate a settlement. Disputants may mediate disputes in a variety of domains, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community, the term mediation broadly refers to any instance in which a third party helps others reach agreement. More specifically, mediation has a structure, timetable and dynamics that ordinary negotiation lacks, the process is private and confidential, possibly enforced by law. The mediator acts as a third party and facilitates rather than directs the process. Mediation is becoming a peaceful and internationally accepted solution in order to end conflict. Mediation can be used to resolve disputes of any magnitude, Mediators use various techniques to open, or improve, dialogue and empathy between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement. Much depends on the skill and training. As the practice gained popularity, training programs, certifications and licensing followed, producing trained, while a case in the hands of a lawyer or a court may take months or years to resolve, mediation usually achieves a resolution in a matter of hours. Taking less time means expending less money on hourly fees and costs, confidentiality While court hearings are public, mediation remains strictly confidential. No one but the parties to the dispute and the mediator or mediators know what happened, confidentiality in mediation has such importance that in most cases the legal system cannot force a mediator to testify in court as to the content or progress of mediation. Many mediators destroy their notes taken during a mediation once that mediation has finished, the only exceptions to such strict confidentiality usually involve child abuse or actual or threatened criminal acts. Control Mediation increases the control the parties have over the resolution, in a court case, the parties obtain a resolution, but control resides with the judge or jury. Often, a judge or jury cannot legally provide solutions that emerge in mediation, thus, mediation is more likely to produce a result that is mutually agreeable for the parties
31.
John Timbs
–
John Timbs was an English author and antiquary. Some of his work was published under the pseudonym of Horace Welby, Timbs was born in 1801 in Clerkenwell, London. He was educated at a school at Hemel Hempstead. In his sixteenth year he was apprenticed to a druggist and printer at Dorking and he had early shown literary capacity, and when nineteen began to write for the Monthly Magazine. A year later he became secretary to Sir Richard Phillips, its proprietor and he was successively editor of the Mirror of Literature, the Harlequin, The Literary World, and sub-editor of the Illustrated London News. He was also founder and first editor of Year-Book of Science and his published works amounted to more than one hundred and fifty volumes. In 1834 he was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London, burial St Peter and St Paul Churchyard, Edenbridge, Sevenoaks District, Kent, England. Some of these were published under the pseudonym, Horace Welby, as can be seen, his work continued to be re-edited and republished well after his death. Signs before death, and authenticated apparitions, in one hundred narratives,1825 Arcana of science and art, or, An annual register of useful inventions and improvements, discoveries and new facts, in mechanics, chemistry, natural history, and social economy,1828 Harlequin. 1829 Laconics,1829 Literary world, a journal of popular information,1840 Things not generally known, familiarly explained. A book for old and young,1856 Curiosities of history,1857 School-days of eminent men. Sketches of the progress of education in England, from the reign of King Alfred to that of Queen Victoria,1860 Popular errors explained and illustrated. 1862 Century of anecdote from 1760 to 1860, supernatural stories, sights and shows, strange adventures, and remarkable persons. 1865 Something for everybody, and a garland for the year,1866 Club life of London,1866 English Eccentrics and Eccentricities. 1866, in two volumes Mysteries of life, death, and futurity,1868 Mountain adventures in the countries of the world. 1869 Wonderful inventions, from the compass to the electric telegraph cable. 1870 Abbeys, castles, and ancient halls of England and Wales,1872 Thoughts for times, Works by John Timbs at Project Gutenberg Works by or about John Timbs at Internet Archive Timbs, John
32.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
33.
Court of Chancery
–
The Court of Chancery was a court of equity in England and Wales that followed a set of loose rules to avoid the slow pace of change and possible harshness of the common law. The Chancery had jurisdiction over all matters of equity, including trusts, land law, the administration of the estates of lunatics and the guardianship of infants. Thus the Court of Chancery had a far greater remit than the law courts, whose decisions it had the jurisdiction to overrule for much of its existence. From the time of Elizabeth I onwards the Court was severely criticised for its pace, large backlogs. Those problems persisted until its dissolution, despite being mitigated somewhat by reforms, for much of its existence the Court was formally led by the Lord Chancellor, assisted by the judges of the common law courts. The staff of the court included a number of clerks, led by the Master of the Rolls. In 1813 a Vice-Chancellor was appointed to deal with the Chancerys increasing backlogs, offices of the Chancery were sold by the Lord Chancellor for much of its history, raising large amounts of money. The Court of Chancery originated, as did the other High Courts before 1875, in the Norman curia regis or Kings Council, maintained by most early rulers of England after 1066. Under the feudal system, the Council was made up of the Monarch and its jurisdiction was virtually unlimited, with executive, judicial and legislative functions. This large body contained lawyers, peers, and members of the Church and it soon became apparent that it was too unwieldy to deal with the nations day-to-day business. The Chancery started as the staff of the Lord Chancellor, described as a great secretarial bureau, a home office, a foreign office. The Chancery came to prominence after the decline of the Exchequer, dealing with the law of equity, something more fluid, complaints were normally brought via a bill or petition, which had to show that the common law did not provide a remedy for the problem. The Chancery writs were in French, and later English, rather than the Latin used for common law bills, in the reign of Edward III, the Court found a fixed home at Westminster Hall, where it sat almost continually until its dissolution. Prior to this, the disposing of justice had been made difficult by the fact that the Lord Chancellor was required to travel with the King wherever he went. By 1345 the Lord Chancellor began to be seen as the leader of the Court of Chancery, rather than as a representative of the King, and writs and bills were addressed directly to him. Under Richard II it became practice to consider the Chancery separate from the curia, the King gave evasive answers to the requests, and made no decision. Kerly suggests that many complaints from the Commons came from lawyers of the common law, the growth in the number of is a primary indicator of the changing position of Chancery. Chancery English, used in documents, can be seen as the beginnings of Standard English – a national standard of spelling
.jpg)
