1.
Illustration
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The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
2.
Image
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Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph or screen display, or three-dimensional, such as a statue or hologram. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water. The word image is used in the broader sense of any two-dimensional figure such as a map, a graph. A volatile image is one that only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process. A mental image exists in a mind, as something one remembers or imagines. The subject of an image need not be real, it may be a concept, such as a graph, function. For example, Sigmund Freud claimed to have dreamed purely in aural-images of dialogs, a still image is a single static image, as distinguished from a kinetic image. This phrase is used in photography, visual media and the industry to emphasize that one is not talking about movies. A film still is a taken on the set of a movie or television program during production. In literature, imagery is a picture which appeals to the senses. It can both be figurative and literal, a moving image is typically a movie or video, including digital video. It could also be an animated display such as a zoetrope, library of Congress – Format Descriptions for Still Images Image Processing – Online Open Research Group Legal Issues Regarding Images Image Copyright Case
3.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
4.
Animation
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Animation is the process of making the illusion of motion and the illusion of change by means of the rapid display of a sequence of images that minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon, animators are artists who specialize in the creation of animation. Animation can be recorded with either analogue media, a book, motion picture film, video tape, digital media, including formats with animated GIF, Flash animation. To display animation, a camera, computer, or projector are used along with new technologies that are produced. Animation creation methods include the traditional animation creation method and those involving stop motion animation of two and three-dimensional objects, paper cutouts, puppets and clay figures, Images are displayed in a rapid succession, usually 24,25,30, or 60 frames per second. Computer animation processes generating animated images with the general term computer-generated imagery, 3D animation uses computer graphics, while 2D animation is used for stylistic, low bandwidth and faster real-time renderings. An earthen goblet discovered at the site of the 5, 200-year-old Shahr-e Sūkhté in southeastern Iran, the artifact bears five sequential images depicting a Persian Desert Ibex jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree. They may, of course, refer to Chinese shadow puppets, in the 19th century, the phenakistoscope, zoetrope and praxinoscope were introduced. A thaumatrope is a toy with a small disk with different pictures on each side. The phenakistoscope was invented simultaneously by Belgian Joseph Plateau and Austrian Simon von Stampfer in 1831, the phenakistoscope consists of a disk with a series of images, drawn on radi evenly space around the center of the disk. John Barnes Linnett patented the first flip book in 1868 as the kineograph, the first animated projection was created in France, by Charles-Émile Reynaud, who was a French science teacher. Reynaud created the Praxinoscope in 1877 and the Théâtre Optique in December 1888, on 28 October 1892, he projected the first animation in public, Pauvre Pierrot, at the Musée Grévin in Paris. This film is notable as the first known instance of film perforations being used. His films were not photographed, they were drawn directly onto the transparent strip, in 1900, more than 500,000 people had attended these screenings. Stuart Blackton, who, because of that, is considered the father of American animation, in Europe, the French artist, Émile Cohl, created the first animated film using what came to be known as traditional animation creation methods - the 1908 Fantasmagorie. The film largely consisted of a figure moving about and encountering all manner of morphing objects. There were also sections of live action in which the hands would enter the scene. The film was created by drawing each frame on paper and then shooting each frame onto negative film, the author of the first puppet-animated film was the Russian-born director Wladyslaw Starewicz, known as Ladislas Starevich
5.
Motion graphic
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Motion graphics are pieces of digital footage or animation which create the illusion of motion or rotation, and are usually combined with audio for use in multimedia projects. Motion graphics are displayed via electronic media technology, but may also be displayed via manual powered technology. The term distinguishes still graphics from those with an appearance over time. Motion graphics extend beyond the most commonly used methods of frame-by-frame footage, since there is no universally accepted definition of motion graphics, the official beginning of the art form is disputed. There have been presentations that could be classified as motion graphics as early as the 1800s, the term motion graphics originated with digital video editing in computing, perhaps to keep pace with newer technology. Graphics for television were originally referred to as Broadcast Design, one of the first uses of the term motion graphics was by animator John Whitney, who in 1960 founded a company called Motion Graphics Inc. Saul Bass is a pioneer in the development of feature film title sequences. His work included title sequences for films such as The Man With The Golden Arm, Vertigo, Anatomy of a Murder, North by Northwest, Psycho. His designs were simple, but effectively communicated the mood of the film, before computers were widely available, motion graphics were costly and time-consuming, limiting their use to high-budget filmmaking and television production. Computers began to be used as early as the late 1960s as super computers were capable of rendering crude graphics, John Whitney and Charles Csuri can be considered early pioneers of computer aided animation. In the late 1980s to mid-1990s, expensive proprietary graphics systems such as those from British-based Quantel were quite commonplace in many television stations, Quantel workstations such as the Hal, Henry, Harry, Mirage and Paintbox were the broadcast graphics standard of the time. Many other real time systems were used such as Ampex ADO, Abekas. Early proprietary 3D computer systems were developed specifically for broadcast design such as the Bosch FGS-4000 which was used in the music video for Dire Straits Money for Nothing. The advent of more powerful desktop computers running Photoshop in the mid-90s drastically lowered the costs for producing digital graphics, with the reduced cost of producing motion graphics on a computer, the discipline has seen more widespread use. With the availability of desktop programs such as Adobe After Effects, Discreet Combustion, modern character generators from Aston Broadcast Systems and Chyron Corporations incorporate motion graphics. The term motion graphics was popularized by Trish and Chris Meyers book about the use of Adobe After Effects and this was the beginning of desktop applications which specialized in video production, but were not editing or 3D programs. These new programs collected together special effects, compositing, and color correction toolsets and this in-between notion of motion graphics and the resulting style of animation is why sometimes it is referred to as 2. 5D. Motion graphics continue to evolve as an art form with the incorporation of sweeping camera paths, maxons CINEMA 4D, plugins such as MoGraph and Adobe After Effects
6.
Walt Disney Animation Studios
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Founded on October 16,1923, it is a division of The Walt Disney Studios. The studio has produced 56 feature films, from Snow White and it was founded as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in 1923 and incorporated as Walt Disney Productions in 1929. The studio was dedicated to producing short films until it expanded into feature production in 1934. In 1983, Walt Disney Productions named its film studio Walt Disney Pictures. In 2006, Walt Disney Feature Animation took on its current name, the studio also pioneered the art of storyboarding, which is now a standard technique used in both animated and live-action filmmaking. Walt Disney Animation Studios continues to produce films using both traditional animation and computer-generated imagery, at the present, Andrew Millstein is the general manager of the studio for day-to-day business affairs, under the direction of Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter who also oversee Pixar. Kansas City, Missouri, natives Walt Disney and Roy O, in February 1924, the studio moved next door to office space of its own at 4649 Kingswell Avenue. Disney refused, and as Universal owned the rights to Oswald rather than Disney, most of Disneys staff was hired away by Mintz to move over, once Disneys Oswald contract was done in mid-1928. The first two Mickey Mouse cartoons, Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho, were previewed in limited engagements during the summer of 1928, the Mickey Mouse series of sound cartoons, distributed by Powers through Celebrity Productions, quickly became the most popular cartoon series in the United States. A second Disney series of cartoons, the Silly Symphonies. Powers in return signed away Ub Iwerks, who began producing cartoons at his own studio, columbia distributed Disneys shorts for two years before the Disney studio entered a new distribution deal with United Artists in 1932. The result was the Silly Symphony Flowers and Trees, the first film released in full Technicolor. Flowers and Trees was a success, and all Silly Symphonies were subsequently produced in Technicolor. In 1934, Walt Disney gathered several key members and announced his plans to make his first feature animated film. In the course of teaching the classes, Graham and the created or formalized many of the techniques and processes that became the key tenets. During the production of Snow White, work had continued on the Mickey Mouse, Mickey Mouse switched to Technicolor in 1935, by which time the series had added several major supporting characters, among them Mickeys dog Pluto and their friends Donald Duck and Goofy. Donald, Goofy, and Pluto would all be appearing in series of their own by 1940, the Silly Symphonies, which garnered seven Academy Awards, ended in 1939. The success of Snow White allowed Disney to build a new, larger studio on Buena Vista Street in Burbank, Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering on April 2,1940, with Walt Disney as president and chairman and Roy Disney as CEO
7.
Walt Disney Feature Animation
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Founded on October 16,1923, it is a division of The Walt Disney Studios. The studio has produced 56 feature films, from Snow White and it was founded as the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in 1923 and incorporated as Walt Disney Productions in 1929. The studio was dedicated to producing short films until it expanded into feature production in 1934. In 1983, Walt Disney Productions named its film studio Walt Disney Pictures. In 2006, Walt Disney Feature Animation took on its current name, the studio also pioneered the art of storyboarding, which is now a standard technique used in both animated and live-action filmmaking. Walt Disney Animation Studios continues to produce films using both traditional animation and computer-generated imagery, at the present, Andrew Millstein is the general manager of the studio for day-to-day business affairs, under the direction of Edwin Catmull and John Lasseter who also oversee Pixar. Kansas City, Missouri, natives Walt Disney and Roy O, in February 1924, the studio moved next door to office space of its own at 4649 Kingswell Avenue. Disney refused, and as Universal owned the rights to Oswald rather than Disney, most of Disneys staff was hired away by Mintz to move over, once Disneys Oswald contract was done in mid-1928. The first two Mickey Mouse cartoons, Plane Crazy and The Galloping Gaucho, were previewed in limited engagements during the summer of 1928, the Mickey Mouse series of sound cartoons, distributed by Powers through Celebrity Productions, quickly became the most popular cartoon series in the United States. A second Disney series of cartoons, the Silly Symphonies. Powers in return signed away Ub Iwerks, who began producing cartoons at his own studio, columbia distributed Disneys shorts for two years before the Disney studio entered a new distribution deal with United Artists in 1932. The result was the Silly Symphony Flowers and Trees, the first film released in full Technicolor. Flowers and Trees was a success, and all Silly Symphonies were subsequently produced in Technicolor. In 1934, Walt Disney gathered several key members and announced his plans to make his first feature animated film. In the course of teaching the classes, Graham and the created or formalized many of the techniques and processes that became the key tenets. During the production of Snow White, work had continued on the Mickey Mouse, Mickey Mouse switched to Technicolor in 1935, by which time the series had added several major supporting characters, among them Mickeys dog Pluto and their friends Donald Duck and Goofy. Donald, Goofy, and Pluto would all be appearing in series of their own by 1940, the Silly Symphonies, which garnered seven Academy Awards, ended in 1939. The success of Snow White allowed Disney to build a new, larger studio on Buena Vista Street in Burbank, Walt Disney Productions had its initial public offering on April 2,1940, with Walt Disney as president and chairman and Roy Disney as CEO
8.
Diane Disney Miller
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Diane Disney Miller was the oldest and only biological child of Walt Disney and his wife Lillian Bounds Disney. Miller published a series of eight pieces for the Saturday Evening Post in 1956 titled My Dad, Walt Disney, in 1957 she published the book The Story of Walt Disney. After her husband was removed from his position at Walt Disney Productions in 1984. Miller was instrumental in pushing ahead with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in downtown Los Angeles, the project was initiated with a $50 million gift from her mother in 1988, but was stalled for a time due to cost negotiations. Miller ensured the original design by Frank Gehry went ahead, Miller was present at the Disneyland 50th birthday celebration on July 17,2005, where she read her fathers original dedication of the theme park from 50 years prior. She was directly involved in organizing development of The Walt Disney Family Museum in the Presidio of San Francisco, when she was 20 years old, Disney and then-USC Trojans football player Ron Miller were introduced on a blind date. After a period of dating, the couple were married in a church wedding on May 9,1954. Their first child, Christopher, was born in December of the same year, the couple would go on to have six more children, Joanna, Tamara, Jennifer, Walter Elias Disney Miller, Ronald, and Patrick. Five months after their wedding, Millers husband was drafted into the U. S. Army, following his army service, Miller played a season as tight end with the Los Angeles Rams. In the early 1970s, the Millers purchased a vineyard in Napa Valley and their intention was to upgrade the property, replant premium varietals, install new trellising and frost protection, but not to build or run a winery. Miller and her decided to construct their own winery in 1980. Beginning in 1981, they operated Silverado Vineyards Winery on a tract of their Napa property, Diane Disney Miller died on November 19,2013, at age 79 from medical complications that developed after a fall. She is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, where her fathers ashes are also located, the film Saving Mr. Banks is dedicated to her memory. List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards Diane Disney Miller at the Internet Movie Database Silverado Vineyards site
9.
Three Little Pigs
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The Three Little Pigs is a fable/fairy tale about three anthropomorphic pigs who build three houses of different materials. A big bad wolf blows down the first two houses, made of straw and sticks respectively, but is unable to destroy the third pigs house. Printed versions date back to the 1840s, but the story itself is thought to be much older, the phrases used in the story, and the various morals drawn from it, have become embedded in Western culture. It is a type 124 folktale in the Aarne–Thompson classification system, the Three Little Pigs was included in The Nursery Rhymes of England, by James Halliwell-Phillipps. The story in its arguably best-known form appeared in English Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacobs, first published in 1890, the story begins with the title characters being sent out into the world by their mother, to seek out their fortune. The first little pig builds a house of straw, but a wolf blows it down, the second little pig builds a house of sticks, which the wolf also blows down, and the second little pig is also devoured. Each exchange between wolf and pig features ringing proverbial phrases, namely, Little pig, little pig, no, no, not by the hair on my chinny chin chin. Then Ill huff, and Ill puff, and Ill blow your house in, the third little pig builds a house of bricks. The wolf fails to blow down the house and he then attempts to trick the pig out of the house by asking to meet him at various places, but he is outwitted each time. Finally, the wolf resolves to come down the chimney, whereupon the pig catches the wolf in a cauldron of boiling water, slams the lid on, then cooks and eats him. The story uses the rule of three, expressed in this case as a contrasting three, as the third pigs brick house turns out to be the only one which is adequate to withstand the wolf. Variations of the tale appeared in Uncle Remus, His Songs and Sayings in 1881, the story also made an appearance in Nights with Uncle Remus in 1883, both by Joel Chandler Harris, in which the pigs were replaced by Brer Rabbit. Andrew Lang included it in The Green Fairy Book, published in 1892, in contrast to Jacobss version, which left the pigs nameless, Langs retelling cast the pigs as Browny, Whitey, and Blacky. It also set apart by exploring each pigs character and detailing interaction between them. The antagonist of this version is a fox, not a wolf, the pigs houses are made either of mud, cabbage, or brick. Blacky, the pig, rescues his brother and sister from the foxs den after the fox has been defeated. The most well-known version of the story is an award-winning 1933 Silly Symphony cartoon, the production cast the title characters as Fifer Pig, Fiddler Pig, and Practical Pig. The first two are depicted as both frivolous and arrogant, the story has been somewhat softened
10.
Plane Crazy
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Plane Crazy is an American animated short film directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. The cartoon, released in 1929 by the Walt Disney Studios, was the first creation of the character Mickey Mouse and it was made as a silent film and given a test screening to a theater audience on May 15,1928, but failed to pick up a distributor. Later that year, Disney released Mickeys first sound cartoon, Steamboat Willie, following this, Plane Crazy was released as a sound cartoon on March 17,1929. It was the fourth Mickey film to be released after Steamboat Willie, The Gallopin Gaucho, Mickey is trying to fly an airplane to imitate Charles Lindbergh. After building his own airplane, he does a flight simulation to ensure that the plane is safe for flight but the flight fails, destroying the plane. Using a roadster and remains of his plane to another plane, he asks a young mouse girl. They take a flight with exaggerated, impossible situations. A cow briefly rides the aircraft and this is Clarabelle Cow making her first appearance, though the cow is actually an early, more cowlike predecessor of Clarabelle named Carolyn. Mickey even uses a turkeys tail to use as a tail for his plane, once he regains control of the plane, he repeatedly tries to kiss Minnie. When she refuses, he uses force, he breaks her concentration and terrifies her by throwing her out of the airplane, catching her with the airplane, Minnie then parachutes out of the plane using her bloomers. While distracted by her, Mickey loses control of the plane, Minnie then lands, and Mickey laughs at her. Minnie then storms off, rebuffing him, the short was co-directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. Iwerks was also the animator for this short and spent just two weeks working on it. The sound version contained a soundtrack by Carl W. Stalling and this was the first animated film to use a camera move. The POV shot from the plane made it appear as if the camera was tracking into the ground, in fact, when they shot this scene, they piled books under the spinning background to move the artwork closer to the camera. This adaptation, entitled Lost on a Desert Island, was written by Walt Disney with art by Ub Iwerks, in the Mickey Mouse short The Nifty Nineties, Mickey and Minnies car runs out of control and runs into a cow. The scene was taken almost directly from Plane Crazy, the cartoon Mickeys Airplane Kit from the series Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse featured a similar premise in which Mickey built his own airplane to impress Minnie. In the television series Mickey Mouse Clubhouse, Mickey regularly flies the plane from Plane Crazy which he calls the Toonplane, in Porco Rosso, in a theater in Milan, Porco watches a movie which has references to vintage cartoons
11.
Steamboat Willie
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Steamboat Willie is a 1928 American animated short film directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks. It was produced in black-and-white by Walt Disney Studios and was released by Celebrity Productions, the cartoon is considered the debut of Mickey Mouse and his girlfriend Minnie, although both the characters appeared several months earlier in a test screening of Plane Crazy. Steamboat Willie is especially notable for being the first Disney cartoon with synchronized sound, including character sounds, Disney understood from early on that synchronized sound was the future of film. It was the first cartoon to feature a fully post-produced soundtrack which distinguished it from earlier sound cartoons such as Inkwell Studios Song Car-Tunes, Steamboat Willie became the most popular cartoon of its day. The title of the film is a parody of the Buster Keaton film Steamboat Bill, Walt Disney performed all of the voices in the film, although there is little intelligible dialogue. While the film has received criticism, it has also received wide critical acclaim, not only for introducing one of the worlds most popular cartoon characters. In 1994 members of the animation field voted Steamboat Willie 13th in the book The 50 Greatest Cartoons, in 1998 the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being deemed culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. Mickey Mouse pilots a river steamboat, suggesting that he himself is the captain and he cheerfully whistles Steamboat Bill and sounds the boats three whistles. Soon the real captain, Pete, appears and orders Mickey off the bridge, Mickey blows a raspberry at Pete, and then Pete attempts to kick him but Mickey rushes away in time and Pete kicks himself in the rear accidentally. Mickey rushes down the stairs, slips on a bar of soap on the boats deck, a parrot laughs at him, and Mickey throws the bucket at it. Pete, who has been watching the whole thing, pilots the steamboat himself and he bites off some chewing tobacco and spits into the wind. The spit flies backward and rings the boats bell, amused by this Pete spits again, but it hits himself in the face, making him fuss. The steamboat makes a stop at Podunk Landing to pick up a cargo of various livestock, just as they set off again, Minnie appears, running to catch the boat before it leaves. Mickey does not see her in time, but she runs after the boat along the shore, Landing on deck, Minnie accidentally drops a guitar and some sheet music for the song Turkey in the Straw which are eaten by a goat. The two mice use the body as a phonograph which they play by turning its tail like a crank. Mickey uses various objects on the boat as percussion accompaniment and plays the animals like musical instruments and this ends with them using a cows teeth to play the song as a xylophone. Finally Captain Pete is unamused and puts Mickey to work peeling potatoes, in the potato bin, another parrot appears in the port hole and laughs at him again. The mouse throws a peeled potato at him, knocking him into the river below, the film ends with Mickey laughing
12.
Animator
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An animator is an artist who creates multiple images, known as frames, which give an illusion of movement called animation when displayed in rapid sequence. Animators can work in a variety of fields including film, television, Animation is closely related to filmmaking and like filmmaking is extremely labor-intensive, which means that most significant works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods of creating the images or frames for an animation piece depends on the artistic styles. Other artists who contribute to animated cartoons, but who are not animators, include layout artists, storyboard artists, in hand-drawn Japanese animation productions, such as in Hayao Miyazakis films, the key animator handles both layout and key animation. Some animators in Japan such as Mitsuo Iso take full responsibility for their scenes, one important distinction is between character animators and special effects animators. Usually, a young artist seeking to break into animation is hired for the first time in one of these categories, historically, the creation of animation was a long and arduous process. Each frame of a scene was hand-drawn, then transposed onto celluloid. These finished cels were placed together in sequence over painted backgrounds and filmed. Animation methods have become far more varied in recent years, todays cartoons could be created using any number of interesting methods, mostly using computers to make the animation process cheaper and faster. These more efficient animation procedures have made the job less tedious. Audiences generally find animation to be more interesting with sound. Voice actors and musicians, among other talent, may contribute vocal or music tracks, some early animated films asked the vocal and music talent to synchronize their recordings to already-extant animation. Nowadays, visual development artists will design a character as a 2D drawing or painting, texture artists paint the character with colorful or complex textures, and technical directors set up rigging so that the character can be easily moved and posed. For each scene, layout artists set up cameras and rough blocking. Despite those constraints, the animator is still capable of exercising significant artistic skill, more recently, Chris Buck has remarked that animators have become actors with mice. Some studios bring in acting coaches on feature films to help work through such issues. Each finished film clip is then checked for quality and rushed to a film editor, Animation Computer animation Computer graphics Key frame Sweat box Animation Toolworks Glossary, Who Does What In Animation How An Animated Cartoon Is Made
13.
Warner Bros. Cartoons
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Cartoons, Inc. was the in-house division of Warner Bros. Pictures during the Golden Age of American animation, one of the most successful animation studios in American media history, Warner Bros. Cartoons was primarily responsible for the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies theatrical cartoon short subjects, in 1944, Schlesinger sold the studio to Warner Bros. who continued to operate it as Warner Bros. Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies were briefly subcontracted to Frelengs DePatie-Freleng Enterprises studio from 1964 until 1967, Cartoons studio briefly re-opened in 1967 before shutting its doors for good two years later. That company continues to produce Looney Tunes-related works, in addition to television shows, hugh Harman and Rudolf Ising originated the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies series of animated short subjects in 1930 and 1931, respectively. Both cartoon series were produced for Leon Schlesinger at the Harman-Ising Studio on Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California, pictures releasing the films to theaters. The first Looney Tunes character was the Harman-Ising creation Bosko, The Talk-ink Kid, despite the fact that Bosko was popular among theater audiences, he could never match the popularity of Walt Disneys Mickey Mouse, or even Max Fleischers Betty Boop. In 1933, Harman and Ising parted company with Schlesinger over financial disputes, as a result, Schlesinger set up his own studio on the Warner Bros. lot on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. The Schlesinger studio got off to a start, continuing their one-shot Merrie Melodies. In 1935, Freleng helmed the Merrie Melodies cartoon I Havent Got a Hat, hardaway and King departed, and a new arrival at Schlesingers, Fred Tex Avery, took Frelengs creation and ran with it. Avery directed a string of cartoons starring Porky Pig that established the character as the studios first bona fide star, Schlesinger also gradually moved the Merrie Melodies cartoons from black and white, to two-strip Technicolor in 1934, and finally to full three-strip Technicolor in 1936. The Looney Tunes series would be produced in black-and-white for much longer, because of the limited spacing conditions in the Schlesinger building at 1351 N. From 1936 until 1944, animation directors and animators such as Freleng, Avery, Clampett, Jones, Arthur Davis, Robert McKimson, and Frank Tashlin worked at the studio. During this period, these creators introduced several of the most popular characters to date, including Daffy Duck, Elmer Fudd, Bugs Bunny. A few months earlier he banished all unionized employees in what became known in retrospective as the Looney Tune Lockout, by 1942, the Schlesinger studio had surpassed Walt Disney Productions as the most successful producer of animated shorts in the United States. Between 1942 and 1945, the Schelsinger studio produced a number of films for the United States military in support of its efforts in World War II, in 1944, Schlesinger sold his studio to Warner Bros. which renamed the company Warner Bros. Cartoons, Inc. and Edward Selzer, was appointed by Warner Bros. as the new head of the studio after Schlesinger retired. In September 1944 Frank Tashlin left, and in October 1946, tashlins unit was initially taken over by Robert McKimson who later took over Clampetts unit
14.
Gone with the Wind (film)
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Gone with the Wind is a 1939 American epic historical romance film adapted from Margaret Mitchells 1936 novel Gone with the Wind. It was produced by David O. Selznick of Selznick International Pictures, the leading roles are portrayed by Vivien Leigh, Clark Gable, Leslie Howard, and Olivia de Havilland. Production was difficult from the start, filming was delayed for two years due to Selznicks determination to secure Gable for the role of Rhett Butler, and the search for Scarlett led to 1,400 women being interviewed for the part. The original screenplay was written by Sidney Howard, but underwent many revisions by several writers in an attempt to get it down to a suitable length, the film received positive reviews upon its release in December 1939, although some reviewers found it dramatically lacking and bloated. The casting was praised and many reviewers found Leigh especially suited to her role as Scarlett. It set records for the number of wins and nominations at the time. The film was popular, becoming the highest-earning film made up to that point. When adjusted for inflation, it is still the most successful film in box-office history. It was re-released periodically throughout the 20th century and became ingrained in popular culture, part 1 On the eve of the American Civil War in 1861, Scarlett OHara lives at Tara, her familys cotton plantation in Georgia, with her parents and two sisters. At the Twelve Oaks party, Scarlett secretly declares her feelings to Ashley, Scarlett is incensed when she discovers another guest, Rhett Butler, has overheard their conversation, a smitten Rhett promises Scarlett he will keep her secret. The barbecue is disrupted by the declaration of war and the men rush to enlist, as Scarlett watches Ashley kiss Melanie goodbye, Melanies younger brother Charles proposes to her. Although she does not love him, Scarlett consents and they are married before he leaves to fight, Scarlett is widowed when Charles dies from a bout of pneumonia and measles while serving in the Confederate Army. Scarletts mother sends her to the Hamilton home in Atlanta to cheer her up, Scarlett, who should not attend a party while in mourning, attends a charity bazaar in Atlanta with Melanie where she runs into Rhett again, now a blockade runner for the Confederacy. Celebrating a Confederate victory and to money for the Confederate war effort. Rhett makes a large bid for Scarlett and, to the disapproval of the guests. The tide of war turns against the Confederacy after the Battle of Gettysburg in which many of the men of Scarletts town are killed, upon her return home, Scarlett finds Tara deserted, except for her father, her sisters, and two former slaves, Mammy and Pork. Scarlett learns that her mother has just died of fever and her father has become incompetent. With Tara pillaged by Union troops and the fields untended, Scarlett vows she will do anything for the survival of her family and herself
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David O. Selznick
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David O. Selznick was an American film producer, screenwriter and film studio executive. He is best known for producing Gone with the Wind and Rebecca, David Selznick was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the son of Florence Anna and silent movie producer and distributor Lewis J. Selznick. His parents were Ukrainian Jewish immigrants and he had four siblings and his dad was born in Kyiv in 1870. Selznick added the O to distinguish himself from an uncle with the same name and he studied at Columbia University in New York City and worked as an apprentice for his father until the elders bankruptcy in 1923. In 1926, Selznick moved to Hollywood, and with the help of his fathers connections and he left MGM for Paramount Pictures in 1928, where he worked until 1931, when he joined RKO as Head of Production. David Selznicks years at RKO were fruitful, and he worked on films, including A Bill of Divorcement. Rockabye, Bird of Paradise, Our Betters, and King Kong, while at RKO, he also gave George Cukor his directing break. In 1933 he returned to MGM where his father-in-law, Louis B, mayer established a second prestige production unit for David, parallel to that of powerful Irving Thalberg, who was in poor health. Selznicks unit output included the all star cast movie Dinner at Eight, David Copperfield, Anna Karenina, despite his output of successful movies at MGM, Paramount Pictures, and RKO Pictures, Selznick longed to be an independent producer with his own studio. In 1935 he realized that goal by leasing RKO Culver City Studios & back lot, formed Selznick International Pictures, Gone with the Wind won eight Oscars and two special awards. Selznick also won the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award that same year, in 1940 he produced his second Best Picture Oscar winner in a row, Rebecca, the first Hollywood production for British director Alfred Hitchcock. Selznick had brought Hitchcock over from England, launching the directors American career, Rebecca was Hitchcocks only film to win Best Picture. After Rebecca, Selznick closed Selznick International Pictures and took time off. His business activities included the loan of his artists to other studios, including Alfred Hitchcock, Ingrid Bergman, Vivien Leigh. In 1944, he formed The Selznick Studio and returned to producing pictures with the huge success Since You Went Away and he followed that with the Hitchcock films Spellbound and The Paradine Case, as well as Portrait of Jennie, a vehicle for Jennifer Jones. He also developed projects and sold the packages to other producers. Among the movies that he developed but then sold was Hitchcocks Notorious, in 1949 he co-produced the Carol Reed picture The Third Man with Alexander Korda. Gone with the Wind overshadowed the rest of Selznicks career, later, he was convinced that he had wasted his life trying to out do it
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Comics
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Comics is a medium used to express ideas by images, often combined with text or other visual information. Comics frequently takes the form of juxtaposed sequences of panels of images, often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. Size and arrangement of panels contribute to narrative pacing, cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics, fumetti is a form which uses photographic images. Common forms of comics include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, since the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common, and online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century. The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures, scholars have posited a pre-history as far back as the Lascaux cave paintings. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished particularly in the United States, western Europe, histories of Japanese comics and cartooning propose origins as early as the 12th century. Comics has had a reputation for much of its history. The English term comics is used as a noun when it refers to the medium. Though the term derives from the work that predominated in early American newspaper comic strips. It is common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has further made definition difficult, examples of early comics The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths. Japan had a prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work. Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived The Glasgow Looking Glass in 1825, the most popular was Punch, which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures. American comics developed out of magazines as Puck, Judge. The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcaults The Yellow Kid, early Sunday strips were full-page and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists experimented with sequentiality, movement, shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fishers Mutt and Jeff. In Britain, the Amalgamated Press established a style of a sequence of images with text beneath them, including Illustrated Chips
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Film director
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A film director is a person who directs the making of a film. Generally, a film director controls a films artistic and dramatic aspects, the director has a key role in choosing the cast members, production design, and the creative aspects of filmmaking. Under European Union law, the director is viewed as the author of the film, the film director gives direction to the cast and crew and creates an overall vision through which a film eventually becomes realized, or noticed. Directors need to be able to mediate differences in creative visions, there are many pathways to becoming a film director. Some film directors started as screenwriters, cinematographers, film editors or actors, other film directors have attended a film school. Some outline a general plotline and let the actors dialogue, while others control every aspect. Some directors also write their own screenplays or collaborate on screenplays with long-standing writing partners, some directors edit or appear in their films, or compose the music score for their films. Film directors create a vision through which a film eventually becomes realized/noticed. Realizing this vision includes overseeing the artistic and technical elements of production, as well as directing the shooting timetable. This entails organizing the crew in such a way as to achieve their vision of the film. This requires skills of leadership, as well as the ability to maintain a singular focus even in the stressful. Moreover, it is necessary to have an eye to frame shots and to give precise feedback to cast and crew, thus. Thus the director ensures that all involved in the film production are working towards an identical vision for the completed film. The set of varying challenges he or she has to tackle has been described as a jigsaw puzzle with egos. It adds to the pressure that the success of a film can influence when, omnipresent are the boundaries of the films budget. Additionally, the director may also have to ensure an intended age rating, thus, the position of film director is widely considered to be a highly stressful and demanding one. It has been said that 20-hour days are not unusual, under European Union law, the film director is considered the author or one of the authors of a film, largely as a result of the influence of auteur theory. Auteur theory is a film criticism concept that holds that a directors film reflects the directors personal creative vision
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Cinematographers
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The study and practice of this field is referred to as cinematography. The cinematographer selects the camera, film stock, lens, filters, in the infancy of motion pictures, the cinematographer was usually also the director and the person physically handling the camera. As the art form and technology evolved, a separation between director and camera operator began to emerge, with the advent of artificial lighting and faster film stocks, in addition to technological advancements in optics, the technical aspects of cinematography necessitated a specialist in that area. Cinematography was key during the silent movie era, with no sound apart from music and no dialogue, the films depended on lighting, acting. Similar trade associations have been established in other countries too, there are a number of national associations of cinematographers which represent members and which are dedicated to the advancement of cinematography. S. C. Defines cinematography as, A creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of a work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography
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Television commercial
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A television advertisement is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertisers and marketeers may refer to television commercials as TVCs, Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately-owned television networks. As of 2016 the vast majority of television advertisements consist of advertising spots. Advertisements of this sort have promoted a variety of goods, services. The effects of television advertising upon the public have been the subject of philosophical discourse by such luminaries as Marshall McLuhan. In many countries, including the United States, television advertisements are considered indispensable for a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00, displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase Bulova Watch Time, appeared in the lower quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK went to air on ITV on September 22,1955, the first TV ad broadcast in Asia appeared on Nippon Television in Tokyo on August 28,1953, advertising Seikosha, it also displayed a clock with the current time. To accomplish the first step means different things in different parts of the world depending on the regulation in place, in the UK for example, clearance must be given by the body Clearcast. Another example is Venezuela where clearance is governed by a body called CNAC, the clearance provides guarantee to the broadcasters that the content of the advertisement meets legal guidelines. Because of this, special extended clearance sometimes applies to food, after the advent of cheap video software and consumer cameras, numerous individuals have offered video production services on the internet. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning gags that appear in films, television shows, magazines, comics, or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to whom they appeared. An example is the phrase, Winston tastes good like a cigarette should. Variations of this dialogue and direct references to it appeared as long as two decades after the advertising campaign expired, another example is Wheres the Beef. which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by Walter Mondale. Another popular catch-phrase is Ive fallen and I cant get up, Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns
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Advertising
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Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
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Motion picture
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
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Screenplay
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A screenplay or script is a written work by screenwriters for a film, video game, or television program. These screenplays can be original works or adaptations from existing pieces of writing, in them, the movement, actions, expression, and dialogues of the characters are also narrated. A screenplay written for television is also known as a teleplay, the format is structured in a way that one page usually equates to one minute of screen time. In a shooting script, each scene is numbered, and technical direction may be given, in a spec or a draft in various stages of development, the scenes are not numbered, and technical direction is at a minimum. The standard font for a screenplay is 12 point,10 pitch Courier Typeface, the major components are action and dialogue. The action is written in the present tense, the dialogue are the lines the characters speak. Unique to the screenplay is the use of slug lines, a slug line, also called a master scene heading, occurs at the start of every scene, and is usually made up of three parts. Part one states whether the scene is set inside outside, or both, Part two states location of the scene. Part three, separated from Part two by a hyphen, refers to the time of the scene, each slug line begins a new scene. In a shooting script, the lines are numbered consecutively. These scene numbers serve as mile-post markers in a script and this allows any part of the script to be referred to by scene number. In the United States letter size paper and Courier 12 point are mandatory, the tab settings of the scene elements, which constitute the screenplays layout. The dialogue must be centered and the names must be capitalized, a script usually begins with FADE IN, followed by the first scene description. It might get more specific, e. g. FADE IN ON AN ECU of Ricky as he explains the divorce to Bob, a script will usually end with FADE TO BLACK, though there are variables, like CUT TO BLACK for abrupt endings. The style consists of a grammar that is specific to screenplays and this grammar also consists of two aspects, A prose that is manifestation-oriented, i. e. focuses largely on what is audible and what is visible on screen. This prose may only supply interpretations and explanation if clarity would otherwise be adversely affected, American screenplays are printed single-sided on three-hole-punched paper using the standard American letter size. They are then together with two brass brads in the top and bottom hole. The middle hole is left empty as it would make it harder to quickly read the script
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Konstantin Stanislavski
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Konstantin Sergeievich Stanislavski was a seminal Russian theatre practitioner. He was widely recognised as a character actor and the many productions that he directed garnered a reputation as one of the leading theatre directors of his generation. His principal fame and influence, however, rests on his system of training, preparation. Its influential tours of Europe and the US and its productions of The Seagull and Hamlet established his reputation. At the MATs 30-year anniversary celebrations in 1928, a heart attack on-stage put an end to his acting career. He continued to direct, teach, and write about acting until his death a few weeks before the publication of the first volume of his lifes great work, the acting manual An Actors Work. He was awarded the Order of the Red Banner and the Order of Lenin and was one of the first to be granted the title of Peoples Artist of the USSR. Stanislavski wrote that there is nothing more tedious than an actors biography, at the request of a US publisher, however, he reluctantly agreed to write his autobiography, My Life in Art, though its account of his artistic development is not always accurate. Two English-language biographies have been published, David Magarshacks Stanislavsky, A Life and Jean Benedettis Stanislavski, His Life, Stanislavski subjected his acting and direction to a rigorous process of artistic self-analysis and reflection. His system of acting developed out of his persistent efforts to remove the blocks that he encountered in his performances and he also introduced into the production process a period of discussion and detailed analysis of the play by the cast. Despite the success that this brought, particularly with his Naturalistic stagings of the plays of Anton Chekhov and Maxim Gorky. Both his struggles with Chekhovs drama and his experiments with Symbolism encouraged a greater attention to inner action and he began to develop the more actor-centred techniques of psychological realism and his focus shifted from his productions to rehearsal process and pedagogy. He pioneered the use of theatre studios as a laboratory in which to innovate actor training, the system cultivates what Stanislavski calls the art of experiencing. In rehearsal, the searches for inner motives to justify action. Stanislavskis earliest reference to his system appears in 1909, the year that he first incorporated it into his rehearsal process. The MAT adopted it as its official rehearsal method in 1911, later, Stanislavski further elaborated the system with a more physically grounded rehearsal process that came to be known as the Method of Physical Action. Minimising at-the-table discussions, he now encouraged an active analysis, in which the sequence of dramatic situations are improvised, the best analysis of a play, Stanislavski argued, is to take action in the given circumstances. The Opera-Dramatic Studio embodied the most complete implementation of the training exercises described in his manuals, meanwhile, the transmission of his earlier work via the students of the First Studio was revolutionising acting in the West
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Moscow Art Theatre
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The Moscow Art Theatre is a theatre company in Moscow. It was founded in 1898 by the seminal Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski, together with the playwright and it was conceived as a venue for naturalistic theatre, in contrast to the melodramas that were Russias dominant form of theatre at the time. The theatre, the first to put on shows implementing Stanislavskis system, proved hugely influential in the acting world and in the development of modern American theatre. At the end of the 19th-century, Stanislavski and Nemirovich-Danchenko both wanted to reform Russian theatre to high-quality art that was available to the general public and they set about creating a private theatre over which they had total control. On 22 June 1897, the two men met for the first time at the Slavyanski Bazar for a lunch that started at 2 PM, while Stanislavski’s approach to theatre revolved around the acting process, Nemirovich was far more concerned with the literary, intellectual angle. Stanislavski interviewed all his actors, making sure they were hard working and he made them live together in common housing for months at a time to foster community and trust, which he believed would raise the quality of their performances. Stanislavskis system, in which he trained actors via the studios he founded as part of the theatre. The system played an influence in the development of method acting. This production was so successful that the theatre adopted the seagull as its emblem and he took with him Savva Morozov, one of the theatre’s main investors at the time. Now in dire straits, the decided to accept invitations to go on an international tour in 1906, which started in Berlin and included Dresden, Frankfurt, Prague. The tour was a success, gaining the theatre international acclaim. The tension between the two led Stanislavski to abandon his duties as a member and to relinquish all his power over policy decisions. Mikhail Bulgakov wrote several plays for the MAT and satirised the organisation mercilessly in his novel Black Snow, isaac Babels Sunset was also performed there during the 1920s. A significant number of Moscow Art Theatres actors were awarded the title of Peoples Artist of the USSR. Many actors became known and admired thanks to their film roles. However, the Civil War saw many of the actors being cut off from Moscow. The subsidies it had come to rely on were withdrawn and the theatre was forced to survive on its own profits, by 1923, the MAT was in $25,000 debt. The theatre experienced further blows through the end of the 1930s, a “red director” was appointed to the management by the government to ensure that the MAT’s activities were not counter-revolutionary and that they served the Communist cause
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Anton Chekhov
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Anton Pavlovich Chekhov was a Russian playwright and short story writer, who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short fiction in history. His career as a playwright produced four classics and his best short stories are held in esteem by writers. Along with Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg, Chekhov is often referred to as one of the three figures in the birth of early modernism in the theatre. Chekhov practiced as a medical doctor throughout most of his career, Medicine is my lawful wife, he once said. These four works present a challenge to the ensemble as well as to audiences, because in place of conventional action Chekhov offers a theatre of mood. Chekhov had at first written stories only for financial gain, but as his artistic ambition grew and he made no apologies for the difficulties this posed to readers, insisting that the role of an artist was to ask questions, not to answer them. Anton Chekhov was born on the feast day of St. Anthony the Great 29 January 1860, the third of six surviving children, in Taganrog, a port on the Sea of Azov in southern Russia. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, the son of a serf and his Ukrainian wife, were from the village Vilkhovatka near Kobeliaky. A director of the choir, devout Orthodox Christian, and physically abusive father. Chekhovs mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller who entertained the children with tales of her travels with her cloth-merchant father all over Russia and our talents we got from our father, Chekhov remembered, but our soul from our mother. Despotism and lying so mutilated our childhood that its sickening and frightening to think about it, remember the horror and disgust we felt in those times when Father threw a tantrum at dinner over too much salt in the soup and called Mother a fool. Chekhov attended the Greek School in Taganrog and the Taganrog Gymnasium and he sang at the Greek Orthodox monastery in Taganrog and in his fathers choirs. In 1876, Chekhovs father was declared bankrupt after overextending his finances building a new house, to avoid debtors prison he fled to Moscow, where his two eldest sons, Alexander and Nikolay, were attending university. The family lived in poverty in Moscow, Chekhovs mother physically and emotionally broken by the experience, Chekhov was left behind to sell the familys possessions and finish his education. Chekhov remained in Taganrog for three years, boarding with a man called Selivanov who, like Lopakhin in The Cherry Orchard, had bailed out the family for the price of their house. Chekhov had to pay for his own education, which he managed by private tutoring, catching and selling goldfinches and he sent every ruble he could spare to his family in Moscow, along with humorous letters to cheer them up. Chekhov also enjoyed a series of affairs, one with the wife of a teacher. In 1879, Chekhov completed his schooling and joined his family in Moscow, Chekhov now assumed responsibility for the whole family
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The Seagull
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The Seagull is a play by Russian dramatist Anton Chekhov, written in 1895 and first produced in 1896. The Seagull is generally considered to be the first of his four major plays, though the character of Trigorin is considered Chekhovs greatest male role like Chekhovs other full-length plays, The Seagull relies upon an ensemble cast of diverse, fully developed characters. In contrast to the melodrama of mainstream 19th-century theatre, lurid actions are not shown onstage, characters tend to speak in ways that skirt around issues rather than addressing them directly, in other words, their lines are full of what is known in dramatic practice as subtext. The opening night of the first production was a famous failure, Vera Komissarzhevskaya, playing Nina, was so intimidated by the hostility of the audience that she lost her voice. Chekhov left the audience and spent the last two acts behind the scenes, when supporters wrote to him that the production later became a success, he assumed that they were merely trying to be kind. When Konstantin Stanislavsky, the seminal Russian theatre practitioner of the time, directed it in 1898 for his Moscow Art Theatre, the play was a triumph. Stanislavskis production of The Seagull became one of the greatest events in the history of Russian theatre and one of the greatest new developments in the history of world drama. After purchasing the Melikhovo farm in 1892, Chekhov had built in the middle of a cherry orchard a lodge consisting of three rooms, one containing a bed and another a writing table. In spring, when the cherries were in blossom, it was pleasant to live in this lodge, Chekhov eventually moved in and in a letter written in October 1895 wrote, I am writing a play which I shall probably not finish before the end of November. I am writing it not without pleasure, though I swear fearfully at the conventions of the stage and its a comedy, there are three womens parts, six mens, four acts, landscapes, a great deal of conversation about literature, little action, tons of love. Thus he acknowledged a departure from traditional dramatic action and this departure would become a critical hallmark of the Chekhovian theater. Chekhovs statement also reflects his view of the play as comedy, after the plays disastrous opening night his friend Aleksey Suvorin chided him as being womanish and accused him of being in a funk. Chekhov vigorously denied this, stating, Why this libel, after the performance I had supper at Romanovs. Then I went to bed, slept soundly, and next day went home without uttering a sound of complaint, I acted as coldly and reasonably as a man who has made an offer, received a refusal, and has nothing left but to go. Yes, my vanity was stung, but you know it was not a bolt from the blue, I was expecting a failure, and was prepared for it, as I warned you with perfect sincerity beforehand. He is the brother of the famous actress Arkadina, who has just arrived at the estate for a vacation with her lover. Sorin and his guests gather at a stage to see an unconventional play that Arkadinas son, Konstantin Treplyov, has written. The play-within-a-play features Nina, a woman who lives on a neighboring estate
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Bertolt Brecht
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Eugen Bertolt Friedrich Brecht was a German poet, playwright, and theatre director of the 20th century. Eugen Berthold Friedrich Brecht was born in February 1898 in Augsburg, Bavaria, Brechts mother was a devout Protestant and his father a Catholic. The modest house where he was born is preserved as a Brecht Museum. His father worked for a mill, becoming its managing director in 1914. Thanks to his mothers influence, Brecht knew the Bible, a familiarity that would have an effect on his writing. From her, too, came the image of the self-denying woman that recurs in his drama. Brechts home life was comfortably middle class, despite what his occasional attempt to claim peasant origins implied, at school in Augsburg he met Caspar Neher, with whom he formed a lifelong creative partnership. Neher designed many of the sets for Brechts dramas and helped to forge the distinctive visual iconography of their epic theatre, when Brecht was 16, the First World War broke out. Initially enthusiastic, Brecht soon changed his mind on seeing his classmates swallowed by the army and his expulsion was only prevented through the intervention of his religion teacher. On his fathers recommendation, Brecht sought a loophole by registering for a course at Munich University. There he studied drama with Arthur Kutscher, who inspired in the young Brecht an admiration for the iconoclastic dramatist, from July 1916, Brechts newspaper articles began appearing under the new name Bert Brecht. Brecht was drafted into service in the autumn of 1918, only to be posted back to Augsburg as a medical orderly in a military VD clinic. In July 1919, Brecht and Paula Banholzer had a son, some time in either 1920 or 1921, Brecht took a small part in the political cabaret of the Munich comedian Karl Valentin. Brechts diaries for the few years record numerous visits to see Valentin perform. Brecht compared Valentin to Charlie Chaplin, for his virtually complete rejection of mimicry and he did short sketches in which he played refractory employees, orchestral musicians or photographers, who hated their employers and made them look ridiculous. The employer was played by his partner, Liesl Karlstadt, a popular woman comedian who used to pad herself out, anyone can be creative, he quipped, its rewriting other people thats a challenge. Brecht completed his second play, Drums in the Night. Between November 1921 and April 1922 Brecht made acquaintance with many people in the Berlin cultural scene
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Special effects
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Special effects are illusions or visual tricks used in the film, television, theatre, video game, and simulator industries to simulate the imagined events in a story or virtual world. Special effects are divided into the categories of optical effects. Mechanical effects are usually accomplished during the live-action shooting and this includes the use of mechanized props, scenery, scale models, animatronics, pyrotechnics and atmospheric effects, creating physical wind, rain, fog, snow, clouds, etc. Making a car appear to drive by itself and blowing up a building are examples of mechanical effects, mechanical effects are often incorporated into set design and makeup. For example, a set may be built with doors or walls to enhance a fight scene. An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background, since the 1990s, computer generated imagery has come to the forefront of special effects technologies. It gives filmmakers greater control, and allows many effects to be accomplished safely and convincingly and—as technology improves—at lower costs. As a result, many optical and mechanical effects techniques have been superseded by CGI, in 1857, Oscar Rejlander created the worlds first special effects movie by combining different sections of 30 negatives into a single image. In 1895, Alfred Clark created what is accepted as the first-ever motion picture special effect. While filming a reenactment of the beheading of Mary, Queen of Scots, as the executioner brought the axe above his head, Clark stopped the camera, had all of the actors freeze, and had the person playing Mary step off the set. He placed a Mary dummy in the place, restarted filming. Techniques like these would dominate the production of special effects for a century and it wasnt only the first use of trickery in cinema, it was also the first type of photographic trickery only possible in a motion picture, i. e. the stop trick. Georges Méliès accidentally discovered the same stop trick, according to Méliès, his camera jammed while filming a street scene in Paris. When he screened the film, he found that the trick had caused a truck to turn into a hearse, pedestrians to change direction. Because of his ability to manipulate and transform reality with the cinematograph. From 1910 to 1920, the innovations in special effects were the improvements on the matte shot by Norman Dawn. With the original matte shot, pieces of cardboard were placed to block the exposure of the film, Dawn combined this technique with the glass shot. Rather than using cardboard to block certain areas of the film exposure, from the partially exposed film, a single frame is then projected onto an easel, where the matte is then drawn
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Dialogue
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Dialogue is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. In the 20th century, philosophical treatments of dialogue emerged from thinkers including Mikhail Bakhtin, Paulo Freire, Martin Buber, although diverging in many details, these thinkers have articulated a holistic concept of dialogue as a multi-dimensional, dynamic and context-dependent process of creating meaning. Educators such as Freire and Ramón Flecha have also developed a body of theory, the term dialogue stems from the Greek διάλογος, its roots are διά and λόγος. The first extant author who uses the term is Plato, in whose works it is associated with the art of dialectic. Latin took over the word as dialogus, in the West, Plato has commonly been credited with the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form. Ancient sources indicate, however, that the Platonic dialogue had its foundations in the mime and these works, admired and imitated by Plato, have not survived and we have only the vaguest idea of how they may have been performed. The Mimes of Herodas, which were found in a papyrus in 1891, Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. By about 400 BC he had perfected the Socratic dialogue, all his extant writings, except the Apology and Epistles, use this form. Following Plato, the became a major literary genre in antiquity. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium, also, Two French writers of eminence borrowed the title of Lucian’s most famous collection, both Fontenelle and Fénelon prepared Dialogues des morts. Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, in English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his treatise, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. His contemporary, the Scottish philosopher David Hume wrote Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a prominent 19th-century example of literary dialogue was Landor’s Imaginary Conversations. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799, in Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés and those on Painting by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Platos model, include Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Galiani, Leopardi, in the 19th century, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. English writers including Anstey Guthrie also adopted the form, but these seem to have found less of a popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. Authors who have employed it include George Santayana, in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo. Also Edith Stein and Iris Murdoch used the dialogue form, Stein imagined a dialogue between Edmund Husserl and Thomas Aquinas. Murdoch included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos, Two Platonic Dialogues, more recently Timothy Williamson wrote Tetralogue, a philosophical exchange on a train between four people with radically different epistemological views
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Traditional animation
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Traditional animation is an animation technique where each frame is drawn by hand. The technique was the dominant form of animation in cinema until the advent of computer animation, Animation productions begin by deciding on a story. The oral or literary source material must then be converted into a film script. The storyboard has a somewhat similar to a comic book, and it shows the sequence of shots as consecutive sketches that also indicate transitions, camera angles. The images allow the team to plan the flow of the plot. The storyboard artists will have meetings with the director and may have to redraw or re-board a sequence many times before it meets final approval. Before true animation begins, a soundtrack or scratch track is recorded. A completed cartoon soundtrack will feature music, sound effects, often, an animatic or story reel is made after the soundtrack is created, but before full animation begins. An animatic typically consists of pictures of the storyboard synchronized with the soundtrack and this allows the animators and directors to work out any script and timing issues that may exist with the current storyboard. The storyboard and soundtrack are amended if necessary, and a new animatic may be created and reviewed with the director until the storyboard is perfected, advertising agencies today employ the use of animatics to test their commercials before they are made into full up spots. Animatics use drawn artwork, with moving pieces, video storyboards are similar to animatics but do not have moving pieces. Photomatics are another option when creating test spots, but instead of using drawn artwork, there is a shoot in which hundreds of digital photographs are taken. The large amount of images to choose from may make the process of creating a test commercial a bit easier, as opposed to creating an animatic, because changes to drawn art take time and money. Photomatics generally cost more than animatics, as they may require a shoot, however, the emergence of affordable stock photography and image editing software permits the inexpensive creation of photomatics using stock elements and photo composites. Once the animatic has been approved, it and the storyboards are sent to the design departments, character designers prepare model sheets for all important characters and props in the film, these are used to help standardize appearance, poses, and gestures. These model sheets will show how a character or object looks from a variety of angles with a variety of poses, sometimes, small statues known as maquettes may be produced, so that an animator can see what a character looks like in three dimensions. While design is going on, the director takes the animatic and analyzes exactly what poses, drawings. An exposure sheet is created, this is a table that breaks down the action, dialogue
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Computer animation
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Computer animation is the process used for generating animated images. The more general term computer-generated imagery encompasses both static scenes and dynamic images, while computer animation refers to the moving images. Modern computer animation usually uses 3D computer graphics, although 2D computer graphics are used for stylistic, low bandwidth. Sometimes, the target of the animation is the computer itself, Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the stop motion techniques used in traditional animation with 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. It can also allow a single graphic artist to such content without the use of actors, expensive set pieces. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the monitor and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to it. This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures, for 3D animations, objects are built on the computer monitor and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. For 2D figure animations, separate objects and separate transparent layers are used with or without that virtual skeleton, then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after the modeling is complete, for 2D vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while tweened frames are rendered as needed. For pre-recorded presentations, the frames are transferred to a different format or medium. The frames may also be rendered in real time as they are presented to the end-user audience, low bandwidth animations transmitted via the internet often use software on the end-users computer to render in real time as an alternative to streaming or pre-loaded high bandwidth animations. To trick the eye and the brain into thinking they are seeing a moving object. With rates above 75-120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye, at rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, to produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates. Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, for high resolution, adapters are used. Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. An early step in the history of animation was the sequel to the 1973 film Westworld
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Non-linear editing system
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A pointer-based playlist – effectively an edit decision list – for video or a directed acyclic graph for still images is used to keep track of edits. Each time the edited audio, video, or image is rendered, played back, or accessed, it is reconstructed from the original source, a non-linear editing system is a video or audio editing digital audio workstation system that performs non-destructive editing on source material. The name is in contrast to 20th century methods of video editing. When ingesting audio or video feeds, metadata are attached to the clip and those metadata can be attached automatically or manually. It is now possible to access any frame by entering directly the timecode or the descriptive metadata, an editor can, for example at the end of the day in the Olympic Games, easily retrieve all the clips related to the players who received a gold medal. The non-linear editing method is similar in concept to the cut, however, with the use of non-linear editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. It can also be viewed as the equivalent of word processing. Video and audio data are first captured to video servers, other hard disk-based systems, the data are either direct to disk recording or are imported from another source. Once imported, the material can be edited on a computer using application software. For a comprehensive list of software, see List of video editing software, whereas Comparison of video editing software gives more detail of features. In non-linear editing, the source files are not lost or modified during editing. This is one of the biggest advantages of non-linear editing compared to linear editing, professional editing software records the editors decisions in an edit decision list that is exportable to other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the source files can exist without storing many different copies. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply by editing the edit decision list, generation loss is also controlled, due to not having to repeatedly re-encode the data when different effects are applied. Compared to the method of tape-to-tape editing, non-linear editing offers the flexibility of film editing, with random access. With the edit decision lists, the editor can work on low-resolution copies of the video, the costs of editing systems have dropped such that non-linear editing tools are now within the reach of home users. The non-linear editing retrieves video media for editing, the editor previews material directly on the server and edits directly on the server without transcoding or transfer. Shared storage, the video server transfers feeds to and from shared storage that is accessible by all editors, Media in the appropriate codec on the server need only transferred
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DVD
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DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD, such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs can be recorded using a DVD recorder. Rewritable DVDs can be recorded and erased many times, DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. The OED also states that in 1995, The companies said the name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disk’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disk’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications, Digital versatile disc is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forums mission statement. There were several formats developed for recording video on optical discs before the DVD, Optical recording technology was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958 and first patented in 1961. A consumer optical disc data format known as LaserDisc was developed in the United States and it used much larger discs than the later formats. CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm size of audio CDs, Video CD became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc formats were being developed. By the time of the launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc. Representatives from the SD camp asked IBM for advice on the system to use for their disc. Alan E. Bell, a researcher from IBMs Almaden Research Center, got that request and this group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. On August 14,1995, an ad hoc group formed from five computer companies issued a release stating that they would only accept a single format. The TWG voted to both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions, as a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB for a dual-layered, single-sided disc
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Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
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Sequence
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In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed. Like a set, it contains members, the number of elements is called the length of the sequence. Unlike a set, order matters, and exactly the elements can appear multiple times at different positions in the sequence. Formally, a sequence can be defined as a function whose domain is either the set of the numbers or the set of the first n natural numbers. The position of an element in a sequence is its rank or index and it depends on the context or of a specific convention, if the first element has index 0 or 1. For example, is a sequence of letters with the letter M first, also, the sequence, which contains the number 1 at two different positions, is a valid sequence. Sequences can be finite, as in these examples, or infinite, the empty sequence is included in most notions of sequence, but may be excluded depending on the context. A sequence can be thought of as a list of elements with a particular order, Sequences are useful in a number of mathematical disciplines for studying functions, spaces, and other mathematical structures using the convergence properties of sequences. In particular, sequences are the basis for series, which are important in differential equations, Sequences are also of interest in their own right and can be studied as patterns or puzzles, such as in the study of prime numbers. There are a number of ways to denote a sequence, some of which are useful for specific types of sequences. One way to specify a sequence is to list the elements, for example, the first four odd numbers form the sequence. This notation can be used for sequences as well. For instance, the sequence of positive odd integers can be written. Listing is most useful for sequences with a pattern that can be easily discerned from the first few elements. Other ways to denote a sequence are discussed after the examples, the prime numbers are the natural numbers bigger than 1, that have no divisors but 1 and themselves. Taking these in their natural order gives the sequence, the prime numbers are widely used in mathematics and specifically in number theory. The Fibonacci numbers are the integer sequence whose elements are the sum of the two elements. The first two elements are either 0 and 1 or 1 and 1 so that the sequence is, for a large list of examples of integer sequences, see On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
