1.
San Juan Islands
–
The San Juan Islands are an archipelago in the northwest corner of the contiguous United States between the U. S. mainland and Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. The San Juan Islands are part of the U. S. state of Washington, in the archipelago, four islands are accessible by passenger ferry operated by the Washington State Ferries system. Archaeologists use the term Gulf of Georgia Culture Area to refer to the San Juan and Gulf Islands, the San Juan Islands were part of the traditional area of various peoples of the Coast Salish ethnolinguistic group. Linguistically, Coast Salish groups in the area consist of the Nooksack, exploration and settlement by Europeans brought smallpox to the area by the 1770s. The explorations of 1791 were carried out in partnership with the Royal Navy ships under the command of George Vancouver, despite having colonized the area entirely, the British and Americans retained many of the Spanish names which survive today. The name San Juan was given to the islands by the Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza, San Juan Islands first European discoverer was one of the officers under Elizas command, Gonzalo López de Haro, for whom Haro Strait is named. The Spanish had found the islands a year earlier during the voyage of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real. Vancouvers expedition occurred within a year of Elizas, and Vancouver encountered other Spanish ships, thus Vancouver knew of the names given by Elizas expedition and tended to keep them, although he renamed some features, like the Strait of Georgia. Wilkes, sailing in 1841, had some British charts, but may not have been aware of the Spanish names and he liberally gave new names to nearly every coastal feature not already named on the charts he had. The names that Wilkes gave tended to be patriotically American, or to members of his crew. In 1847, due to the confusion of names on different charts. The project, led by Henry Kellett, applied only to British territory, which at the time included the San Juan Islands, Kellett systematically kept the British and Spanish names and removed nearly all of Wilkes names. In some cases Kellett moved Spanish names around to replace names given by Wilkes. Some of his names survived the editing of Kellett, such as Chauncey, Shaw, Decatur, Jones, Blakely, Perry, Sinclair, Lawrence, Gordon, in 1843, the Hudsons Bay Company established Fort Camosun at nearby Vancouver Island. This dispute, though simmering immediately in the wake of the treaty, in 1852 the Territory of Oregon created Island County, defined to include the San Juan Islands. In 1853 Island County became part of the newly created Washington Territory, Washington Territorys legislature created Whatcom County out of parts of Island County, including the San Juan Islands. In 1855 Washington Territory levied a property tax on properties of the Hudsons Bay Company on San Juan Island, Washington Territory then advertised and sold the properties to satisfy the unpaid taxes. This led to talks between the governors of Washington Territory and the Colony of Vancouver Island and it soon became clear that the US claimed Haro Strait as the international border, while Britain claimed Rosario Strait, with both sides laying claim to the San Juan Islands
San Juan Islands
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Lopez Island, one of the San Juan Islands, Washington
San Juan Islands
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San Juan Islands (highlighted) and surrounding region.
San Juan Islands
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One of the San Juan Islands at night
San Juan Islands
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Panoramic view of the San Juan Islands from the ferry.
2.
Vancouver Island
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Vancouver Island is in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, just off the coast of Canada. It is part of the Canadian province of British Columbia, the island is 460 kilometres in length,100 kilometres in width at its widest point, and 32,134 km2 in area. It is the largest island on the West Coast of North America and this area has one of the warmest climates in Canada, and since the mid-1990s has been mild enough in a few areas to grow subtropical Mediterranean crops such as olives and lemons. Vancouver Island has a population of 759,366 according to the Canada 2011 Census, nearly half of that figure live in the metropolitan area of Greater Victoria. Other notable cities and towns on Vancouver Island include Nanaimo, Port Alberni, Parksville, Courtenay, and Campbell River. Victoria, the city of British Columbia, is located on the island. Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years, the island was explored by British and Spanish expeditions in the late 18th century. Quadras name was dropped from the name. It is one of several North American locations named after George Vancouver, Vancouver Island is the worlds 43rd largest island, Canadas 11th largest island, and Canadas second most populous island after the Island of Montreal. It is the largest Pacific island anywhere east of New Zealand, Vancouver Island has been the homeland to many indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The groupings, by language, are the Kwakwakawakw, Nuu-chah-nulth and their cultures are connected to the natural resources abundant in the area. The Kwakwakawakw today number about 5,500, who live in British Columbia on northern Vancouver Island and they are also known as Kwakiutl in English, from one of their tribes, but they prefer their autonym Kwakwakawakw. Their indigenous language, part of the Wakashan family, is Kwakwala, the name Kwakwakawakw means speakers of Kwakwala. The language is now spoken by less than 5% of the population—about 250 people, today 17 separate tribes make up the Kwakwakawakw. Some Kwakwakawakw groups are now extinct, Kwakwala is a Northern Wakashan language, a grouping shared with Haisla, Heiltsuk and Wuikyala. The Nuu-chah-nulth are indigenous peoples in Canada and their traditional home is on the west coast of Vancouver Island. The Nuu-chah-nulth speak a Southern Wakashan language and are related to the Makah of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State. The Coast Salish are the largest of the southern groups and they are a loose grouping of many tribes with numerous distinct cultures and languages
Vancouver Island
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Vancouver Island is separated from mainland British Columbia by the Strait of Georgia and Queen Charlotte Strait, and from Washington by the Juan De Fuca Strait.
Vancouver Island
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Vancouver Island
Vancouver Island
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A Kwakwaka'wakw wedding ceremony in 1914
Vancouver Island
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Dionisio Alcalá Galiano was the first European to circumnavigate Vancouver Island
3.
Olympic Peninsula
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The Olympic Peninsula is the large arm of land in western Washington that lies across Puget Sound from Seattle. It is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, the north by the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Cape Alava, the westernmost point in the contiguous United States, and Cape Flattery, the northwesternmost point, are on the peninsula. Comprising about 3600 square miles, the Olympic Peninsula contained many of the last unexplored places in the contiguous United States and it remained largely unmapped until Arthur Dodwell and Theodore Rixon mapped most of its topography and timber resources between 1898 and 1900. The Olympic Peninsula is home to temperate forests, including the Hoh, Queets Rain Forest. The Olympic mountain range sits in the center of the Olympic Peninsula and this range is the second largest in Washington State. Its highest peak is Mt. Olympus, natural lakes on the peninsula including, Lake Crescent, Lake Ozette, Lake Sutherland, Lake Quinault, and Lake Pleasant. Two dammed rivers form the reservoirs of Lake Cushman and Wynoochee Lake, within the Olympic National Forest, there are five designated wilderness areas, The Brothers, Buckhorn, Colonel Bob, Mt. Skokomish, and Wonder Mountain. Just off the west coast is the Washington Islands Wilderness, clallam and Jefferson Counties, as well as the northern parts of Grays Harbor and Mason Counties, are on the peninsula. The Kitsap Peninsula, bounded by the Hood Canal and the Puget Sound, is an entirely separate peninsula and is not connected to the Olympic Peninsula. From Olympia, the capital, U. S. Route 101 runs along the Olympic Peninsulas southern edge. Most of the peninsula has a climate, or Cfb under the Köppen climate classification. Most populated areas, however, have a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, the Olympic Peninsula is represented in the U. S. House of Representatives by Derek Kilmer
Olympic Peninsula
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The peninsula and Olympic National Park
Olympic Peninsula
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Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary
Olympic Peninsula
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Queets River
Olympic Peninsula
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Mount Olympus
4.
Strait of Georgia
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The Strait of Georgia or the Georgia Strait is a strait between Vancouver Island, and the mainland coast of British Columbia, Canada and extreme northern Washington, United States. It is approximately 240 kilometres long and varies in width from 20 to 58 kilometres, along with the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound, it is a constituent part of the Salish Sea. Archipelagos and narrow channels mark each end of the Strait of Georgia, the Gulf Islands and San Juan Islands in the south, the main channels to the south are Haro Strait and Rosario Strait, which connect the Strait of Georgia to the Strait of Juan de Fuca. In the north, Discovery Passage is the channel connecting the Strait of Georgia to Johnstone Strait. This line touches the edges of Rosario Strait, which leads south to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Boundary Pass, which leads south to Haro Strait. The mean depth of the Strait of Georgia is 157 metres and its surface area is approximately 6,800 square kilometres. The Fraser River accounts for roughly 80 percent of the water entering the strait. Water circulates in the strait in a general counterclockwise direction, several major islands are in the strait, the largest being Quadra Island and Texada Island. First Nations communities have surrounded the Strait of Georgia for thousands of years, the first European exploration of the area was undertaken by Captain Jose Maria Narvaez and Pilot Juan Carrasco of Spain in 1791. At this time Francisco de Eliza gave the strait the name Gran Canal de Nuestra Señora del Rosario la Marinera. In 1792, it was renamed for King George III as the Gulf of Georgia by George Vancouver of Great Britain, Vancouver designated the mainland in this region as New Georgia, and areas farther north as New Hanover and New Bremen. The June 23,1946 Vancouver Island earthquake shocked the Strait of Georgia region, the two busiest routes of the BC Ferries system cross the strait, between Tsawwassen and Swartz Bay and between Horseshoe Bay and Nanaimo. The Strait of Georgia is known as a scuba diving. In 1967, the Georgia Strait inspired the name of Vancouvers alternative newspaper, The Georgia Straight, across the border in the United States, Bellingham, Washington and other communities also lie on the eastern shore. Other settlements on Vancouver Island and the mainland are separated from Georgia Strait itself by islands, a controversial idea has existed since 1872 of a bridge connecting Vancouver Island to the BC Mainland. Later proposals have focussed on bridging the Strait of Georgia itself, some crossing design suggestions include a partly floating, partly submerged tunnel to allow ship traffic to move freely. The hurricane-force windstorms of Typhoon Freda in 1962 and of December 2006 call into question the safety of such a project, proponents of the bridge argue that a reliable link to Vancouver Island from mainland British Columbia will increase tourism and growth on Vancouver Island. Opponents argue that construction of a bridge will result in further urbanization of the island and that the environment will be negatively affected by construction
Strait of Georgia
–
The Strait of Georgia at centre, the
Strait of Juan de Fuca below,
Puget Sound at the lower right,
Johnstone Strait at the extreme upper left. Sediment from the
Fraser River clearly visible.
Strait of Georgia
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Strait of Georgia from
Burnaby Mountain, with
Galiano Island and
Vancouver Island in the distance
Strait of Georgia
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Georgia Strait in the morning
Strait of Georgia
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Sundown over the strait from the ferry
5.
Puget Sound
–
Puget Sound /ˈpjuːdʒɪt/ is a sound along the northwestern coast of the U. S. state of Washington, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean, and part of the Salish Sea. Flow through Deception Pass is approximately equal to 2% of the tidal exchange between Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Puget Sound extends approximately 100 miles from Deception Pass in the north to Olympia and its average depth is 450 feet and its maximum depth, off Point Jefferson between Indianola and Kingston, is 930 feet. The depth of the basin, between the southern tip of Whidbey Island and Tacoma, Washington, is approximately 600 feet. Since 2009, the term Salish Sea has been established by the United States Board on Geographic Names as the waters of Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Sometimes the terms Puget Sound and Puget Sound and adjacent waters are used for not only Puget Sound proper but also for waters to the north, such as Bellingham Bay and the San Juan Islands region. The term Puget Sound is used not just for the body of water, major cities on the sound include Seattle, Tacoma, Olympia, and Everett, Washington. Puget Sound is also the second largest estuary in the United States, in 1792 George Vancouver gave the name Pugets Sound to the waters south of the Tacoma Narrows, in honor of Peter Puget, a Huguenot lieutenant accompanying him on the Vancouver Expedition. This name later came to be used for the north of Tacoma Narrows as well. The USGS defines Puget Sound as all the south of three entrances from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The main entrance at Admiralty Inlet is defined as a line between Point Wilson on the Olympic Peninsula, and Point Partridge on Whidbey Island. The second entrance is at Deception Pass along a line from West Point on Whidbey Island, to Deception Island, the third entrance is at the south end of the Swinomish Channel, which connects Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay. Under this definition, Puget Sound includes the waters of Hood Canal, Admiralty Inlet, Possession Sound, Saratoga Passage and it does not include Bellingham Bay, Padilla Bay, the waters of the San Juan Islands or anything farther north. Another definition, given by NOAA, subdivides Puget Sound into five basins or regions, four of these correspond to areas within the USGS definition, but the fifth one, called Northern Puget Sound includes a large additional region. It is defined as bounded to the north by the boundary with Canada. Kruckeberg uses the term Puget Sound and adjacent waters, continental ice sheets have repeatedly advanced and retreated from the Puget Sound region. The most recent glacial period, called the Fraser Glaciation, had three phases, or stades. S. Since each new advance and retreat of ice erodes away much of the evidence of ice ages
Puget Sound
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Puget Sound –
MODIS image
Puget Sound
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Snowcapped peaks are a backdrop to many Puget Sound scenes; here
Mount Rainier is seen from
Gig Harbor.
Puget Sound
–
Low Tide Whidbey Island
Puget Sound
–
Evening on Puget Sound by
Edward S. Curtis, 1913
6.
Salish Sea
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Its major bodies of water are the Strait of Georgia, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Puget Sound. It reaches from Desolation Sound at the end of the Strait of Georgia to Oakland Bay at the head of Hammersley Inlet at the south end of Puget Sound. The inland waterways of the Salish Sea are partially separated from the open Pacific Ocean by Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula, major port cities on the Salish Sea include Vancouver, Seattle, Tacoma, Bellingham, Port Angeles and Victoria. Much of the coast is part of a megalopolis stretching from West Vancouver, British Columbia to Olympia, State of Washington and the Gulf Islands in British Columbia, Canada. The western boundary is the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the southern boundary is the southern end of Puget Sound. These boundaries were based on the 2002 Georgia Basin–Puget Sound Ecosystem Indicators Report, the total extent of the Salish Sea is about 18,000 square kilometres. The adoption of the term, he said, would raise consciousness about taking care of the regions waters, webbers efforts are credited with the official recognition of the term in Canada and the U. S. The Coast Salish are the peoples who live in southwest British Columbia and northwest Washington along the Salish Sea and share a common linguistic. The Coast Salish are seen as one of the main cultural, five divisions of the Salish language family are recognized, with Coast Salish and Interior Salish being the primary two. The Salish family consists of 23 separate languages, european and American explorers first encountered Salishan people along the Pacific Northwest coast in the late 18th century. The first detailed information was obtained by the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804-1806, the term Salish was originally applied only to the Interior Salish Flathead tribe living in the region of Flathead Lake, Montana. By the mid-20th century, it had extended to cover all people speaking a similar language. The Flathead Nation continues to refer to their language and culture as Salish, a variant name for Flathead Lake is Selish Lake. The name Salish Sea was coined only in the late 20th century, no overarching title exists for this area or even a commonly shared name for any of the waterbodies in any of the Coast Salish languages. The waterways of the Salish Sea were important trade routes for the Coast Salish, the basin includes territory of not only Coast Salish peoples, but also the Northern Wakashan Kwakwakawakw and Southern Wakashan peoples and, formerly, that of the Chimakum. Making the name Salish Sea official required an application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. The name was endorsed by the Washington State Board on Geographic Names in late October,2009 and it was approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names on November 12,2009, and by the British Columbia Geographical Names Office in February 2010. The French name Mer de Salish is also official in Canada, opponents to the Salish Sea designation assert that it is really a series of interconnected straits, sounds and inlets
Salish Sea
–
The Salish Sea, showing the
Strait of Georgia near centre, the
Strait of Juan de Fuca below,
Puget Sound at the lower right,
Johnstone Strait at the extreme upper left, and the
Pacific Ocean at lower left. Sediment from the
Fraser River is visible as a greenish plume in the Strait of Georgia.
7.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
Pacific Ocean
–
Maris Pacifici by
Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean; see also
Waldseemüller map (1507).
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
–
USS
Lexington under air attack on 8 May 1942 during the
Battle of the Coral Sea
Pacific Ocean
–
Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707.
8.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
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Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
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Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
9.
Maritime fur trade
–
The furs were mostly sold in China in exchange for tea, silks, porcelain, and other Chinese goods, which were then sold in Europe and the United States. The maritime fur trade was pioneered by Russians, working east from Kamchatka along the Aleutian Islands to the southern coast of Alaska, British and Americans entered during the 1780s, focusing on what is now the coast of British Columbia. The trade boomed around the beginning of the 19th century, a long period of decline began in the 1810s. As the sea otter population was depleted, the fur trade diversified and transformed, tapping new markets and commodities, while continuing to focus on the Northwest Coast. It lasted until the middle to late 19th century, Russians controlled most of the coast of what is now Alaska during the entire era. The coast south of Alaska endured fierce competition between, and among, British and American trading vessels, the British were the first to operate in the southern sector, but were unable to compete against the Americans, who dominated from the 1790s to the 1830s. The British Hudsons Bay Company entered the coast trade in the 1820s with the intention of driving the Americans away and this was accomplished by about 1840. In its late period, the fur trade was largely conducted by the British Hudsons Bay Company. Historically, the fur trade was not known by that name. The term North West was rarely spelled as the single word Northwest, a triangular trade network emerged linking the Pacific Northwest coast, China, the Hawaiian Islands, Britain, and the United States. The trade had an effect on the indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest coast, especially the Aleut, Sugpiaq, Tlingit, Haida, Nuu-chah-nulth. A rapid increase of wealth occurred among the Northwest Coast natives, along with increased warfare, potlatching, slaving, however, the indigenous culture was not overwhelmed by rapid change, but actually flourished. Native Hawaiian society was similarly affected by the influx of Western wealth and technology. The wealth generated by the fur trade was invested in industrial development. The sea otter was the most hunted during the Maritime Fur Trade during the 17th and 18th centuries, Sea otters possess a thicker fur than any other mammal, and the sea otters habit of grooming their coat prevents molting. The reason for their exploitation was due to dark and silver tipped fur. The popularity and demand in fashion of sea otter pelts in China was one of the reasons why it was hunted to the point of disappearance and these mammals of the Pacific are currently listed as Threatened under the Canadian Species at Risk Act. Sea otter distribution extends from the north of Japan all the way to the vicinity of Cedros Island, the species stayed approximately within the arc of the Northern Pacific until the pressure of the maritime trade forced them to move north
Maritime fur trade
–
Modern and historical ranges of
sea otter subspecies
Maritime fur trade
–
The North West Coast during the maritime fur trade era, about 1790 to 1840
Maritime fur trade
–
The settlement of Grigory Shelikhov on Kodiak Island
Maritime fur trade
–
Captain
James Cook
10.
Charles William Barkley
–
Charles William Barkley was a ship captain and maritime fur trader. He was born in Hertford, England, son of Charles Barkley and his name is sometimes erroneously spelled Barclay due to the misspelling Barclay Sound on early Admiralty charts, which arose from a mistake from Land District records. The misspelling originated in 1859 with the government agent William Eddy Banfield who issued certificates identifying the Barclay Land District, the name was corrected to Barkley Sound in 1904. At the age of 11, Charles Barkley went to sea with his father and his father drowned in the Hooghly river, Calcutta, India while Charles was still a boy. Charles went on to sail to the West Indies in the merchantman Bestsy and he made seven voyages to the Far East for the East India Company and rose rapidly in the companys service. Daniel Beale organised the voyage of the Imperial Eagle when he returned to London from Canton on the HCS General Coote in August 1786. Beales brother or cousin, John Beale, sailed in the Imperial Eagle as purser, Barkley was among the backers, subscribing £3,000 to the venture. John Meares, who was attempting to avoid license fees by falsely sailing under the Portuguese flag, was also one of the backers. Barkley and his wife, Frances Barkley, left for the Pacific via Cape Horn on 24 November 1786 and they stopped in the Hawaiian Islands where a maidservant named Wynee was taken aboard. Wynee became the first Native Hawaiian, or Kanaka, to reach British Columbia, from Hawaii Barkley sailed the Imperial Eagle to Nootka Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, arriving in June 1787. At 400 tons, the Imperial Eagle was the largest ship to enter the main harbour of Friendly Cove in Nootka Sound. Barkley stayed at Nootka Sound for about a month, acquired 700 prime skins, in honour of the indigenous chief Wickaninnish Barkley gave the name Wickinninish Sound to what is now called Clayoquot Sound. He rediscovered the strait allegedly described by Juan de Fuca and named the strait as such on his chart, Barkleys Imperial Eagle was the first non-indigenous vessel to enter Neah Bay, in July 1787. John Meares, in the Feliz Aventureira, stopped at Neah Bay in June 1788, robert Gray, in the Lady Washington, entered Neah Bay in April 1789, and in July 1789 José María Narváez did so in the Santa Gertrudis la Magna. Within the next few years a number of others visited Neah Bay and it became an important fur trading stop during the maritime fur trading era. After six members of his crew were killed by people, on 24 July 1787, near the mouth of the Hoh River, Barkley decided to set sail for Guangzhou, China. He arrived in Macau in December 1787 and his trading venture resulted in a profit of £10,000. Barkley gave the name Destruction River to what is now called the Hoh River, after his crew members were killed by the indigenous people, the name has since been transferred to nearby Destruction Island
Charles William Barkley
–
Wynee, a Native of Owyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands, engraving by
John Meares depicting the Hawaiian maidservant of the Barkley's.
11.
Imperial Eagle (ship)
–
Imperial Eagle, originally named Loudoun, was a 400-ton burthen British merchant ship, launched in 1774 at Liverpool. By 1780 her master was S. Rains, her owner Robertson, in 1786 she underwent refitting at Shadwell Dock, Thames, London. She then sailed on maritime fur trading ventures in the late 1780s and she was under the command of Captain Charles William Barkley until confiscated in India. Although some sources, such as Miller, state that Loudon was a former East Indiaman, Hardy and Hardy do not list her, under any of the alternative spellings of her name, among the vessels that performed voyages for the British East India Company. The National Archivess guide to East India Company records in the British Library, Asian and African Studies also has no record of any vessel bearing her name, the Hawaiian Islands, only recently discovered, were a key way station, with many trading vessels spending the winter there. This maritime fur trading system had originated from the voyages of James Cook, although Imperial Eagle was British-owned and operated, the ship masqueraded as a vessel of the fictitious Austrian East India Company, and sailed under the flag of Austria. In fact the ship was owned by various British supercargoes, including some in China and they called their partnership the Austrian East India Company. John Reid and Daniel Beale were two of the supercargoes, Beale, operating out of Canton, acted as the Prussian agent in that port. The real Austrian East India Company, also called the Ostend Company, John Reid was the agent of his company in Canton, he was also one of the owners of the Imperial Eagle. The East India Company controlled British trade in Asia and the South Sea Company controlled the Pacific trade on the west coast of the Americas, British traders wanting to work within the companies domains were legally bound to acquire licenses. In the late 18th century a number of independent British traders, notably John Meares and it was akin to flying a flag of convenience but due to the company monopolies, it was illegal for British traders to do so. The Imperial Eagle was a vessel of 400 tons, ship-rigged. It was very large for its intended use and its real name is usually spelled Loudoun, but Frances Barkley spelled it Louden and Loudin, and James Colnett spelled it Lowden. There are only a few printed sources that describe the 1787 voyage of the Imperial Eagle or Loudoun, the most thorough is the diary kept by Frances Barkley. George Dixon wrote briefly but vaguely about the ship, John Meares wrote about it in his Voyages, but his account is full of inaccuracies and most of the references to the Imperial Eagle are deliberately misleading. Meares, who had acquired Barkley journal and logbook, published maps he claimed to have himself, based on his own voyages. Another source is the journal of James Colnett, in London, under the name Loudoun, the ship was outfitted for a trading voyage to the Pacific. Charles Barkley was persuaded to resign his position with the East India Company in order to command the ship for its fur trading venture
Imperial Eagle (ship)
–
Timeline of Alaska
12.
Juan de Fuca
–
Ioannis Phokas, better known by the Spanish transcription of his name, Juan de Fuca, was a Greek maritime pilot in the service of the King of Spain, Philip II. He is best known for his claim to have explored the Strait of Anián, now known as the Strait of Juan de Fuca, phokáss grandfather, Emmanouíl Phokás, fled Constantinople at its fall in 1453, accompanied by his brother Andrónikos. The two settled first in the Peloponnese, where Andrónikos remained, but in 1470 Emmanouíl moved to the island of Cefalonia. Iákovos, Ioánniss father established himself in the village of Valerianos on the island and it was in this village of Valeriáno that Phokás was born in 1536. Little to nothing is known about his life before he entered the service of Spain, the name of the man known to history as Juan de Fuca is the source of some confusion. While Juan de Fuca is clearly a Spanish rendering of Ioánnis Phokás and it is possible that Phokás was baptized Apóstolos and later adopted the name Ioánnis/Juan because Apóstol is not much used as a name in Spanish. He was a seaman, perfecting his skill as a pilot in the Spanish fleet. Before he made his famous trip up the northwest coast of the North American continent, he sailed to China, the Philippines and Mexico. The first voyage saw 200 soldiers and three ships under the overall command of a Spanish captain assigned the task of finding the Strait of Anián. This expedition failed when, allegedly due to the captains malfeasance, in 1592, on his second voyage, de Fuca enjoyed success. Having sailed north with a caravel and a pinnace and a few armed marines, he returned to Acapulco and claimed to have found the strait, with an island at its mouth. The Strait of Juan de Fuca is in fact at around 48° N, although Fucas account of sailing into it departs from reality, despite Velascos repeated promises, however, de Fuca never received the great rewards he claimed as his due. After two years, and on the urging, de Fuca travelled to Spain to make his case to the court in person. Nothing came of Lok and Fokás proposals, but it is through Loks account that the story of Juan de Fuca entered English letters, with later English exploration and settlement of the area, however, Fokáss claims seemed much more credible. Finally, in 1859, an American researcher, with the help of the U. S, consul in the Ionian Islands, was able to demonstrate not only that Fokás had lived but also that his family and history were well known on the islands. While we may never know the truths that lay behind the account published by Lok. When the English captain Charles William Barkley, sailing the Imperial Eagle in 1787, discovered the strait Fokás had described, the Juan de Fuca Plate, a tectonic plate underlying much of the coastline he explored, is named for the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Juan de Fuca Provincial Park on Vancouver Islands West Coast is named for the strait, 19-31, Ethelbert Olaf Stuart Scholefield, publ
Juan de Fuca
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Fuca Pillar at Cape Flattery, Washington beside the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
13.
Manuel Quimper
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Manuel Quimper Benítez del Pino was a Spanish Peruvian explorer, cartographer, naval officer, and colonial official. He participated in charting the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Sandwich Islands in the late 18th century and he was later appointed a colonial governor in his native Peru at the beginning of the fight for independence there. Quimper was born in Lima, Peru to a French father, at the age of thirteen he became a cadet with a company of the Spanish navy stationed at Callao, Peru, and participated in the exploration of Chiloé Island. Little is known of Quimpers family, in 1792 El Mercurio Peruano, a publication of the Sociedad Académica de Amantes de Lima, published a letter he had apparently written to a brother in Lima during his 1790 stay at Nootka Sound. In late 1780 he was promoted to Frigate Ensign and assigned the transport of food from Callao to Talcahuano, two years later he was sent to chart the Juan Fernández Islands in the South Pacific and upon his return to port at Valparaiso received recognition for his cartographic skills. In 1786 he embarked on a sail to the Spanish port of Cádiz. The Spanish court was becoming concerned about British and Russian incursions along the Pacific Northwest coast of North America. Seven naval officers were dispatched to learn of British and Russian intentions and these included Quimper and his fellow Peruvian Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, who was named commander of the Naval Department of San Blas. They departed from Cadiz aboard the San Ramon in May 1789, shortly after their arrival at Veracruz, the seven were transferred to San Blas. In 1788 the British explorer John Meares had established a fur trading post on Nootka Sound, Spain considered this settlement an invasion of Spanish territory and had dispatched Martínez to occupy the port the following year. Martínez arrived in 1789 with warships, seized the port and some vessels, the sloop was dispatched to San Blas at the disposition of New Spain Viceroy Revillagigedo. The Viceroy, however, wished to further difficulties with the British. On February 3,1790, a Spanish expedition sailed north from San Blas under the command of Ship Lieutenant Francisco de Eliza and it included Ship Lieutenant Salvador Fidalgo, and Ship Ensign Manuel Quimper. Their purpose was to strengthen the settlement at Nootka Sound, to chart the waters of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the San Juan Islands. After several weeks at sea, the Princesa Real and Quimper arrived with difficulty at Nootka Sound where repairs on the vessel were undertaken before returning the ship to the British, throughout the month of May the Princesa Real was repaired with no sign of the British. Quimper then used the vessel to carry out a two-month exploration of the north and south coasts of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, during June and July he charted and named many geographic features along the south shore of Vancouver Island and the north coast of the Olympic Peninsula. He was the first European to report seeing Mount Baker, which he named La Gran Montagna Carmelita, most of his discoveries along the strait were renamed by British Captain George Vancouver in 1792. Those which retained at least a semblance of his Spanish names include Port Angeles, Rosario Strait, Quimper Peninsula, during Quimpers 1791 expedition to northern Puget Sound Quimpers sloop Eliza stopped in the southern area of Bellingham Bay
Manuel Quimper
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This article includes a
list of references, related reading or
external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks
inline citations. Please
improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (May 2011)
14.
Juan Carrasco (explorer)
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Juan Carrasco was a Spanish naval officer, explorer, and navigator. He is remembered mainly for his work in the Pacific Northwest during the late 18th century and he was second in command of the 1791 voyage of José María Narváez, the first European exploration of the Strait of Georgia. Many details about Carrascos life are unknown and he was educated at the Academy of San Telmo in Spain, sometime between 1775 and 1780. Under the command of Francisco Antonio Mourelle he served in the Philippines and then, in 1784, in 1790 Carrasco served as a pilot on the Princesa Real, under the command of Manuel Quimper. Also on board was the pilot Gonzalo López de Haro, dispatched by Francisco de Eliza from the Spanish post at Nootka Sound, with orders to explore the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the ship set sail on May 31,1790. They rapidly passed the furthest point of exploration, which had only penetrated the westernmost part. They spent several days anchored in Sooke Basin, a bay on Vancouver Island. After leaving Sooke, the voyage continued east, passing between Race Rocks and Vancouver Island and anchoring near present-day Esquimalt, at the today called Royal Roads. Quimper named Royal Roads Rada de Eliza, on July 4,1790, the Spanish left Esquimalt and crossed to the south side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, anchoring near Dungeness Spit. The ship Princesa Real remained at anchor while boats were used to explore the end of the Strait. In this manner the Spanish reached the vicinity of Admiralty Inlet, the entrance to Puget Sound and they also found Deception Pass, which was named Boca de Flon. The expedition had limited resources and time, Quimper decided not to enter these channels but instead to explore the area near Dungeness Spit more thoroughly. Protection Island was found and given the name Isla de Carrasco, the decision was made to return. On the way another large channel leading north was found and named after the pilot Haro and it is still known as Haro Strait today, and is the route of the international boundary between the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. While anchored at Royal Roads a party was sent ashore for water, Quimper named the harbour Cordova after a high official of the Spanish navy. Princesa Real was the first European ship to enter Esquimalt Harbour, the expedition then crossed to the southern side of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and sailed west along the coast, reaching Neah Bay by August. While in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Quimper performed several formal ceremonies claiming Spanish possession of the region, at Sooke, Royal Roads near Esquimalt, Dungeness Spit, at Cape Flattery Quimper led the Princesa Real north to Nootka Sound. They reached Nootka by August 10 but were unable to due to contrary winds
Juan Carrasco (explorer)
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Spanish map of Clayoquot Sound made during the 1791 exploration voyage of Francisco de Eliza
15.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
United States Geological Survey
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Clarence King, founder of the USGS
United States Geological Survey
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Seal of the United States Geological Survey
United States Geological Survey
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The USGS headquarters in
Reston, Virginia
United States Geological Survey
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USGS gauging station 03221000 on the
Scioto River below
O'Shaughnessy Dam near
Dublin, Ohio
16.
Channel (geography)
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In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. The word is cognate to canal, and sometimes shows in this form, most examples of this are fjords in the Pacific Northwest, a notable exception is the Casiquiare canal. All likely share borrowing from Spanish, Portuguese or French, channels can be either natural or human-made. A channel is typically outlined in terms of its bed and banks, Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks. This site is referred to as the head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes. The channel head is the most upslope part of a network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks. A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome resistance of the ground surface. Channel heads are associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides. Overland flow is a factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress. Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins, soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows, vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes. Subsurface flow destabilizes soil and resurfaces on hillslopes where channel heads are often formed and this often results in abrupt channel heads and landslides. Natural channels are formed by fluvial process and are found across the Earth and these are mostly formed by flowing water from the hydrological cycle, though can also be formed by other fluids such as flowing lava. Channels also describe the course through a reef, sand bar, bay. One example is the Columbia River, a located in the US states of Washington and Oregon. A stream channel is the confine of a stream consisting of a bed. Stream channels exist in a variety of geometries, Stream channel development is controlled by both water and sediment movement. There is a difference between low gradient streams and high gradient streams, a wide variety of stream channel types can be distinguished
Channel (geography)
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Vivari Channel in Albania links Lake Butrint with the Straits of
Corfu.
Channel (geography)
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Wooden pilings mark the navigable channel for vessels entering
Lake George from the
St. Johns River in
Florida.
Channel (geography)
17.
British Columbia
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British Columbia is the westernmost province of Canada, with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion, along with the U. S. states of Idaho, Oregon, Washington and Alaska. The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria, established in 1843, subsequently, on the mainland, the Colony of British Columbia was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment, in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush. Port Moody is named after him, in 1866, Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia, and Victoria became the united colonys capital. In 1871, British Columbia became the province of Canada. Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu, the capital of British Columbia remains Victoria, the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada, named for the Queen who created the original European colonies. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, in October 2013, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371. British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871, First Nations, the original inhabitants of the land, have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area. Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title, notably, the Tsilhqotin Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory, as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision. BCs economy is diverse, with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the provinces GDP and it is the endpoint of transcontinental railways, and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade. Though less than 5% of its vast 944,735 km2 land is arable and its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism, though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction, principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the provinces largest city and metropolitan area, also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies and it also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. The Northern Interior region has a climate with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, the provinces name was chosen by Queen Victoria, when the Colony of British Columbia, i. e. the Mainland, became a British colony in 1858. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, British Columbias land area is 944,735 square kilometres. British Columbias rugged coastline stretches for more than 27,000 kilometres and it is the only province in Canada that borders the Pacific Ocean. British Columbias capital is Victoria, located at the tip of Vancouver Island. Only a narrow strip of the Island, from Campbell River to Victoria, is significantly populated, much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by thick, tall and sometimes impenetrable temperate rainforest
British Columbia
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Strait of Georgia, near
Vancouver.
British Columbia
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Flag
British Columbia
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The Okanagan region has a climate suitable to vineyards.
British Columbia
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Mount Robson,
Canadian Rockies, BC
18.
Washington (state)
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It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State or the State of Washington to distinguish it from Washington, Washington is the 18th largest state with an area of 71,362 square miles, and the 13th most populous state with over 7 million people. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the states highest elevation at almost 14,411 feet and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States. Washington is a leading lumber producer and its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, shipbuilding and other equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes including irrigation, power, flood control, Washington was named after President George Washington by an act of the United States Congress during the creation of Washington Territory in 1853. Washington is the only U. S. state named after a president, confusion over the state of Washington and the city of Washington, D. C. led to renaming proposals during the statehood process for Washington in 1889, which failed to garner support. Washington, D. C. s own statehood movement in the 21st century includes a proposal to use the name State of Washington, Douglass Commonwealth, which would conflict with the current state of Washington. To distinguish it from the capital, Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington state, or, in more formal contexts. Residents of Washington and the Pacific Northwest simply refer to the state as Washington, Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. Washington is bordered by Oregon to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part, to the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north-south, bisecting the state, from the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly marine west coast climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range contains several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains, from the north to the south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles south of the city of Seattle and it is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states. Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula and these deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States. Eastern Washington – the part of the state east of the Cascades – has a dry climate. It includes large areas of steppe and a few truly arid deserts lying in the rain shadow of the Cascades. Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches in Pullman, the Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the northeastern quadrant of the state
Washington (state)
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South Eastern Washington
Washington (state)
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Flag
Washington (state)
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The Pacific Coast of
Westport, Washington
Washington (state)
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Cascade Pass in the
North Cascades National Park
19.
Haro Strait
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By this definition Haro Strait does not directly join with the Strait of Georgia. The main channel and international boundary runs from Haro Strait north through Boundary Pass to reach the Strait of Georgia, Haro Strait was named in 1790 by Manuel Quimper, commander of the Princesa Real, in honor of his pilot, Gonzalo López de Haro. In 1791 Francisco de Eliza sent José María Narváez far into the Strait of Georgia via Haro, in 1792 Haro Strait was explored and mapped by George Vancouver. Haro Strait is also an important location for the commercial fishery. DArcy Island on the Canadian side of the strait was a colony for Chinese immigrants in the 19th century. Haro Strait is a shipping channel. Haro Strait, along with Boundary Pass, is the westernmost and most heavily used of the three channels connecting the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Strait of Georgia. Haro Strait joins Boundary Pass at Turn Point on Stuart Island, heavy, dangerous rip tides occurs near Turn Point, as well as near the northern end of Boundary Pass, between Patos Island Light on Patos Island and East Point on Saturna Island
Haro Strait
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Haro Strait, along with
Boundary Pass, connects the
Strait of Juan de Fuca and the
Strait of Georgia along the international boundary between the
United States and
Canada. The straits run between the
San Juan Islands to the southeast and, to the northwest,
Vancouver Island and the
Gulf Islands. This map follows the
USGS definitions. Major islands are named.
20.
Rosario Strait
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Rosario Strait is a strait in northern Washington state, separating Island and San Juan Counties. It extends from the Strait of Juan de Fuca about 23 kilometres north to the Strait of Georgia, Rosario Strait runs north-south between Lopez, Decatur, Blakely, and Orcas Islands on the west, and Fidalgo, Cypress, Sinclair, and Lummi Islands on the east. Rosario Strait is a shipping channel. More than 500 oil tankers pass through the strait each year, to and from the Cherry Point Refinery, the strait is in constant use by vessels bound for Cherry Point, Bellingham, Anacortes, and the San Juan Islands. Vessels bound for British Columbia or Alaska also frequently use it in preference to the farther west. In 1791 José María Narváez renamed it Canal de Fidalgo after determining it was a strait, also in 1791 Francisco de Eliza gave the name Gran Canal de Nuestra Señora del Rosario la Marinera to what it now the Strait of Georgia. In 1792, George Vancouver explored the region and gave the Strait of Georgia its present name and he did not provide a name for Rosario Strait. In 1847 Charles Wilkes, during the Wilkes Expedition, gave Rosario Strait the name Ringgold Channel after one of his officers
Rosario Strait
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Converted
LCM-8 landing craft, Justin, on Rosario Strait
Rosario Strait
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Rosario Strait connects the
Strait of Juan de Fuca and the
Strait of Georgia, east of the main
San Juan Islands. This map follows the
USGS definition of the strait. Major islands are named.
21.
Cape Flattery (Washington)
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Cape Flattery is the northwesternmost point of the contiguous United States. It is in Clallam County, Washington on the Olympic Peninsula and it is also part of the Makah Reservation, and is the northern boundary of the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary. Cape Flattery can be reached from a hike, most of which is boardwalked. The westernmost point in the contiguous United States is at Cape Alava, the Cape Flattery Lighthouse is on Tatoosh Island, just off the cape. Makah Bay and Neah Bay are on side of the cape. Neah Bay, Washington is the closest town to the cape, Cape Flattery is the oldest permanently named feature in Washington state, being described and named by James Cook on March 22,1778. There appeared to be an opening which flattered us with the hopes of finding an harbour. On this account I called the point of land to the north of it Cape Flattery, in 1834, the first Japanese known to have arrived in what is now Washington state arrived in a dismasted, rudderless ship that ran aground near Cape Flattery. The three survivors of the ship were held as slaves by the local Makah people before being taken to Fort Vancouver by William H. McNeill under orders from John McLoughlin. Fuca Pillar is a tall, almost rectangular, rock on the west side of Cape Flattery and it is named after Juan de Fuca, a Greek sailor who explored for Spain. Fuca has a claim to being the first European explorer to see the Fuca Pillar and to explore the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The first generally accepted mention of the pillar was by John Meares in 1788, the novel When Wolf Comes by John Pappas is set in Cape Flattery in 1801. Parts of the novel Freaky Green Eyes by Joyce Carol Oates are set here in present day, ma and Pa Kettle movies were set in Cape Flattery. The childrens novel Ghost Canoe by Will Hobbs is set on Tatoosh Island and Neah Bay in 1874
Cape Flattery (Washington)
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Cape Flattery, looking north towards
Vancouver Island.
Cape Flattery (Washington)
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Tatoosh Island and
Cape Flattery Light from Cape Flattery, with
Sitka Spruce in foreground.
Cape Flattery (Washington)
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Fuca Pillar at Cape Flattery, the northwest extremity of the Olympic Peninsula
22.
Tatoosh Island
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Tatoosh Island is a small island and small group of islands about 0.5 miles offshore of Cape Flattery, which is on the northwestern tip of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington. The islands are part of the Makah Reservation and a part of Clallam County, the total land area of the island group is 159,807 square metres. Historically, Tatoosh Island was inhabited seasonally by Makah fishing camps and employees of the United States Coast Guard, Weather Bureau, currently there is no resident population on the islands. Access to the island requires written permission of the Makah tribe, the islands name comes from a Makah chief known as Tatoosh. Tatoosh Island has been home to Cape Flattery Light, which overlooks the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, beginning in 1967, Professor Robert T. Paine of the University of Washington and his colleagues have undertaken detailed studies of marine ecology on the island, consequently, it is now one of the most intensively studied field sites in the world. The research has revealed how species are linked to each other through a network of species interactions, Tatoosh Island group, Blocks 2046 and 2047, Census Tract 9801, Clallam County, Washington United States Census Bureau Paine, R. T.1994. Marine Rocky Shores and Community Ecology, An Experimentalists Perspective, research summaries, scientific articles, photographs of Tatoosh Island and its organisms, and a video interview of ecologists Cathy Pfister and Tim Wootton
Tatoosh Island
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The island from the air.
Tatoosh Island
–
Tatoosh Island
Tatoosh Island
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Cape Flattery Lightstation, circa 1943 - 1953
Tatoosh Island
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Admiralty Head Light
23.
Discovery Island (British Columbia)
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Discovery Island is located off the eastern side of Vancouver Island and is viewable from Ten Mile Point, near Cadboro Bay, and Oak Bay. Discovery Island Marine Provincial Park occupies the portion of Discovery Island,3 miles east of Oak Bay. The northern portion of the island is part of Discovery Island Indian Reserve 3, the adjacent Chatham Islands were named after his escort ship, HMS Chatham. The Lighthouse at Sea Bird Point, the end of Discovery Island, marks the junction of the Haro. These two straits form the border between Canada and the United States, the lighthouse was built in 1886 and manned for 110 years before being fully automated in 1996. Sea Bird Point was named after an American paddle steamer caught fire and was run aground in 1858 to save the lives of the crew. Designated as a park in 1972, the uninhabited and undeveloped 61-hectare Discovery Island Marine Provincial Park was once inhabited by First Nations people, the island was once the home of Captain E. G. Beaumont, who purchased part of the island in 1918 and he died in 1967 after living on Discovery Island with his wife for nearly half a century. Beaumont owned roughly 160 acres of Discovery Island, and in his will gave his share of the island to the province of British Columbia. Beaumont was a seaman and even in his 80s would regularly row his boat from Discovery Island to Ten Mile Point. Evidence of the Beaumonts beautiful home and gardens overlooking Rudlin Bay can still be seen, the home was designed on a nautical motif by the noted architect Francis Rattenbury. Discovery Island Marine Provincial Park is open year round, there is a camping fee and services provided from May 1 - September 30. During the off-season, there is no fee and no services, there are gravel beaches and a few walking and hiking trails along the shores and through fir and arbutus woodlands. The trail system runs from the lighthouse on Sea Bird Point to Commodore Point, hikers can ascend the 38-metre Pandora Hill for improved views of the area and spectacular sweeping views of the Olympic Mountains. Discovery Island has some of the mildest winters in Canada, if not the mildest, snowfall is extremely rare- over three-fourths of years do not experience a single snowfall, which is a sharp contrast to the rest of the country. Discoveryisland. ca Lighthouses of British Columbia - Discovery Island Lighthouse Discovery Island - BC Parks Discovery Island wolf
Discovery Island (British Columbia)
–
This article is about the small island near Victoria, B.C.. For other islands with a similar name, see
Discovery Island (disambiguation).
Discovery Island (British Columbia)
Discovery Island (British Columbia)
24.
San Juan Island
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San Juan Island is the second-largest and most populous of the San Juan Islands in northwestern Washington, United States. It has an area of 142.59 km² and a population of 6,822 as of the 2000 census. Washington State Ferries serves Friday Harbor, which is San Juan Islands major population center, the San Juan County seat, one of the officers under Elizas command, Gonzalo López de Haro, was the first European to discover San Juan Island. During the Wilkes Expedition, American explorer Charles Wilkes renamed the island Rodgers Island, the island saw seasonal use for salmon fishing. The Hudsons Bay Company established the first permanent, non-native settlement on the island on December 13,1853, the island was also occupied by Native Americans, many of whom arrived seasonally for fishing. Both the British and Americans asserted control of the island, a small force of American soldiers was sent to the island over concern for this issue and with Native American raids on American settlers. The territorial dispute over this island and the rest of the San Juan Islands heightened when an American settler shot an HBC pig, the dispute was finally resolved in favor of the Americans in 1872. San Juan Island has one newspaper, and an online daily news site, is dotted with numerous farms. Outside of Friday Harbor, the major commercial establishment resort is the village of Roche Harbor. Interpretive centers and reconstructed buildings, formal gardens, etc. recall the history of early European settlement in the area, the University of Washington runs a marine research lab and campus outside Friday Harbor. The campus has been extant since 1909 and has dormitories, a food service, San Juan Island is ultimately considered a small town community, in that it is relatively quiet rural living with little distractions or incidents aside from tourism. One notable resident would be Lisa Ivory Moretti, a female professional wrestler of World Wrestling Entertainment fame. Public schools are operated by the San Juan Island School District #149 and it operates four schools, Friday Harbor Elementary School, Friday Harbor Middle School, Friday Harbor High School, Griffin Bay Schools, and Stuart Island School. There is also a privately operated school, the waters surrounding San Juan Island are home to a variety of unique species including red sea urchins and pinto abalone. Though no commercial fishing of abalone has ever allowed in this area. The National Marine Fisheries Service listed pinto abalone as a Species of Concern in 2004, American Biography A New Cyclopedia VOL5 Page 28 San Juan Island and Northwest Boundary Survey by Archibald Campbell led to it being in USA instead of Canada
San Juan Island
25.
Lopez Island
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Lopez Island is the third largest of the San Juan Islands and an unincorporated town in San Juan County, Washington, United States. Lopez Island is 29.81 square miles in land area, the 2000 census population was 2,177, though the population swells in the summer, as second homes, rental houses and campsites fill up. During the Wilkes Expedition, Lopez Island was given the name Chauncey Island, when the British reorganized the official admiralty naval charts in 1847, Henry Kellett systematically removed many of Wilkess names. He renamed the island Lopez, for Gonzalo López de Haro, the Lopez Island Historical Museum collects and preserves the regional history of Lopez and the San Juan Islands. The museum features artifacts reflecting Lopezs contributions to the maritime, fishing and farming industries, the museum has an extensive archive of local historical documents as well as artifacts depicting life on Lopez Island in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Lopez Island is flatter than most of the other major San Juan Islands and it is also the most rural of the larger islands, and has rolling terrain of forest, farmland, and beaches. The island is longest in the north-south direction This region experiences warm and dry summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Lopez Island has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. There are no highways on Lopez Island, and no bridges connecting to the mainland or other islands, the primary means of travel to and from Lopez Island is by ferry. The ferry terminal at the north end of the island. It is the first stop of four on the Washington State Ferries’ San Juan Islands run, a typical sailing from Anacortes takes approximately 40 minutes. Lopez Island Airport is the main airstrip for the island, located on its west side, charter floatplanes land in Fisherman Bay at Fisherman Bay Seaplane Base, located approximately three-fourths mile north of the airport. A small airstrip called Windsock Airport also is located not far from the ferry terminal, Lopez is home to a large number of tourist related businesses, largely country-style bed and breakfasts, many with ocean views. There is a vineyard and one hotel and resort, Lopez Island is a popular destination for bicycle tourists. Some of the roads, however, are narrow which can lead to occasional traffic, but overall the drivers are bicycle friendly and the roads are easier to ride than the other islands. The island is famous for the longstanding custom of waving at every motorist, bicyclist. In 1996 Paul Allen bought a large Sperry Peninsula site on Lopez Island, agate Beach County Park — This picnic area and beach is at the end of MacKaye Harbor Road at the south end of the island. Odlin County Park — This park is used for camping and picnics and has a boat launch, one of the most popular beaches on the island, Odlin Park resides just south of the Ferry Landing and is a popular stop during the summer. Otis Perkins Day Park — This park has one of the longest beaches in the San Juan Islands, shark Reef Park — This park offers long views west over San Juan Channel
Lopez Island
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Iceberg Point at the southern tip of Lopez Island overlooking the
Strait of Juan de Fuca
Lopez Island
Lopez Island
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Shark Reef Park
26.
Fidalgo Island
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Fidalgo Island is an island in Skagit County, Washington, located about 60 mi north of Seattle. To the east, it is separated from the mainland by the Swinomish Channel, the island is named after the Spanish explorer and cartographer Salvador Fidalgo who explored the area in 1790. Its largest city is Anacortes with a population of 15,778 according to the 2010 Census, ferries leave daily from Anacortes to Sidney, British Columbia, and several ports in the San Juan Islands. Fidalgo Island has an area of 106.684 km². There are at least eight major lakes on Fidalgo Island, Campbell, Little Cranberry, Erie, Heart, Mud, Pass, Trafton/Crater, Fidalgo Island was originally inhabited by the Samish and Swinomish peoples. Fidalgo Island is named for the Spanish explorer and cartographer Salvador Fidalgo who explored the area in 1790 with the fleet of Francisco de Eliza, charles Wilkes discovered that it was an island rather than part of the mainland. He named it Perry Island in honor of Oliver Hazard Perry, following this theme, Wilkes named the islands highest point Mount Erie. When Henry Kellett reorganized the official British Admiralty charts in 1847, he removed Wilkes name Perry, the highest point retained the name Erie. Settlement peaked in the 1850s due to the Fraser River Gold Rush, later the island became an important fishing and lumber center. From 1924 to 1935, Fidalgo Island was linked to Whidbey Island by the Deception Pass ferry, today, Fidalgo Island is the site of the main ferry terminal that links the San Juan Islands to the rest of the State
Fidalgo Island
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The forested western slopes of Fidalgo Island overlook the
Strait of Juan de Fuca.
27.
Deception Pass
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Deception Pass is a strait separating Whidbey Island from Fidalgo Island, in the northwest part of the U. S. state of Washington. It connects Skagit Bay, part of Puget Sound, with the Strait of Juan de Fuca, a pair of bridges known collectively as Deception Pass Bridge cross Deception Pass, and the bridges are on the National Register of Historic Places. The Deception Pass area has been home to various Coast Salish tribes for thousands of years, the first Europeans to see Deception Pass were members of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper on the Princesa Real. The Spanish gave it the name Boca de Flon, a group of sailors led by Joseph Whidbey, part of the Vancouver Expedition, found and mapped Deception Pass on June 7,1792. George Vancouver gave it the name Deception because it had misled him into thinking Whidbey Island was a peninsula, the deception was heightened due to Whidbeys failure to find the strait at first. In May 1792, Vancouver was anchored near the end of Whidbey Island. He sent Joseph Whidbey to explore the waters east of Whidbey Island, now known as Saratoga Passage, Whidbey reached the northern end of Saratoga Passage and explored eastward into Skagit Bay, which is shallow and difficult to navigate. He returned south to rejoin Vancouver without having found Deception Pass and it appeared that Skagit Bay was a dead-end and that Whidbey Island and Fidalgo Island were a long peninsula attached to the mainland. In June the expedition sailed north along the west coast of Whidbey Island, Vancouver sent Joseph Whidbey to explore inlets leading to the east. The first inlet turned out to be a narrow and intricate channel. This channel led to Skagit Bay, thus separating Whidbey Island from the mainland, Vancouver apparently felt he and Joseph Whidbey had been deceived by the tricky strait. In the waters of Deception Pass, just east of the present-day Deception Pass Bridge, is an island known as Ben Ure Island. The island became infamous for its activity of smuggling of migrant Chinese people for local labor. Ben Ure and his partner Lawrence Pirate Kelly were quite profitable at their human smuggling business, ures own operation at Deception Pass in the late 1880s consisted of Ure and his Native-American wife. For transport, Ure would tie the people up in burlap bags so that if customs agents were to approach he could easily toss the people in bags overboard. The tidal currents would carry the entrapped drowned migrants bodies to San Juan Island to the north and west of the pass, between the years 1910 and 1914, a prison rock quarry was operated on the Fidalgo Island side of the pass. Guards stood watch at the quarry as the cut the rock into gravel. The quarried rock was taken by barge to the Seattle waterfront
Deception Pass
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Aerial view of Deception Pass looking southeast
Deception Pass
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Deception Island
Deception Pass
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Plaque explaining the history of Deception Pass "Deception Pass - Named By Captain George Vancouver 10 June 1792. Feeling That He Had Been "Deceived" As To The Nature Of The Inner Waterway, Port Gardner (Now Saratoga Passage) he Wrote On His Chart "Deception Pass."
Deception Pass
–
View looking south from Pass Island. From left to right, you can see Strawberry Island, part of Ben Ure Island, the bulk of Whidbey Island and the south span of the Deception Pass Bridge.
28.
Whidbey Island
–
Whidbey Island is the largest of the islands composing Island County, Washington, in the United States. Whidbey is about 30 miles north of Seattle, and lies between the Olympic Peninsula and the I-5 corridor of western Washington, the island forms the northern boundary of Puget Sound. It is home to Naval Air Station Whidbey Island, Whidbey Island is home to 58,211 residents. An estimated 29,000 of Whidbey Island residents live in rural locations. Whidbey Island is approximately 55 miles long, and 1.5 to 12 miles wide, with a land area of 168.67 square miles. It is ranked as the fourth longest and fourth largest island in the contiguous United States, behind Padre Island, Texas, Long Island, in the state of Washington, it is the largest island, followed by Orcas Island. Whidbey Island was once inhabited by members of the Lower Skagit, Swinomish, Suquamish, Snohomish, the first known European sighting of Whidbey Island was during the 1790 Spanish expedition of Manuel Quimper and Gonzalo López de Haro on the Princesa Real. The island was explored in 1792 by Captain George Vancouver. In May of that year, Royal Navy officers and members of Vancouvers expedition, Joseph Whidbey and Peter Puget, began to map, after Whidbey circumnavigated the island in June 1792, Vancouver named the island in his honor. The first known overnight stay on Whidbey Island by a non-Native American was made on May 26,1840 by a Catholic missionary during travel across Puget Sound. Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, commander of the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842, there he found the largest Native settlement on Puget Sound and noted that a Catholic mission had been started with a 2-acre fenced garden. Wilkes named the lower cove Holmes Harbor, after his assistant surgeon, in 1850, Colonel Isaac N. Ebey became the first permanent white settler on Whidbey Island, claiming a square mile of prairie with a southern shoreline on Admiralty Inlet. Even though he was farming potatoes and wheat on his land, he was also the postmaster for Port Townsend, Washington, on August 11,1857, Colonel Ebey was murdered and beheaded by Haida who traveled from the Queen Charlotte Islands when he was 39 years old. Ebey was slain in proxy-retaliation for the killing of a Haida chief at Port Gamble, Fort Ebey, named for the Colonel, was established in 1942 on the west side of the central part of the island, just northwest of Coupeville. Admiralty Head Lighthouse is located in area, on the grounds of Fort Casey State Park. The area around Coupeville is the federally protected Ebeys Landing National Historical Reserve, in 1984, the island was the site of a violent encounter between law enforcement and white nationalist and organized crime leader Robert Jay Mathews. A large shootout occurred between Mathews and FBI agents in which Mathews was killed in a house fire, Mathews followers have since gathered on the island at the location where he was killed by FBI agents on the anniversary of his death to commemorate it. Whidbey Island, along with Camano Island, Ben Ure Island and six uninhabited islands, comprises Island County, the county seat is located in the town of Coupeville on Whidbey Island
Whidbey Island
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Map of Whidbey Island
Whidbey Island
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Cultus Bay at Low Tide
Whidbey Island
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Carved sign welcoming visitors as they arrive by ferry at Clinton.
Whidbey Island
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A cliff on Whidbey Island near
Fort Casey
29.
Admiralty Inlet
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Admiralty Inlet is a strait in the U. S. state of Washington connecting the eastern end of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Puget Sound. It lies between Whidbey Island and the part of the Olympic Peninsula. It is generally considered to be the part of Puget Sounds Main Basin. Admiralty Inlets area is 437 square kilometres, with a volume of 15,200 cubic metres and its shoreline is 171 kilometres in length. Its mean depth is 35 metres, though only 6 kilometres wide at the narrowest point, it is through this passage that nearly all the seawater flows into and from Puget Sound during daily tidal variations. Tidal currents can reach six knots in the area northeast of Point Wilson, all sea vessels must pass through Admiralty Inlet to enter or leave Puget Sound, except those small enough to use Deception Pass. This fact led to the selection of Port Townsend on the Quimper Peninsula as the port of entry for the Puget Sound region during the early days of commerce in the area. The first Europeans to find and map Admiralty Inlet were the Spanish of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper and it was Quimpers pilot, Juan Carrasco, who sighted the inlet. Thinking it was a bay he named it Ensenada de Caamaño, two years later Admiralty Inlet was given its present name by George Vancouver, after his ultimate commanders, the Board of Admiralty. The Spanish name was given to Camano Island. The Keystone-Port Townsend run of the Washington State Ferries crosses the inlet, a tidal power project was canceled due to costs of monitoring wildlife
Admiralty Inlet
–
Admiralty Inlet seen at low tide from
Whidbey Island
Admiralty Inlet
–
Port Townsend, Admiralty Inlet and Port Townsend Bay
30.
Point Wilson
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This low, broad sand-spit, extends over a half-mile into the water and marks the entrance to Admiralty Inlet from the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Here, the shipping channel narrows and makes a sharp turn to the south into Puget Sound. Nearby shoals, heavy rip-tides, and persistent fogs influenced the placing of a lighthouse on Point Wilson in 1879, in 1913, the present Point Wilson Lighthouse was built by the United States Lighthouse Service. The point is also the site of a meteorological station, the Chimakum Indians named this point Kam-kam-ho and the SKlallam Indians called it Kam-Kum. Point Wilson was discovered by Europeans on July 5,1790 by Juan Carrasco, Captain George Vancouver of the Royal Navy named Point Wilson on June 5,1792, in honor of a colleague, Captain George Wilson
Point Wilson
–
Point Wilson and the Point Wilson Lighthouse
31.
Mediterranean climate
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A Mediterranean climate /ˌmɛdɪtəˈreɪniən/ or dry summer climate, is the climate typical of the lands in the Mediterranean Basin. The Mediterranean climate is characterised by dry summers and mild, moist winters, the Azores High is associated with the Mediterranean climate found in southern Europe and north Africa and the Sahara Desert with France and England both bordering this climate, France especially. The South Atlantic High is similarly associated with the Namib Desert, under the Köppen climate classification, hot dry-summer climates and cool dry-summer climates are often referred to as mediterranean. Under the Köppen climate system, the first letter indicates the climate group, temperate climates or C zones have an average temperature above 0 °C, but below 18 °C, in their coolest months. The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern, Köppen has defined a dry summer month as a month with less than 30 mm of precipitation and with less than one-third that of the wettest winter month. Some, however, use a 40 mm level, the third letter indicates the degree of summer heat, a represents an average temperature in the warmest month above 22 °C, while b indicates the average temperature in the warmest month below 22 °C. Under the Köppen classification, dry-summer climates usually occur on the sides of continents. Under Trewarthas system, at least eight months must have average temperatures of 10 °C or higher, during summer, regions of mediterranean climate are dominated by subtropical high pressure cells, with dry sinking air capping a surface marine layer of varying humidity and making rainfall unlikely. In many Mediterranean climates there is a strong character to daily temperatures in the warm months. The majority of the regions with mediterranean climates have relatively mild winters, however winter and summer temperatures can vary greatly between different regions with a mediterranean climate. Or to consider summer, Athens experiences rather high temperatures in that season, in contrast, San Francisco has cool summers with daily highs around. In North America, areas with Csc climate can be found in the Olympic, Cascade, Klamath and these locations are found at high altitude nearby lower altitude regions characterized by a warm-summer mediterranean climate or hot-summer mediterranean climate. A rare instance of this occurs in the tropics, on Haleakalā Summit in Hawaii. In South America, Csc regions can be found along the Andes in Chile, the town of Balmaceda is one of the few towns confirmed to have this climate. Small areas with a Csc climate can also be found at elevations in Corsica. Mediterranean climate Explanation of Mediterranean Climate
Mediterranean climate
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Mediterranean climate distribution in the Americas
Mediterranean climate
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Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa)
32.
Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
Oceanic climate
–
Seattle, a city with an oceanic climate
Oceanic climate
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World map showing oceanic climate zones, as defined by the
Köppen climate types "Cfb", "Cfc", "Cwb" and "Cwc"
Oceanic climate
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Curitiba, capital city of Brazilian
Paraná state features a subtropical highland climate
33.
Temperate rainforest
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Temperate rainforests are coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive heavy rainfall. For temperate rain forests of North America, Alabacks definition is widely recognized, the North American definition would in turn exclude a part of temperate rain forests in other countries. Temperate forests cover a part of the Earth, but temperate rainforests only occur in a few regions around the world. Jiri and across the southern coastline, southwest Japans Taiheiyo forests, coastal New South Wales. In Eastern North America, there are scattered pockets of temperate rainforest also exist along the Allegheny Plateau and these areas include sections of West Virginia, Western Pennsylvania, as well as Western Upstate New York and the Adirondack Mountains. A good example of these forests are found in Zoar Valley in Upstate New York, Cook Forest State Park within the Allegheny National Forest, like Eastern North America, much precipitation is in the form of rain and snow. In terms of the province system used by botany, the bulk of the region is the Rocky Mountain Floristic Region. They vary in their species composition, but are all predominantly coniferous, sometimes with an understory of broadleaved trees, most of the precipitation occurs in winter but summer fogs moisture is extracted by the trees and produces a fog drip keeping the forest moist. The Northern California coastal forests are home to the Coast Redwood, in the other ecoregions, Coast Douglas-fir, Sitka Spruce, Western Hemlock and Western redcedar are the most important tree species. A common feature of Pacific temperate rain forests of North America is the Nurse log, a fallen tree which as it decays, provides ecological facilitation to seedlings. Trees such as the Coast Douglas-fir, Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar, Pacific Yew, Some of the largest expanses of old growth are found in Olympic National Park, Mount Rainier National Park, Tongass National Forest, Mount St. These inland rainforests have more continental climate with a proportion of the precipitation falling as snow. Being closer to the Rocky Mountains, there is more of a mammalian fauna. Some of the best interior rain forests are found in Mount Revelstoke National Park, Red spruce and Fraser fir are dominant canopy trees in high mountain areas. In higher elevation, Fraser fir is dominant, in middle elevation red spruce and Fraser fir grow together, below the spruce-fir forest, at around 1,200 metres, are forests of American beech, yellow birch, maple birch, and oak. Skunk cabbage and ground juniper are northern species that were pushed into the areas from the north, the mild and wet environment supports the high diversity of fungi. Over 2000 species live in area and scientists estimate many unidentified fungi may be there. Temperate rain forests occur in the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions, the Valdivian and Magellanic temperate rainforests are the only temperate rain forests in South America
Temperate rainforest
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Maples covered with
epiphytic moss in the
Hoh Rainforest
Temperate rainforest
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Humid temperate rain forest in Termas Geométricas near
Coñaripe, Chile
Temperate rainforest
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Temperate rain forest in the
Mount Hood Wilderness, Oregon, USA. This area, on the west side of the mountain, receives over 2.5 meters of rain per year.
Temperate rainforest
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Coast Redwood forest in
Redwood National Park
34.
Sequim
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Sequim /ˈskwɪm/ is a city in Clallam County, Washington, United States. As of the 2010 census counted a population of 6,606, Sequim is located along the Dungeness River near the base of the Olympic Mountains. The city has been increasing in population dramatically in recent years due to the influx of retirees from the Puget Sound region, yet the city is fairly close to some of the wettest temperate rainforests of the contiguous United States. This climate anomaly is sometimes called the hole of Sequim. Fogs and cool breezes from the Juan de Fuca Strait make Sequims environment more humid than would be expected from the low annual precipitation. Some places have surprisingly luxuriant forests dominated by Douglas-fir and western red cedar, black cottonwood, red alder, bigleaf maple, Pacific madrone, lodgepole pine, and Garry oak can also be large. Most soils under Sequim have been placed in a series which is named after the city, the area is also known for its Dungeness crab. Sequim is pronounced as one syllable, with the e elided, the name evolved from the Klallam language. The local news publications consist of the community news paper Sequim Gazette, also, the Sequim Radio station, KSQM91.5. Sequims sister city is Shiso, Hyōgo, Japan, Sequim and Shiso have an exchange student program set up through Sequim High School and Sequim Middle School. According to Michael R. Waters, an archaeologist at Texas A&M University, the SKlallam tribe had inhabited the region prior to the arrival of the first Europeans. The band of SKlallam Indians disbanded into their own individual federally recognized tribes in the early 1900s, the local Tribe is the Jamestown SKlallam Tribe named after one of their early leaders, Lord James Balch. According to other tales the town Sequim in SKlallam means a place for going to shoot which represents the abundance of game, both Manuel Quimper and George Vancouver explored the regions coast in the 1790s. The first European settlers arrived in the Dungeness Valley in the 1850s, settling nearby Dungeness, while the lands along the river became fertile farmlands, the remainder of the area remained arid prairie, known as the desert. Irrigation canals first brought water to the prairie in the 1890s, Sequim was officially incorporated on October 31,1913. For many decades small farms, mostly farms, dotted the area around the small town. Sequim has held its Irrigation Festival every May since 1895, as of 2016, it is the longest continuously running festival in the state and is in its 121st year. Sequim is home to a herd of Roosevelt elk, one attraction to the area, the herd occasionally crosses US101 just to the southeast of the town
Sequim
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Sequim, Washington
Sequim
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A lavender farm in Sequim, Washington
Sequim
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Drawing of a mastodon skeleton by
Rembrandt Peale
35.
Small-craft advisory
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A small craft advisory is a type of warning issued by the National Weather Service in the United States, most frequently in coastal areas and the waters of the Great Lakes. It is issued when winds have reached, or are expected to reach within 12 hours, a Small Craft Advisory may also be issued when sea or lake ice exists that could be hazardous to small boats. The insignia that denotes a small craft advisory is one red, the term wind advisory is used in place of small craft advisory when winds of the same force occur at, or are forecast for, inland locations. A lake wind advisory is issued for winds just below this range, the wind speed that triggers the advisory has changed over time. Until the late 1960s, the threshold was 32 to 38 miles per hour, at some point, the lower limit was reduced to 23 miles per hour. Today, however, most places have standardized on 25 to 38 miles per hour, occasionally an informal lesser advisory, known as small craft exercise caution, is issued for wind speeds lighter than those that call for a small craft advisory. Criteria for this vary in different localities, sometimes a range of 19 to 24 miles per hour is observed, the National Weather Service does not specifically identify what constitutes a small craft. The size of the boat is only part of what a person should consider when venturing out under such a warning, weight, displacement and hull design are also important factors and an even more important consideration is not only the craft, but the experience of the captain. The next step above these advisories is a wind warning. All such bulletins may also be issued for areas above a particular elevation, as of 15 February 1989, the National Weather Service retired its Coastal Warning Display network nationwide. For over 100 years, display stations were established at yacht clubs, marinas, the display stations were individually notified by the National Weather Service to raise the signals and again to lower them when the hazards passed. The National Weather Service paid for the signals, however. The Coastal Warning Display program was de-emphasized in favor of frequently updated telephone recordings, the latter covers the coastal areas of continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and the Mariana Islands with continuous weather broadcasts. Further, when users perceive them to be a substitute for NOAA Weather Radio, other radio broadcasts. A similar warning, known as a Strong Wind Warning, is issued by Environment Canadas Meteorological Service of Canada from its different offices for the Pacific, Atlantic and these warnings are coordinated for the Great Lakes region with American neighboring offices. Strong Wind Warning was previously referred to as Small Craft Warning and is referred to as such in many publications. A Strong Wind Warning is issued for winds in the range 20–33 knots and this is an example of a Small Craft Advisory from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Los Angeles, California. ARGUELLO AND WESTWARD60 NM-906 PM PDT FRI MAR162012. SMALL CRAFT ADVISORY IN EFFECT UNTIL9 AM PDT SATURDAY. GALE WARNING IN EFFECT FROM3 PM SATURDAY TO3 AM PDT MONDAY
Small-craft advisory
–
Small craft advisory pennant
36.
M/V Coho
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The M/V Coho is a passenger and vehicle ferry owned and operated by Black Ball Line. Black Balls only ferry, Coho carries passengers and cars, motorcycles, trucks, semi-trailers, bicycles, Coho makes between two and four round trips from Port Angeles to Victoria daily, with each crossing taking about 90 minutes and covering 37 kilometers or 20 nautical miles. The peak summer season has the most trips per day and the season the fewest. Coho was designed by Philip F. Spaulding & Associates, of Seattle and is named after the coho salmon commonly found in the Pacific Northwest, Coho was the first large vessel built on the West Coast in 20 years solely with private financing. The vessel was built by Puget Sound Bridge & Dry Dock in Seattle, Washington and she was originally powered by two Cooper-Bessemer diesel engines rated at 2,080 bhp each. In 2004 she was refitted with two V-12 Electro-Motive Division 12-645F7B diesels rated at 2,550 hp each, Coho has twin 8-foot stainless propellers with twin rudders. Her overall length is 341.5 feet with a speed of 15 knots. The ships vehicle clearance is 14 feet with a capacity of 110 vehicles. The design of Coho was the basis for that of BC Ferries first two ships, the Sidney class Queen of Sidney and Queen of Tsawwassen, which developed into the V-class ferry. He admitted he and accomplices had planned to bomb Los Angeles International Airport on New Years Eve,1999, MV Coho at Black Ball Ferry Line M/V Coho underway Designer, builder and owner of M/V Coho on her bridge during sea trials,1959
M/V Coho
–
MV Coho in
Victoria Harbour
M/V Coho
–
The
flag of the United States flying on the Coho in Victoria Harbour, British Columbia.
37.
Port Angeles, Washington
–
Port Angeles is a city in and the county seat of Clallam County, Washington, United States. With a population of 19,038 as of the 2010 census, the population was estimated at 19,448 in 2015 by the Office of Financial Management. The Citys harbor was dubbed Puerto de Nuestra Señora de los Ángeles by Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza in 1791, by the mid-19th century, after settlement by English speakers from the United States, the name was shortened and partially anglicized to its current form, Port Angeles Harbor. Port Angeles is home to Peninsula College and it is the birthplace of football hall of famer John Elway and residents include writers and artists. The city is served by William R. Fairchild International Airport, ferry service is provided across the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Victoria, British Columbia, Canada on the M/V Coho. This area was occupied by succeeding cultures of indigenous peoples. In 1791 the harbor was entered by Spanish explorer Francisco de Eliza and he was on an expedition from southern California. This name was shortened to the current one of Port Angeles, the first Europeans to the area tended to trade with the Native Americans. It was not until the 19th century that European Americans began to settle here, a small whaling, fishing and shipping village developed, which traded with Victoria, British Columbia. In 1856–1857, the first settlers arrived and they were followed by the Cherbourg Land Company in 1859, soon afterwards the site caught the attention of Victor Smith. Smith, a protege of Salmon Chase, was Collector of Customs for the Puget Sound District and he quickly gained approval to move the Port of Entry from Port Townsend to Port Angeles. With Chases support, he succeeded in getting President Abraham Lincoln to designate 3,520 acres at Port Angeles as a federal reserve for lighthouse, military. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers platted a town site on the reserve land. The fact that Washington, D. C. was the other city officially laid out by the federal government led the U. S. Board of Trade in 1890 to dub Port Angeles the Second National City, settlers soon followed slowly, but Smiths death in the sinking of the Brother Jonathen led to the loss of interest in the area. The Port of Entry was returned to Port Townsend and the area sank into obscurity until the 1880s, in 1884, a hotel was built and the trading post was expanded into the areas first general store. A wharf was built upon that site that the current ferry pier stands. A village of 300 in 1886, Port Angeles population grew to 3,000 by 1890, the town was incorporated in that year
Port Angeles, Washington
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Port Angeles harbor and the
Olympic Mountains
Port Angeles, Washington
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Early morning photograph from the pier tower
Port Angeles, Washington
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Crossroads in Port Angeles,
Strait of Juan de Fuca and
Vancouver Island in the background
38.
Victoria, British Columbia
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Victoria /vɪkˈtɔːriə/ is the capital city of the Canadian province of British Columbia, and is located on the southern tip of Vancouver Island off Canadas Pacific coast. The city has a population of about 85,792, while the area of Greater Victoria, has a population of 367,770. Victoria is the southernmost major city in Western Canada, and is located about 100 kilometres from BCs largest city of Vancouver on the mainland. Named after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and, at the time, British North America, Victoria is one of the oldest cities in the Pacific Northwest, with British settlement beginning in 1843. The city has retained a number of its historic buildings. The citys Chinatown is the second oldest in North America after San Franciscos, known as the The Garden City, Victoria is an attractive city and a popular tourism destination with a thriving technology sector that has risen to be its largest revenue-generating private industry. Victoria is in the top twenty of world cities for quality-of-life, Victoria is very popular with boaters with its beautiful and rugged shorelines and beaches. Victoria is also popular with retirees, who come to enjoy the temperate, prior to the arrival of European navigators in the late 1700s, the Victoria area was home to several communities of Coast Salish peoples, including the Songhees. The Spanish and British took up the exploration of the northwest coast, beginning with the visits of Juan Pérez in 1774 and of James Cook. In 1778, although the Victoria area of the Strait of Juan de Fuca was not penetrated until 1790, Spanish sailors visited Esquimalt Harbour in 1790,1791, the Songhees established a village across the harbour from the fort. The Songhees village was moved north of Esquimalt. When the crown colony was established in 1849, a town was out on the site. Victoria was incorporated as a city in 1862, in 1865, Esquimalt was made the North Pacific home of the Royal Navy, and remains Canadas Pacific coast naval base. In the latter half of the 19th century, the Port of Victoria became one of North Americas largest importers of opium, serving the opium trade from Hong Kong and distribution into North America. Opium trade was legal and unregulated until 1865, then the legislature issued licences and levied duties on its import, the opium trade was banned in 1908. In 1886, with the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway terminus on Burrard Inlet and his son James Dunsmuir became premier and subsequently lieutenant-governor of the province and built his own grand residence at Hatley Park in the present City of Colwood. With the economic crash and a surplus of men, Victoria became a target-rich environment for recruiting. Two militia infantry battalions, the 88th Victoria Fusiliers and the 50th Gordon Highlanders, Victoria was the home of Sir Arthur Currie
Victoria, British Columbia
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Clockwise from top left: The Inner
Victoria Harbour, Statue of Queen Victoria, the
Fisgard Lighthouse, Neo-Baroque architecture of the
British Columbia Parliament Buildings, The
British Columbia Parliament Buildings, The
Empress Hotel, and The
Christ Church Cathedral.
Victoria, British Columbia
–
Downtown Victoria 's Skyline at twilight in November 2009.
Victoria, British Columbia
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Wawadit'la, also known as Mungo Martin House, a Kwakwaka'wakw "big house", with
totem pole. Built by Chief Mungo Martin in 1953. Located at
Thunderbird Park in Victoria, British Columbia, in the background is the
Royal BC Museum.
Victoria, British Columbia
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Inner Harbour with Empress Hotel on left, 2014
39.
Washington State Ferry
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Washington State Ferries is a government agency that operates automobile and passenger ferry service in the U. S. state of Washington as part of the Washington State Department of Transportation. It runs ten routes serving 20 terminals located around Puget Sound and in the San Juan Islands, the agency maintains the largest fleet of ferries in the United States at 22 vessels, carrying 24.2 million passengers in 2016. As of 2014, it was the largest ferry operator in the United States, by the beginning of the 1930s, two lines remained, the Puget Sound Navigation Company and the Kitsap County Transportation Company. A strike in 1935 forced the KCTC to close, leaving only the Black Ball Line, in 1951, the state bought nearly all of Black Balls ferry assets for $5 million. As of 2016, there are 22 ferries on Puget Sound operated by the state, the largest vessels in this fleet carry up to 2500 passengers and 202 vehicles. They are painted in a white and green trim paint scheme. WSF owned passenger-only vessels between 1985 and 2009, but after discontinuing its two passenger-only routes in the 2000s, WSF has sold its passenger-only ferries to other operators, below is a list of ferries that WSF has retired since 1951. Unless otherwise noted, all introduced in 1951 were acquired from the Black Ball Line when the state took over the companys routes. There are several other publicly operated, private, and passenger-only ferries in Washington state, official website Evergreenfleet. com-- A History of Washington State Ferries Past and Present Vehicle Reservation Predesign Study
Washington State Ferry
Washington State Ferry
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Washington State Ferries
Washington State Ferry
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Washington State Ferry
Tacoma
Washington State Ferry
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The
Hyak in Rich Passage heading to Bremerton, WA.
40.
Victoria Express
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Victoria Express, also known as Victoria Rapid Transit, was the name of a private, seasonal ferry operation based in Port Angeles, Washington. In 2006, Victoria Express II, and in 2007 Victoria Express main engines were replaced, the new engines are Detroit Diesel Offroad/MTU Series 60 high efficiency engines. The Series 60 is a 4-stroke inline 6 cylinder diesel engine, the Victoria Express fleet operates on biodiesel. The first trip for the new service debuted on 16 April 2011
Victoria Express
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Victoria Express and Victoria Express II (the red and white vessels on the far left) docked in Victoria Harbour.
41.
Seattle, Washington
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
Seattle, Washington
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Downtown Seattle from
Queen Anne Hill
Seattle, Washington
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Seal
Seattle, Washington
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The
Battle of Seattle (1856)
Seattle, Washington
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Seattle's first
streetcar, at the corner of Occidental and Yesler, 1884. All of the buildings visible in this picture were destroyed by fire five years later.
42.
Esquimalt Harbour
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Esquimalt Harbour is a sheltered harbour in Greater Victoria on the southern tip of Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada. The Harbor is bounded by the cities and towns of Colwood to the west, View Royal to the north. The entrance to Esquimalt Harbor is from the south off the Strait of Juan de Fuca through a channel known as Royal Roads. The entrance is marked by the historic Fisgard Lighthouse on the Harbours west shore in Colwood, Esquimalt Harbour is home to the Canadian Forces Maritime Forces Pacific, based at CFB Esquimalt. It was the home of the Esquimalt Royal Navy Dockyard from 1842 to 1905, just to the east of Esquimalt Harbour lies Victoria Harbour. Tides, Currents, and Water Levels, Esquimalt
Esquimalt Harbour
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Russian tall ship
Pallada is seen between
Fisgard Lighthouse and
Fort Rodd in 2005
Esquimalt Harbour
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Canadian warships docked at
CFB Esquimalt July 2005
43.
Submarine canyon
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Just as above-sea-level canyons serve as channels for the flow of water across land, submarine canyons serve as channels for the flow of turbidity currents across the seafloor. Turbidity currents are flows of dense, sediment laden waters that are supplied by rivers, or generated on the seabed by storms, submarine landslides, earthquakes, and other soil disturbances. Turbidity currents travel down slope at great speed, eroding the continental slope and finally depositing sediment onto the abyssal plain, where the particles settle out. The formation of canyons is believed to occur as the result of at least two main process, 1) erosion by turbidity current erosion, and 2) slumping and mass wasting of the continental slope. Many canyons have been found at greater than 2 km below sea level. Some may extend seawards across continental shelves for hundreds of kilometres before reaching the abyssal plain, ancient examples have been found in rocks dating back to the Neoproterozoic. Turbidites are deposited at the mouths or ends of canyons. Submarine canyons are common on the steep slopes found on active margins compared to those on the gentler slopes found on passive margins. They show erosion through all substrates, from unlithified sediment to crystalline rock, canyons are steeper, shorter, more dendritic and more closely spaced on active than on passive continental margins. The walls are very steep and can be near vertical. The walls are subject to erosion by bioerosion, or slumping, there are an estimated 9,477 submarine canyons on earth, covering about 11% of the continental slope. Avilés Canyon, off the coast of Asturias, Spain, reaches depths of more than 4,500 m. Their primary causes have been subject to debate since the early 1930s, the major mechanism of canyon erosion is now thought to be turbidity currents and underwater landslides. Mass wasting, slumping, and submarine landslides are forms of slope failures observed in submarine canyons, mass wasting is the term used for the slower and smaller action of material moving downhill. Slumping is generally used for movement of masses on a hillside. Landslides, or slides, generally comprise the detachment and displacement of sediment masses, in addition to the processes described above, submarine canyons that are especially deep may form by another method. In certain cases, a sea with a bed significantly below sea level is cut off from the ocean to which it is usually connected. The sea which is normally repleted by contact and inflow from the ocean is now no longer replenished and hence dries up over a period of time, which can be very short if the local climate is arid
Submarine canyon
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Shaded relief image of seven submarine canyons imaged on the
continental slope off New York, using
multibeam echosounder data, the Hudson Canyon is the furthest to the left
Submarine canyon
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Perspective view shaded relief image of the San Gabriel and Newport submarine canyons off Los Angeles
Submarine canyon
–
Landforms
44.
International law
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International law is the set of rules generally regarded and accepted as binding in relations between states and between nations. It serves as a framework for the practice of stable and organized international relations, International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily applicable to countries rather than to private citizens. National law may become law when treaties delegate national jurisdiction to supranational tribunals such as the European Court of Human Rights or the International Criminal Court. Treaties such as the Geneva Conventions may require national law to conform to respective parts, much of international law is consent-based governance. This means that a member is not obliged to abide by this type of international law. This is an issue of state sovereignty, however, other aspects of international law are not consent-based but still are obligatory upon state and non-state actors such as customary international law and peremptory norms. The term international law can refer to three distinct legal disciplines, Public international law, which governs the relationship between states and international entities. It includes these legal fields, treaty law, law of sea, international law, the laws of war or international humanitarian law, international human rights law. Private international law, or conflict of laws, which addresses the questions of jurisdiction may hear a case. The two traditional branches of law are, jus gentium – law of nations jus inter gentes – agreements between nations. Several legal systems developed in Europe, including the systems of continental European states and English common law, based on decisions by judges. Some doubt the effectiveness of law, as they see the implementation of international law as a policy option among others to tackle global dilemmas. They say that international law must be evaluated with other, possibly more effective, International law is sourced from decision makers and researchers looking to verify the substantive legal rule governing a legal dispute or academic discourse. The sources of law applied by the community of nations to find the content of international law are listed under Article 38. Many scholars agree that the fact that the sources are arranged sequentially in the Article 38 of the ICJ Statute suggests a hierarchy of sources. The sources have influenced by a range of political and legal theories. During the 20th century, it was recognized by legal positivists that a state could limit its authority to act by consenting to an agreement according to the principle pacta sunt servanda. Public international law concerns the treaty relationships between the nations and persons which are considered the subjects of international law, evidence of consensus or state practice can sometimes be derived from intergovernmental resolutions or academic and expert legal opinions
International law
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Created in 1945, the
United Nations is responsible for much of the current framework of international law.
International law
–
The
First Geneva Convention (1864) is one of the earliest formulations of international law.
International law
–
The
Italian thinker
Sir Alberico Gentili is acknowledged to be the founder of the science of international law.
45.
Machias Seal Island
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Machias Seal Island is an island in the Gulf of Maine, about 16 km southeast from Cutler, Maine, and 19 km southwest of Southwest Head, New Brunswick on Grand Manan Island. It is a neighbour to North Rock, sovereignty of the island is disputed. Since both Canada and the United States claim sovereignty, anyone born here can claim dual citizenship, the Canadian Coast Guard continues to staff a lighthouse on the island, the first lighthouse was constructed there in 1832. The relationship of Machias Seal Island to the Grand Manan archipelago is a source of dispute among geologists. The island is considered to be a continuation of the series of exposed shoals, rocks. The deeper Grand Manan Channel lies to the north and west of the island, separating it from the coast of Washington County, Machias Seal Island is a barren island and devoid of trees. Because of its location at the boundary between the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy, Machias Seal Island is fog-bound for many days of the year. It is also a sanctuary for seabirds such as Atlantic puffins, razorbills, common murres, common and Arctic terns, Leachs storm-petrels, the island was largely ignored by both Great Britain and the United States during the American Revolutionary War. The Treaty of Paris ended the conflict surrounding the American Revolutionary War, the northwest angle of Nova Scotia refers to what is today New Brunswick, and the Canada–US border still follows today the St. Croix River and a line due north from its source. Once the St. Croix River, but it remained unclear whether they were within the limits of Nova Scotia. These ambiguities resulted in both countries claiming several islands in Passamoquoddy Bay, Grand Manan Island and nearby islands, during the War of 1812, Great Britain occupied coastal Maine extending from the border with New Brunswick west to the Penobscot River valley. During this time, tolls were charged upon residents at various occupied harbours in the area, Great Britain withdrew their forces upon signing the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, with the stipulation being that the boundary should be better delineated in the area of the Grand Manan Channel. Machias Seal Island, not an island of the Passamaquoddy Bay, Britain maintained possession of Machias Seal Island, under pressure from shipping interests at the burgeoning port of Saint John. New Brunswick set up a lighthouse in 1832, there is no indication of either nation having a presence on the island prior to 1832. The United Kingdom, and later Canada, have maintained an ongoing interest in the island, until the 1970s–1980s, lighthouse keepers from the Canadian Coast Guard would live on the island with their families, receiving supplies by sea from Grand Manan or Saint John. In recent decades, the island has been protected under its designation as the Machias Seal Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary, no private citizen in Canada has made an ownership claim to Machias Seal Island, and Canada considers the property to be wholly owned by the federal government. In the 20th century, some Canadian residents placed mining claims on the island as an exercise of sovereignty and these forces were withdrawn after several months, and no U. S. presence has been re-established since. Machias Seal Island and North Rock lie in the middle of this grey zone—a term coined by fishermen from both countries, referring to unclear jurisdictional boundaries in the area
Machias Seal Island
–
Machias Seal Island
Machias Seal Island
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The Machias Seal Island is home to a variety of wildlife, including the
Atlantic puffin.
46.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the western coast of
Portugal
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean, not including
Arctic and
Antarctic regions
Atlantic Ocean
–
The Atlantic Ocean as seen from
Atlantic City, New Jersey.
Atlantic Ocean
–
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina view of the Atlantic Ocean.
47.
Chemainus First Nation
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The Stzuminus First Nation is a First Nations government located in southeastern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, near the town of Ladysmith, British Columbia. The Stzuminus First Nation is a government of the Nautsa mawt Tribal Council. In early 2009, chief and council unanimously passed a band council resolution to change the name from Chemainus to Stzuminus in order to reflect its original Hulquminum language name. Renaming would require an application to the Geographical Names Board of Canada. The name was adopted as of the Throne Speech opening the BC Legislature on February 9,2010. The Salish Sea name has been used by the Coast Salish Gathering, the Stzuminus First Nations largest Indian reserve, Chemainus Indian Reserve No. 13, is located on Stuart Channel, which is one of the smaller waterways within the Salish Sea as defined. The Salish Sea name was proposed by Bert Webber from Bellingham, Washington in March,1989, for the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound. Halkomelem Nautsa mawt Tribal Council Stzuminus First Nation website Nautsa mawt Tribal Council website
Chemainus First Nation
–
v
Chemainus First Nation
–
traditional territory claimed by the Chemainus First Nation
48.
Executive Council of British Columbia
–
The Executive Council of British Columbia is the cabinet of that Canadian province. Almost always made up of members of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia the Cabinet is similar in structure, as federal and provincial responsibilities differ there are a number of different portfolios between the federal and provincial governments. The Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia, as representative of the Queen in Right of British Columbia, heads the council, other members of the Cabinet, who advise, or minister, the vice-regal, are selected by the Premier of British Columbia and appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor. Most cabinet ministers are the head of a ministry, but this is not always the case, as at the federal level the most important Cabinet post after that of the leader is Minister of Finance, although notably during the regimes of Premiers W. A. C. Bennett and Dave Barrett that position was conjoint with that of the Premier, today the next most powerful positions are the Forestry and Health portfolios which have huge budgets and are of central political importance. Other powerful portfolios include Education, Health, and Energy, Mines, the colonial Legislative Assemblies were subordinate to the Governor and the Council and served more as a sounding-board than a legislative body. The current ministry has been in place after the 2013 provincial elections, the cabinet was sworn into office on June 7,2013
Executive Council of British Columbia
–
Lieutenant-Governor
49.
United States Board on Geographic Names
–
The United States Board on Geographic Names is a federal body within the United States Geological Survey, an agency of the Department of the Interior. The purpose of the board is to establish and maintain uniform usage of names throughout the federal government of the United States. The Board was created in 1890, its present form derives from a law of 1947, under the U. S. Department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, the BGN was created by presidential order. Mendenhall, superintendent of the U. S. President Benjamin Harrison signed an Executive Order on September 4,1890, to this Board shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. The decisions of the Board are to be accepted … as the authority for such matters. The Board was given authority to resolve all unsettled questions concerning geographic names, Decisions of the Board were accepted as binding by all departments and agencies of the federal government. The Board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of domestic and it also deals with the names of geographical features underseas and in Antarctica. Although its official purpose is to resolve problems and new name proposals for the federal government. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the Board to render decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes. Generally, the BGN defers federal name use to comply with local usage, for example, in rare cases where a locally used name is very offensive, the BGN may decide against adoption of the local name for federal use. In federal mapping and names collection efforts, there is often a phase lag where a delay occurs in adoption of a locally used name, sometimes the delay is several decades. Volunteers in the Earth Science Corps are used to assist the U. S. Geological Survey in collecting names of geographic features. The Geographic Names Information System, developed by the BGN in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey, includes topographic map names, the names of books and historic maps which confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded, the BGN has members from six federal departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency, the Government Publishing Office, the Library of Congress, and the U. S. Postal Service. The BGN rules on hundreds of naming decisions annually and stores over two million records in its databases at geonames. usgs. gov. State and local governments, and private mapping organizations usually follow the BGNs decisions, the BGN has an executive committee and two permanent committees with full authority, the 10 to 15-member Domestic Names Committee and the 8 to 10-member Foreign Names Committee. The BGN does not create a name, the BGN responds to proposals for names from federal agencies, state, local, and tribal governments. The BGN does not translate terms, but instead accurately uses foreign names in the Roman alphabet, for non-Roman languages, the BGN uses transliteration systems or creates them for less well-known languages
United States Board on Geographic Names
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Contents
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