1.
Strategic Air Command (film)
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Strategic Air Command is a 1955 American film starring James Stewart and June Allyson, and directed by Anthony Mann. Released by Paramount Pictures, it was the first of four films that depicted the role of the Strategic Air Command in the Cold War era, the film was the second film released in Paramounts new wide-screen system, VistaVision, in color by Technicolor and Perspecta directional sound. Robert Dutch Holland is a baseball player with the St. Louis Cardinals. A B-29 bomber pilot during World War II, he is also an officer on inactive status in the United States Air Force Reserve, during spring training in St. Petersburg, Florida, he is recalled to active duty for 21 months. He reports to his posting at Carswell AFB, a base in Fort Worth. He arrives in civilian clothing because his old uniforms are those of the old U. S. Army Air Forces, for which he is rebuked by General Hawkes, the Generals character is patterned after the real SAC commander of the time, General Curtis LeMay. Dutch is given a job with the bombardment wing at Carswell that involves a lot of flying. He soon has a B-36 crew of his own, selecting a former World War II colleague as his flight engineer, and becomes enamored with both flying and the role of SAC in deterring war. He is joined by his wife, Sally, who had not bargained on being an Air Force wife, and who struggles with his repeated absences and the dangers of flying. On any given night, Dutch might find his aircraft on airborne alert far from the continental United States, in secret, even so, Sally tells Dutch that she is happy as long as they can be together, no matter what he decides to do with his life. The B-36 is an aircraft when introduced, but improvements are being worked on all the time. One challenge was leakage from the tanks, but a new fix is introduced to address this once. On their next flight, Dutchs crew has to fly their B-36 from Carswell AFB to Thule Air Base, the fix does not work and one of the engines bursts into flame, causing the entire left wing to catch fire. The crew is forced to abandon the aircraft and bail out over the ice, Dutch and his Radar Navigator stay on board for a forced landing, which causes Dutch to injure his right shoulder. On a full B-47 wing movement exercise that involves flying nonstop from MacDill to Yokota Air Base, Japan, they encounter severe wind, low on fuel, they divert to Kadena Air Base, Okinawa. As they prepare to land, Dutch realizes that his injury from the B-36 crash was worse than he thought. He is unable to operate the power levers during final landing phase and has to rely on his co-pilot to do so while Dutch works the flight controls with his left arm. This injury not only bars him from flying, but also appears to threaten his baseball career
2.
Air Force Global Strike Command
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Air Force Global Strike Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana. AFGSC provides combat-ready forces to conduct strategic nuclear deterrence and global operations in support of combatant commanders. Air Force Global Strike Command is the direct descendant unit of the Cold War-era Strategic Air Command and it holds the lineage, history and honors of SAC. It assumed responsibility for the assets of Air Force Space Command on 1 December 2009. Its creation was outlined in the recommendations of the following the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident. The command was activated 7 August 2009, at Barksdale Air Force Base, AFGSC consists of over 31,000 personnel assigned to nine wings, two geographically-separated squadrons and one detachment in the continental United States and deployed to locations around the globe. Changes to the AFGSC units began with the announcement of the 377th Air Base Wings realignment in December 2014 and this means that two bomb wings formerly under Air Combat Command will shift into AFGSC. The units came under the command on 1 October 2015, on October 6,2016, the 595th Command and Control Group was activated at Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska to assume the responsibility for the Boeing E-4 NAOC mission. The command has an area of responsibility as a subordinate component command of United States Strategic Command. AFGSC is one of two USAF component commands in USSTRATCOM, the other being Air Force Space Command, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Deterrence through strength, global strike on demand, the Missouri Air National Guards 131st Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman, flying the B-2A Spirit. If federalized, it is gained by Eighth Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Commands 307th Bomb Wing is an associate unit of the 2d Bomb Wing at Barksdale AFB, flying the B-52H Stratofortress. If activated, it is gained by Eighth Air Force Offensive aircraft assets include the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit, Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, and Boeing B-1B Lancer. Headquarters, Twentieth Air Force – Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, designated as USSTRATCOMs Task Force 214, 20th Air Force provides on-alert, combat-ready ICBMs to the President of the United States. The ICBMs are on 24-hour/365-day alert and are ready to launch on any given day, aFGSCs Twentieth Air Force is the Air Forces lead command for and largest operator of UH-1N Huey helicopters. The UH-1N supports ICBM operations in missile fields controlled by F. E. Warren, Malmstrom, in 2015, the 582d Helicopter Group was activated to supervise the three UH-1 squadrons. Schlesinger led an investigation into the status of U. S. Air Force nuclear surety, Secretary Schlesingers recommendation was the creation of a single major command under which all Air Force nuclear assets should be placed for better accountability
3.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
4.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Offutt Air Force Base
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Offutt Air Force Base is a U. S. Air Force installation near Omaha, and lies adjacent to Bellevue in Sarpy County, Nebraska. It is the headquarters of the U. S. Strategic Command, the Air Force Weather Agency, and the 55th Wing of the Air Combat Command, aviation use at Offutt began in September 1918 during World War I as an Army Air Service balloon field. It was renamed in honor of World War I pilot and Omaha native 1st Lt. Jarvis Offutt in 1924. S. in case of war during the Cold War. The population was 8,901 at the 2000 census, Offutt Air Force Base is the host station for the 55th Wing, the largest wing of the United States Air Forces Air Combat Command. One of the units, the 55th Operations Group, operates 46 aircraft. The group consists of approximately 3,200 personnel and it employs 46 aircraft, including 13 models of seven different types. It consists of 5 squadrons,3 flying squadrons,1 support squadron and 1 maintenance squadron, all 3 flying squadrons utilize various models of the EC-130 aircraft. It also provides technology and support to the 55th Wing and 44 tenant units. 55th Medical Group The 55th Medical Group serves 28K enrolled patients with extensive outpatient clinic capabilities, Offutt AFB is the headquarters of United States Strategic Command which is one of the nine Unified Combatant Commands of the United States Department of Defense. USSTRATCOM was established in 1992 as a successor to Strategic Air Command, the 557th Weather Wing, formerly the Air Force Weather Agency, is headquartered at Offutt AFB. It is the weather center of the United States Air Force. For over a century, Offutt AFB has played a key role in American military history, from its beginnings as Fort Crook in the late 19th century, Offutt has adapted to the defense needs of the United States. The historical significance of Offutt is a source of pride for military, Offutt AFB is named in honor of First Lieutenant Jarvis Jennes Offutt. The first native of Omaha to become a casualty in World War I, Lieutenant Offutt died of injuries sustained when his SE-5 fighter crashed during a flight near Valheureux. The airfield portion of Fort Crook was designated Offutt Field on 10 May 1924, offutts great heritage began with the commissioning by the War Department in 1890 of Fort Crook. Located some 10 miles south of Omaha and two miles west of the Missouri River, the fort was constructed between 1894 and 1896, the forts namesake was Major General George Crook, a Civil War veteran and Indian fighter. It was first used as a point for Indian conflicts on the Great Plains. Troops from Fort Crook fought during the Spanish–American War when the 22nd Regiment under Charles A. Wikoff was dispatched to Cuba, the regiment suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of El Caney
7.
Nebraska
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Nebraska /nᵻˈbræskə/ is a state that lies in both the Great Plains and the Midwestern United States. Its area is just over 77,220 sq mi with almost 1.9 million people and its largest city is Omaha, which is on the Missouri River. The state is crossed by many trails and was explored by the Lewis. Nebraska was admitted as the 37th state of the United States in 1867 and it is the only state in the United States whose legislature is unicameral and officially nonpartisan. Nebraska is composed of two major regions, the Dissected Till Plains and the Great Plains. The Dissected Till Plains is a region of rolling hills. The Great Plains occupy most of western Nebraska, characterized by treeless prairie, the state has a large agriculture sector and is a major producer of beef, pork, corn, and soybeans. Two major climatic zones are represented in Nebraska, the half of the state has a humid continental climate, and the western half. Indigenous peoples lived in the region of present-day Nebraska for thousands of years before European exploration. The historic tribes in the state included the Omaha, Missouria, Ponca, Pawnee, Otoe, when European exploration, trade, and settlement began, both Spain and France sought to control the region. In the 1690s, Spain established trade connections with the Apaches, by 1703, France had developed a regular trade with the native peoples along the Missouri River in Nebraska, and by 1719 had signed treaties with several of these peoples. After war broke out between the two countries, Spain dispatched an expedition to Nebraska under Lieutenant General Pedro de Villasur in 1720. The party was attacked and destroyed near present-day Columbus by a force of Pawnees and Otoes. The massacre of the Villasur expedition effectively put an end to Spanish exploration of Nebraska for the remainder of the 18th century, in 1762, during the Seven Years War, France ceded the Louisiana territory to Spain. Frances withdrawal from the area left Britain and Spain competing for dominance along the Mississippi, by 1773, later that year, Mackays party built a trading post, dubbed Fort Carlos IV, near present-day Homer. In 1819, the United States established Fort Atkinson as the first U. S. Army post west of the Missouri River, the army abandoned the fort in 1827 as migration moved further west. European-American settlement did not begin in any numbers until after 1848, on May 30,1854, the US Congress created the Kansas and the Nebraska territories, divided by the Parallel 40° North, under the Kansas–Nebraska Act. The Nebraska Territory included parts of the current states of Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming, the territorial capital of Nebraska was Omaha
8.
Andrews Air Force Base
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Andrews Field is the airfield portion of Joint Base Andrews which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force. In 2009, Andrews Air Force Base merged with Naval Air Facility Washington to form Joint Base Andrews, Andrews is the home base of two Boeing VC-25A aircraft with the call sign Air Force One when the president is on board, that serve the President of the United States. The host unit at Andrews is the 11th Wing, assigned to the Air Force District of Washington, the wing commander is Colonel Kenneth R. Rizer. The Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Anthony Brinkley, for statistical purposes the base is delineated as a census-designated place by the U. S. Census Bureau. As of the 2010 census, the resident population was 2,973, union American Civil War troops used a country church near Camp Springs, Maryland for sleeping quarters and on 25 August 1941, President Roosevelt directed use of the land for an airfield. Camp Springs Air Base was designated on 5 September 1942, Camp Springs Army Air Base opened on 2 May 1943, and the airfield became operational 2 May 1943 when the first Republic P-47 Thunderbolts arrived. After the 367th Fighter Squadron was stationed at Camp Springs on 21 April 1943, the airfield had 5,500 feet runways by 1944 when the 90th Fighter Control Squadron was formed, and the last Camp Springs combat units departed for World War II combat on 10 April 1944. Camp Springs was expanded to become the headquarters of Continental Air Forces —the 161st AAF Base Unit became the Andrews Field operating unit on 16 April 1945. Andrews Field was named on 7 February 1945 in honor of Lt Gen. Frank Andrews and in 1946, strategic Air Command headquarters transferred from Bolling Field to Andrews. The command of CONAFs Radar Bomb Scoring detachments transferred to Andrews on 17 March 1946 when the 263 AAF BU was assigned to Carswell AFB). Andrews transferred from the Army to the 1947 United States Air Force and Headquarters Command held command reins at Andrews from 1947 through 1952, Headquarters Military Air Transport Service controlled the base during the interim period. The year 1947 marked the arrival of the first permanently assigned jet-powered aircraft, the long-lived and versatile training version of the F-80, the T-33, still played an important role in proficiency flying programs at Andrews more than 30 years later. Andrews Air Force Base was designated on 24 June 1948, and in June 1950, HQ Air Research and Development Command moved to Andrews from Baltimore,24 June 1958. Andrews air defense role was strengthened in the 1950s with the latest in fighter-interceptor hardware appearing on the flight line, f-94 Starfires, F-102 Delta Daggers and finally, F-106 Delta Darts formed the backbone of the three fighter interceptor squadrons which operated from the base until 1963. In the late 1950s Andrews began an open house and air show on base. This event later evolved into the Department of Defense Joint Services Open House, the open house is held every year over Armed Forces Day weekend. In the years since 1959, Andrews flight operations and importance have increased greatly, in 1961, the last of the Military Air Transport Services flying units at Washington National Airport transferred to Andrews. This was followed a year later by the transfer to Andrews of all fixed-wing flying activities from Bolling Air Force Base, Andrews has become firmly established as the main port of entry for foreign military and government officials en route to Washington and the United States
9.
Curtis LeMay
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Curtis Emerson LeMay was a general in the United States Air Force and the vice presidential running mate of American Independent Party candidate George Wallace in the 1968 presidential election. Curtis LeMay is credited with designing and implementing an effective, but also controversial, during the war, he was known for planning and executing a massive fire bombing campaign against cities in Japan and a crippling minelaying campaign in Japans internal waterways. After the war, he initiated the Berlin airlift, then reorganized the Strategic Air Command into an instrument of nuclear war. He served as Chief of Staff of the U. S. Air Force from 1961 until his retirement in 1965, LeMay was born in Columbus, Ohio, on November 15,1906. LeMay was of English and distant French Huguenot heritage and his father, Erving Edwin LeMay, was at times an ironworker and general handyman, but he never held a job longer than a few months. His mother, Arizona Dove LeMay, did her best to hold her family together, with very limited income, his family moved around the country as his father looked for work, going as far as Montana and California. Eventually they returned to his city of Columbus. LeMay attended Columbus public schools, graduating from Columbus South High School, working his way through college, he graduated with a bachelors degree in civil engineering. While at Ohio State he was a member of the National Society of Pershing Rifles and he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Air Corps Reserve in October 1929. He received a commission in the United States Army Air Corps in January 1930. While finishing at Ohio State, he took flight training at Norton Field in Columbus, on June 9,1934, he married Helen Estelle Maitland, with whom he had one child, Patricia Jane LeMay Lodge, known as Janie. LeMay became a pilot and, while stationed in Hawaii. In August 1937, as navigator under pilot and commander Caleb V, in 1940 he was navigator for Haynes on the prototype Boeing XB-15 heavy bomber, flying a survey from Panama over the Galapagos islands. War brought rapid promotion and increased responsibility, when his crews were not flying missions, they were subjected to relentless training, as LeMay believed that training was the key to saving their lives. You train as you fight, was one of his cardinal rules, throughout his career, LeMay was widely and fondly known among his troops as Old Iron Pants, and the Big Cigar. He took this unit to England in October 1942 as part of the Eighth Air Force, in September 1943, he became the first commander of the newly formed 3d Air Division. He personally led several missions, including the Regensburg section of the Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission of August 17,1943. In that mission, he led 146 B-17s to Regensburg, Germany, beyond the range of escorting fighters, the heavy losses in veteran crews on this and subsequent deep penetration missions in the autumn of 1943 led the Eighth Air Force to limit missions to targets within escort range
10.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
11.
Strategic nuclear weapon
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There is no precise definition of the strategic category, neither considering range nor yield of the nuclear weapon. Early ICBMs had a circular error probable, meaning the strategic missiles. The enemy being targeted a continent away there was a low ratio of side effects to friendly areas when contrasted to potential damage to enemy assets, a feature of strategic nuclear weapons, especially in the transcontinental nature of the U. S. Intercontinental ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads are the strategic nuclear weapons. In the case of two bordering nations, a strategic weapon could have a quite short range and still be designed or intended for strategic targeting. After the Cold War, the nuclear weapon stockpiles of NATO. Highly accurate strategic missiles like the Trident II can also be used in substrategic and this concept was formalized when Putin took power in Russia in the following year
12.
Nuclear triad
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Only the United States and Russia have maintained nuclear triads for most of the nuclear age. Both the US and the Soviet Union composed their triads along the lines, including the following components. Nuclear missiles launched from ships or submarines, although in early years the US Navy sea leg was carrier aircraft based with a very short period using sub launched cruise missiles such as the Regulus before SLBMs were ready to be deployed. SLBMs, launched from submarines, allow for a chance of survival from a first strike. Strategic bombers have greater flexibility in their deployment and weaponry and they can serve as both a first- and second-strike weapon. A bomber armed with AGM-129 ACM missiles, for example, could be classified as a first-strike weapon, a number of bombers often with aerial refueling aircraft kept at safe points would constitute a second-strike weapon. Bomber airborne alert patrols are very expensive in terms of fuel and aircraft maintenance, tactical nuclear weapons are used in air, land and sea warfare. Air-to-air missiles and rockets, surface-to-air missiles, and small air-to-ground rockets, bombs, Naval forces have carried nuclear-armed naval rocket-assisted and standard depth charges and torpedoes, and naval gunnery shells. They possess nuclear forces consisting of land-based missiles, ballistic or long-range cruise missile submarines, chinas nuclear force is much smaller than the US or Russia and is closer in number and capability to that of France or the United Kingdom. This force is mainly land-based missiles including ICBMs, IRBMs, unlike the US and Russia, China stores many of its missiles in huge underground tunnel complexes, U. S. Currently China has one Type 092 submarine that is active with JL-1 SLBM according to Office of Naval Intelligence. In addition, the PLAN has deployed 4 newer Type 094 submarines, the new Type 094 fleet uses the newer JL-2 SLBM. China carried out a series of successful JL-2 launches in 2009,2012 and 2015, the United States expect the 094 SSBN to carry out its first deterrent patrol by 2015 with the JL-2 missile active. There is an aged albeit upgraded bomber force consisting of Xian H-6s with a nuclear delivery role. The PLAAF has a limited capability fleet of H-6 bombers modified for aerial refuelling as well as forthcoming Russian Ilyushin Il-78 aerial refuelling tankers, China also introduced a newer and modernized H-6 variant the H-6K with enhanced capabilities such as launching long ranged cruise missile the CJ-10. In addition to the H-6 bomber, there are numerous tactical fighter and fighter bombers such as the, J-16, J-10, JH-7A, india completed its nuclear triad with the commissioning of INS Arihant in August 2016. INS Arihant is a ballistic missile submarine armed with 12 K-15 missiles with a range of 750 km. India maintains a no first use policy and has been developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its credible minimum deterrence doctrine
13.
Strategic bomber
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In addition to strategic bombing, strategic bombers can be used for tactical missions. There are three countries including United States, Russia, and China are operating strategic bombers, the modern strategic bomber role appeared after strategic bombing was widely employed, and atomic bombs were first used in combat during World War II. An example is Frances Mirage IV, a strategic bomber replaced in service by the ASMP-equipped Mirage 2000N fighter-bomber. Study of strategic bombing continued in the interwar years and it was widely believed by the late 1930s that strategic terror bombing of cities in any war would quickly result in devastating losses and might decide a conflict in a matter of days or weeks. But theory far exceeded what most air forces could actually put into the air, Germany focused on short-range tactical bombers. Britains Royal Air Force began developing four-engine long-range bombers only in the late 1930s, the U. S. Army Air Corps was severely limited by small budgets in the late 1930s, and only barely saved the B-17 bomber that would soon be vital. The equally important B-24 first flew in 1939, both aircraft would constitute the bulk of the American bomber force that made the Allied daylight bombing of Nazi Germany possible in 1943–45. Both Britain and the U. S. were developing larger two- and four-engined designs, after American entry into the war, late, in 1941, the U. S. 8th Air Force began to develop a daylight bombing capacity using improved B-17 and B-24 four-engine aircraft. The RAF concentrated its efforts on night bombing, but neither force was able to develop adequate bombsights or tactics to allow for often-bragged pinpoint accuracy. The post-war U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey studies supported the notion of strategic bombing. Attempts to create pioneering examples of smart bombs resulted in the Azon ordnance, deployed in the European Theater, most strategic bombers of the two superpowers were designed to deliver nuclear weapons. For a time, some squadrons of Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers were kept in the air around the clock, the Royal Air Forces British-produced V bombers were designed and designated to be able to deliver British-made nuclear bombs to targets in European Russia. These bombers could have been able to reach and destroy cities like Kiev or Moscow before American strategic bombers, the Soviet Union produced hundreds of unlicensed, reverse-engineered copies of the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress, which the Soviet Air Forces called the Tupolev Tu-4. The Soviets later developed the jet-powered Tupolev Tu-16 Badger, the Peoples Republic of China produced a version of Tupolev Tu-16 on license from the Soviet Union in the 1960s which they named the Xian H-6, it remains in service today. Mirage IVs served until mid-1996 in the role, and to 2005 as a reconnaissance aircraft. Today the French Republic has limited its strategic armaments to a squadron of four nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines, france also maintains an active force of supersonic fighter-bombers carrying stand-off nuclear missiles such as the ASMP, with Mach 3 speed and a range of 500 kilometers. These missiles can be delivered by the Dassault Mirage 2000N and Rafale fighter-bombers and it is likely that this bomber would also serve as a replacement for both the B-52 and B-1. The Russian Air Forces new Tu-160 strategic bombers are expected to be delivered on a regular basis over the course of 10 to 20 years, in addition, the current Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers will be periodically updated, as was done during the 1990s with the Tu-22M bombers
14.
Intercontinental ballistic missile
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An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. Similarly, conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target. Early ICBMs had limited precision that allowed them to be used only against the largest targets such as cities and they were seen as a safe basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack. Attacks against military targets, if desired, still demanded the use of a more precise manned bomber, the result is that the power of a nuclear explosion to rupture hardened structures is greatly decreased by the distance from the impact point of the nuclear weapon. So a near-direct hit is generally necessary, as only diminishing returns are gained by increasing bomb yield, second- and third-generation designs dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked. Short and medium-range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles, the ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945, the progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants, in the immediate post-war era, the US and USSR both started rocket research programs based on the German wartime designs, especially the V-2. In the US, each branch of the military started its own programs, in the USSR, rocket research was centrally organized, although several teams worked on different designs. Early designs from both countries were short-range missiles, like the V-2, but improvements quickly followed, in the USSR early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. This changed in 1953 when Sergei Korolyov was directed to development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed, the first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957, the R-7 flew over 6,000 km, the first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia. It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The U. S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project and this was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut after only three successful launches in 1948 of the second stage design, used to test variations on the V-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly forming US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, the Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957, the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket blew up
15.
Submarine-launched ballistic missile
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A submarine-launched ballistic missile is a ballistic missile capable of being launched from submarines. Modern variants usually deliver multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles each of which carries a nuclear warhead, submarine-launched ballistic missiles operate in a different way from submarine-launched cruise missiles. Modern submarine-launched ballistic missiles are closely related to ballistic missiles. The war ended before it could be tested, but the engineers who had worked on it went on to work for the USA and USSR on their SLBM programs. These and other early SLBM systems required vessels to be surfaced when they fired missiles, a converted Project 611 submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955. Five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational ballistic missile submarines with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956–57. The United States Navy initially worked on a variant of the US Army Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missile, projecting four of the large. Red Raborn headed a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy, soon Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke concentrated all Navy strategic research on Polaris, still under Admiral Raborns Special Project Office. All US SLBMs have been solid-fueled while all Soviet and Russian SLBMs have been liquid-fueled except for the Russian RSM-56 Bulava, george Washington also conducted the first successful submerged SLBM launch with a Polaris A-1 on 20 July 1960. The Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, however, the Hotel class carried only three R-13 missiles each and had to surface and raise the missile to launch. Submerged launch was not an operational capability for the Soviets until 1963, the Soviet Union was able to beat the U. S. The United States eventually conducted a similar test in the Pacific Ocean on 6 May 1962, the first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, which first entered service in 1967 with 32 boats completed by 1974. By the time the first Yankee was commissioned the US had built 41 SSBNs, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, the SSBN facilities at the Advanced Refit Sites were austere, with only a submarine tender and floating dry dock. Converted merchant ships designated T-AKs were provided to ferry missiles and supplies to the sites, with two rotating crews per boat, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed
16.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
17.
Reconnaissance aircraft
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A reconnaissance aircraft is a manned or unmanned military aircraft designed, or adapted, to carry out aerial reconnaissance. Their roles are to collect intelligence, signals intelligence, and measurement. During the Napoleonic Wars and Franco-Prussian War, balloons were used for reconnaissance by the French. In World War I, aircraft were deployed during the phases in reconnaissance roles to aid ground forces. Aerial reconnaissance was carried out by versions of standard fighters and bombers equipped with cameras. Today, much of the role has passed over to satellites. This was proven by the use by Israel and by the Desert Storm operation by the United States. King Hawes, Lt Col, USAF Bonnier Corporation, army-Lockheed YO-3A Silent Airplane in Vietnam
18.
Tanker aircraft
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
19.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
20.
AFRES
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
21.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
22.
Boeing B-50 Superfortress
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The Boeing B-50 Superfortress is an American strategic bomber. A post–World War II revision of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, it was fitted more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 radial engines, stronger structure, a taller tail fin. It was the last piston-engined bomber designed by Boeing for the United States Air Force, not as well known as its direct predecessor, the B-50 was in USAF service for nearly 20 years. After its primary service with SAC ended, B-50 airframes were modified into aerial tankers for Tactical Air Command and as weather reconnaissance aircraft for the Air Weather Service. Both the tanker and hurricane hunter versions were retired in March 1965 due to fatigue and corrosion found in the wreckage of KB-50J, 48-065. A B-29A-5-BN was modified by Pratt & Whitney as a testbed for the installation of the R-4360 in the B-29, the modified aircraft, designated XB-44 Superfortress, first flew in May 1945. The planned Wasp-Major powered bomber, the B-29D, was to incorporate changes in addition to the engine installation tested in the XB-44. A larger vertical fin and rudder and enlarged flaps were provided to deal with the increased weight, Armament was similar to that of the B-29, with two bomb bays carrying 20,000 lb of bombs, and a further 8,000 lb externally. Defensive armament was 13 ×.50 in machine guns in five turrets, in December that year, B-29D orders were cut from 200 to 60, while at the same time the designation of the aircraft was changed to B-50. Officially, the new designation was justified by the changes incorporated into the revised aircraft. The first production B-50A made its flight on 25 June 1947. The last airframe of the order was held back for modification to the prototype YB-50C. It was to have a fuselage, allowing the two small bomb bays of the B-29 and the B-50A to be replaced by a single large bomb bay. It would also have longer wings, which required additional outrigger wheels to stabilize the aircraft on the ground. The B-54 program was canceled in April 1949, work on the YB-50C being stopped prior to it being completed. While the B-54 was canceled, production of less elaborate developments continued as a stopgap until jet bombers like the Boeing B-47, to give the Superfortress the range to reach the Soviet Union, B-50s were fitted to be refueled in flight. While this system worked, it was clumsy, and Boeing designed the alternative Flying Boom method to refuel SACs bombers, revisions to the B-50 would boost top speed to just under 400 mph. The B-29 and B-50 were phased out with introduction of the jet-powered B-47 Stratojet, the B-50 was nicknamed Andy Gump because the redesigned engine nacelles reminded aircrew of the chinless newspaper comic character popular at the time
23.
Boeing B-47 Stratojet
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The Boeing B-47 Stratojet was an American long range, six-engine, turbojet-powered strategic bomber designed to fly at high subsonic speed and at high altitude to avoid enemy interceptor aircraft. The B-47s primary mission was to drop bombs on the Soviet Union. With its engines carried in nacelles under the wing, the B-47 was a major innovation in post-World War II combat jet design. The B-47 entered service with the United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command in 1951 and it never saw combat as a bomber, but was a mainstay of SACs bomber strength during the late 1950s and early 1960s, and remained in use as a bomber until 1965. The B-47 arose from an informal 1943 requirement for a reconnaissance bomber. In December 1944, North American Aviation, the Convair Corp, Boeing and the Glenn Martin Company submitted proposals for the new long-range jet bomber. The USAAF awarded study contracts to all four companies, requiring that North American and Convair concentrate on four-engined designs, while Boeing, the powerplant was to be General Electrics new TG-180 turbojet engine. In May 1945, the von Kármán mission of the Army Air Forces inspected the secret German aeronautics laboratory near Braunschweig, on von Kármáns team was the eminent chief of the technical staff at Boeing, George S. Schairer. He wired his home office, Stop the bomber design, analysis work by Boeing engineer Vic Ganzer suggested an optimum sweepback angle of about 35 degrees. Boeings aeronautical engineers modified their Model 432 design to include swept wings and tail, resulting in the Model 448, the Model 448 retained its four TG-180 jet engines in its forward fuselage, with two more TG-180s in the rear fuselage. The flush-mounted air intakes for the engines were inadequate, while the USAAF disliked the installation of engines within the fuselage. The Army Air Force liked this new configuration, and so Boeings team of engineers continued to refine it, with the engines being moved further inboard. As the landing gear arrangement made rotation impossible, the gear was designed so that the aircraft rested on the ground at the proper angle for takeoff. The USAAF was very pleased with the refined Model 450 design, and in April 1946, the first XB-47 was rolled out on 12 September 1947, a few days before the USAAF became a separate service, the U. S. Air Force, on 18 September 1947. The XB-47 prototype flew its first flight on 17 December 1947, with the test pilots Robert Robbins and it flew from Boeing Field in Seattle to the Moses Lake Airfield in central Washington state, in a flight that lasted just 27 minutes, with no major problems. In Feb.1949, Russ Schleeh and Joe Howell broke all coast-to-coast speed records flying from Moses Lake Air Force Base to Andrews Air Force Base and they averaged 607.8 miles per hour. During early tests of the XB-47 prototype, the canopy came off at high speed, the copilot safely landed the aircraft. This resulted in a redesign, and the hiring of pilot Tex Johnston as chief test pilot
24.
557th Weather Wing
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The 557th Weather Wing is a United States Air Force formation and its lead military meteorology center. It delivers environmental situational awareness worldwide to the Air Force, the Army, joint warfighters, Unified Combatant Commands, the intelligence community. It is headquartered at Offutt Air Force Base, near Omaha, the wing fields weather equipment and training to Air Force operational weather squadrons, and weather flights in Operations Support Squadrons at locations around the world. It builds a comprehensive database of forecast, climatological. The wings mission is to exploit weather information to American military forces anytime and it is assigned more than 1,800 active-duty, reserve, civilian and contract personnel and is headquartered on Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska with a $175 million annual budget. Weather forecasts are produced using numerical weather prediction software such as the Weather Research and Forecasting model, the 557th Weather Wing is organized into a headquarters element, consisting of staff agencies, two groups, three directorates, and five solar observatories. The 1st Weather Group, with headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base, each of the squadrons produces forecasts for a specified area of the United States. The squadrons also serve as training hubs for new weather professionals — both enlisted and officers, the group equips weather professionals with the training and skills necessary to deliver environmental information for commanders and military decision makers. It also includes four solar observatories manned by detachments of the 2nd Weather Squadron,4, Holloman AFB, New Mexico, and Det. Directs the planning, programming, budgeting, acquisition, and life cycle management for all weather systems. Equipping the weather force is mainly a function of the A8 directorate and they coordinate capabilities development conducted by three separate production centers and integrate them into a single Air Force Weather Weapon System. The Lt. Gen. Thomas Samuel Moorman Building, valued at US$26.7 million, is the Headquarters for the 557th Wing, with a total of 188,000 sq ft. The three-story building, designed to support 1,100 people, the new facility is a Gold Certified Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design structure by the U. S. Green Building Council. The LEED rating is the nationally accepted benchmark for the design, the new building is an example of the emphasis the Air Force is placing on responsible use of and preservation of the environment. The 557th Weather Wing can trace its heritage to the organization of the Meteorological Service of the United States Army Signal Corps, which was established during World War I. By 1937, the Army was supplementing the services of the United States Weather Bureau by operating thirty weather stations of its own in the United States. Within the United States, the 1st, 2d and 3d Weather Squadrons were organized, each was responsible for a region that was congruent with the area of responsibility of one of the three wings assigned to General Headquarters Air Force. By 1942, supervision of Army weather activities within the United States had been centralized in the Army Air Forces Weather Service and this wing is the direct organizational ancestor of the 557th Weather Wing
25.
Lockheed HC-130
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The HC-130H Hercules and HC-130J Hercules versions are operated by the United States Coast Guard in a SAR and maritime reconnaissance role. The HC-130P Combat King and HC-130J Combat King II models are operated by the United States Air Force for long-range SAR and CSAR, in this latter role, they are primarily used to extend the range and endurance of combat search and rescue helicopters. In July 2015, it was announced that the U. S. Forest Service will be receiving some of the U. S, the United States Coast Guard was the first recipient of the HC-130 variant. Six USCG HC-130E aircraft were produced in 1964, but production switched to the new C-130H platform which was entering service. The first HC-130H flew on 8 December 1964 and the USCG still operates this aircraft, first flown in 1964, the USAF HC-130P Combat King aircraft has served many roles and missions. They were also modified to employ the Fulton surface-to-air recovery system, although this system has since been discontinued. The HC-130N was an order without the Fulton recovery system. The aircraft can routinely fly low-level NVG tactical flight profiles to avoid detection, other capabilities are extended visual and electronic searches over land or water, tactical airborne radar approaches and unimproved airfield operations. A team of three Pararescuemen, trained in emergency medicine, harsh environment survival and assisted evasion techniques, is part of the basic mission crew complement. HC-130P/N aircraft of the Combat Air Forces are currently undergoing extensive modifications, like their USAF counterparts, USCG HC-130s also have the capability of air dropping rescue equipment to survivors at sea or over open terrain. The MC-130P Combat Shadow series of aircraft initially entered service in December 1965 during the Vietnam War as the HC-130H CROWN airborne controller, the CROWN airborne controllers located downed aircrew and directed Combat Search and Rescue operations over North Vietnam. In February 1996, AFSOCs 28-aircraft tanker fleet was redesignated the MC-130P Combat Shadow, at the same time as this redesignation, USAF continued to field HC-130P/N aircraft as dedicated CSAR platforms under the Air Combat Command. The new HC-130J aircraft are derived from the Lockheed Martin KC-130J tanker operated by the U. S. Marine Corps, the USCG has six HC-130Js in service, but they are not capable of refueling helicopters in flight. The first delivery of this variant to the United States Coast Guard was in October 2003, the first of these modified Coast Guard HC-130Js was delivered in March 2008. The HC-130J Combat King II is also capable of itself being refueled in flight by boom-equipped tankers, Lockheed Martin officials conducted the first flight of the USAF HC-130J version on 29 July 2010. The first HC-130J was delivered to the USAF in September 2010, the HC-130J personnel recovery aircraft completed developmental testing on 14 March 2011. The final test point was air-to-air refueling, and was the first ever boom refueling of a C-130 where the aircraft’s refueling receiver was installed during aircraft production and this test procedure also applied to the MC-130J Combat Shadow II aircraft in production for Air Force Special Operations Command. The first HC-130J was delivered to the 563d Rescue Group at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, the Coast Guard also currently operates an additional 6 HC-130J aircraft from CGAS Elizabeth City, North Carolina
26.
Lockheed MC-130
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Members of the family include the MC-130E Combat Talon I, MC-130H Combat Talon II, MC-130W Combat/Dragon Spear, MC-130P Combat Shadow, and MC-130J Commando II. A possible MC-130 variant, designated the XFC-130H, did not proceed beyond the development stage, the Air Force is acquiring the new production MC-130J to replace the Combat Talons and Combat Shadows. The MC-130E was the first Combat Talon and was developed to support special operations missions during the Vietnam War. Eighteen were created by modifying C-130E transports, and four lost through attrition, an updated Combat Talon II was developed in the 1980s from the C-130H variant of the Hercules and went into service in the 1990s. Four of its 24 original aircraft have been lost in operations, the Combat Shadows were built during the Vietnam War for search and rescue operations and repurposed in the 1980s as AFSOC air-refueling tankers, with the last of the 24 retired in 2015. The Combat Spear was developed in 2006 as a version of the Combat Talon II but was reconfigured and designated the AC-130W Stinger II in 2012. The Commando II became operational in 2011 as the current special operations MC-130 to replace all other extant variants,33 of the planned 37 are in the USAF inventory as of May 2016. Two highly classified testbed aircraft, were assigned to Project Thin Slice to develop a low-level clandestine penetration aircraft for Special Forces operations in Southeast Asia. In 1964, Lockheed was ordered to adapt the C-130Es after six C-123B Providers modified for unconventional warfare under Project Duck Hook proved inadequate for the new MACV-SOG. The modifications under Thin Slice and its August 1966 successor Heavy Chain were code-named Rivet Yard, discrete modification tests were conducted by the 1198th Operational Evaluation and Training Squadron, out of Area II of Norton AFB at San Bernardino, California,30 miles east of Ontario. As the Thin Slice aircraft were being developed,14 C-130Es were purchased for SOG in 1965 for similar modification, the first aircraft were production C-130Es without specialized equipment that were produced at Lockheeds facility in Marietta, Georgia. Three production airplanes per month were given the Fulton STARS system, the velvet black-and-green scheme drew the nickname Blackbirds. As installation was completed, the Blackbirds were returned to Ontario for installation of the electronics package, the modified aircraft became known as Clamps. The aircraft collectively were assigned the designation Combat Talon in 1967, the Fulton Surface-To-Air Recovery System was used to extract personnel and materials via air. A large helium balloon raised a nylon lift line into the air, the yoke snagged the line and released the balloon, yanking the attached cargo off the ground with a shock less than that of an opening parachute. A sky anchor secured the line and wires stretched from the nose to both leading wing tip edges protected the propellers from the line on missed snag attempts. Crew members hooked the snagged line as it trailed behind and attached it to the hydraulic winch, a major effort at upgrading the system, Project 46, was pursued from 1986 to 1989, but at its conclusion, use of the STARS system for live extractions remained suspended. The Fulton STARS equipment of all Combat Talons was removed during 1998, Rivet Clamp installation began with four STARS-equipped C-130s completed by March 1966, followed by installations in eight further aircraft in July 1966 and January 1967
27.
Tactical Air Command
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Tactical Air Command is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 and headquartered at Langley Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 1 June 1992 and its personnel and equipment absorbed by Air Combat Command. Tactical Air Command was established to provide a balance between strategic, air defense, and tactical forces of the post–World War II U. S. Army Air Forces followed by, in 1947, the U. S. Air Force. In 1948, the Continental Air Command assumed control over air defense, tactical air, after two years in a subordinate role, Tactical Air Command was established as a major command. World War II showed the effectiveness of air power in supporting army ground forces. However, the demobilization in late 1945 meant that the huge air armada that had brought Germany to her knees. Following the end of World War II, Headquarters United States Army Air Forces had little funding and most wartime personnel had been released from active duty and returned to civilian life. Many USAAF aircraft were being sent to storage or scrapyards, although the tension with the Soviet Union meant that combat military air forces were still needed. The big questions were how large and what kind of forces, a major realignment of the USAAF was undertaken in early 1946. As part of the realignment, three major divisions within the Continental United States were formed, Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command. Each was given a specific responsibility, using assets prescribed to accomplish the assigned mission, Tactical Air Command was formed to command, organize, equip, train and administer assigned or attached forces. It was to plan for and participate in tactics for fighter, light bombardment and these included tactical fighters, tactical bombers, tactical missiles, troop carrier aircraft, assault, reconnaissance, and support units. TAC also planned for and developed the capability to deploy tactical striking forces anywhere in the world, during its existence, Tactical Air Command deployed personnel, material and/or aircraft to Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe and Australia in support of its prescribed mission. TACs original authorization was 25,500 officers and enlisted men, aircraft assets available consisted of propeller-driven North American P-51 Mustangs, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and a handful of the new jet-powered Lockheed P-80 Shooting Stars. TAC was also given control of the Third Air Force, Ninth Air Force, on 18 September 1947, the United States Air Force was established as a separate military force, with TAC as one of its major commands. At the time, there was only one U. S. Air Forces in Europe tactical air unit available in Europe, TAC was called upon to send additional units and aircraft to Europe to reinforce the 86 FG. The 36th Fighter Group, flying Lockheed F-80B Shooting Stars, was transferred from Howard AFB in the Panama Canal Zone to Furstenfeldbruck Air Base near Munich. In addition to fighter aircraft, TAC also deployed available C-47 Skytrain transports to Europe, transferring them to USAFE
28.
Military Airlift Command
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The Military Airlift Command is an inactive United States Air Force major command that was headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In 1982, the heritage of the World War II Air Transport Command, mACs emblem reflected its predecessors history by incorporating the emblem of MATS into its shield. Under the USAF lineage system, they did not possess a permanent lineage or history and were discontinued upon inactivation, AFCON units were activated under MAC, to which USAF personnel and equipment formerly assigned to MATS MAJCOM units were reassigned effective 8 January 1966. No formal lineage or history between former MATS MAJCOM units and MAC AFCON units was ever made, with the establishment of MAC by the USAF, plans were also made to discontinue the role of the United States Navy within the new command. At first, MAC transports to Vietnam landed regularly only at Tan Son Nhut AB, New air bases opened at Da Nang AB and Cam Ranh AB in January 1966, and later at Pleiku, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat Air Bases, reducing the need for redistribution. Major unit movements by MAC aircraft from the United States usually required further airlifts to operating areas by in-country transports, eventually, however, C-5s could unload at Tan Son Nhut and elsewhere. Primarily, MAC transports carried high-value cargo such as aircraft and equipment parts, while MAC civilian-contract flights transported passengers to and from the combat zone. In the winter of 1965-66, MAC conducted Operation Blue Light, generally, patients requiring hospitalization for thirty days or more were moved to offshore hospitals, others were sometimes evacuated to keep an empty-bed reserve of fifty percent in Vietnam. Military Airlift Command transports carried the more serious cases from Clark AB to the United States, on 30 March 1972, North Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of South Vietnam, which came to be known as the Easter Offensive. The Vietnamization policy of the United States had resulted in the vast majority of US ground combat forces been withdrawn from South Vietnam with PACAFs tactical air units also being reduced. Military Airlift Commands C-141 force, accustomed to operating in and out of Vietnam from offshore were utilized for movement of large amounts of men and materiel to oppose the invasion. Beginning on 21 April, MAC C-141s began shuttling passengers and cargo between Tan Son Nhut AB and the other main bases, principally Da Nang AB, Bien Hoa AB. Planes and crews were based for one or more nights at Tan Son Nhut and this C-141 effort permitted the VNAF and PACAF C-130s to concentrate on drops, unit hauls, and deliveries to forward locations. The rapid American response to the invasion allowed the South Vietnamese forces to defeat the invaders for the moment, by the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, the cease-fire was to become effective in Vietnam the morning of 28 January 1973, Saigon time. American prisoners in North Vietnam were to be released and the last 23,700 American troops withdrawn from Vietnam within sixty days, planning for Operation Homecoming, the return of the Americans held by North Vietnam, was given to the Military Airlift Command. C-141s of the 63d Military Airlift Wing, stationed at Norton AFB, a second C-130 left Tan Son Nhut AB carrying members of the international commission to Hanoi oversee the repatriations. This C-130 arrived at Gia Lam Airport about one hour before the C-130 from CCK arrived, on the ground at Gia Lam the C-130 crew met the airport manager, and went indoors for tea offered by the North Vietnamese. The first of three C-141s flown in from Clark landed soon after and repatriation began, as the first returnee moved from the release desk, one of the C-130 flight engineers quickly moved to clear the way, leading the former prisoner by the arm
29.
Air Force Special Operations Command
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Air Force Special Operations Command, headquartered at Hurlburt Field, Florida, is the special operations component of the United States Air Force. An Air Force major command, AFSOC is also the U. S. Air Force component command to United States Special Operations Command, AFSOC provides all Air Force Special Operations Forces for worldwide deployment and assignment to regional unified combatant commands. Just as it had relinquished control of the C-130 theater airlift fleet to Military Airlift Command in 1975, on 1 August 1987,23 AF headquarters moved to Hurlburt Field, Florida. The commander of AFSOC is Lieutenant General Bradley A. Heithold, major General Eugene Haase is Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Matthew Caruso is the Command Chief Master Sergeant, Air Force Special Operations Command. The commands SOF units are composed of trained, rapidly deployable airmen who are equipped with specialized aircraft. Another aspect of AFSOC is Special Tactics, the U. S. Air Forces special operations ground force, similar in ability and employment to Marine Special Operations Command, U. S. Army Special Forces and U. S. The commands Special Tactics Squadrons are led by Special Tactics Officers, Special Tactics Squadrons combine Combat Controllers, Tactical Air Control Party, Special Operations Weather Technicians, Pararescuemen and Combat Rescue Officers to form versatile SOF teams. Due to the rigors of the field, Special Tactics year-long training is one of the most demanding in the military. In an attempt to reduce the high attrition, Special Tactics is very selective when choosing their officers, Special Tactics Officers undergo a highly competitive process to gain entry into the Special Tactics career field, ensuring only the most promising and capable leaders are selected. STO leadership and role modeling during the difficult training reduces the rate for enlisted trainees. STO selection is a two-phase process, based on Phase One performance, about eight to 10 applicants are invited to the next phase. Phase Two is a battery of evaluations, ranging from physical fitness and leadership to emotional intelligence. At the end of Phase Two, typically two to four applicants are selected to begin the year-plus Special Tactics training pipeline, consequently, in March 1983, MAC activated Twenty-Third Air Force at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In October 1983,23 AF helped rescue Americans from the nation of Grenada. During the seven-day operation, centered at Point Salines Airport,23 AF furnished MC-130s, AC-130s, aircrews, maintenance, an EC-130 from the 193rd Special Operations Wing of the Air National Guard also played a psy-war role. In May 1986, the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act led to the formation of the United States Special Operations Command, senators William Cohen and Sam Nunn introduced the Senate bill, and the following month Congressman Dan Daniel introduced a like measure in the House of Representatives. The key provisions of the formed the basis to amend the 1986 Defense Authorizations Bill. This bill, signed into law in October 1986, in part directed the formation of a command responsible for special operations
30.
Second Air Force
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The Second Air Force is a USAF numbered air force responsible for conducting basic military and technical training for Air Force enlisted members and support officers. In World War II the CONUS unit defended the Northwestern United States and Upper Great Plains regions and during the Cold War, was Strategic Air Command unit with strategic bombers and missiles. Elements of Second Air Force engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. The Northwest Air District of the GHQ Air Force was activated on 19 October 1940 at McChord Field along with 3 other CONUS districts, the district was redesignated 2nd Air Force on 9 April 1941. 5th Bombardment Wing was assigned to Second Air Force up to 5 September 1941, on 11 December 1941, four days after the Pearl Harbor attack, 2d Air Force was placed under Western Defense Command. However, on 5 January 1942, it was returned to the Air Force Combat Command, from December 1941, 2d Air Force organized air defense for the northwest Pacific Ocean coastline of the United States and flew antisubmarine patrols along coastal areas until October 1942. It appears that immediately after 7 December 1941, only the 7th, 17th, 39th, as the Second Air Force it became predominantly the training organization of B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator heavy bombardment groups. Nearly all new heavy bomb groups organized after Pearl Harbor were organized and trained by Second Air Force OTU units, under the newly organized XX Bomber Command, B-29 aircraft were received from Boeings manufacturing plants and new combat groups were organized and trained. XX Bomber Command and the first B-29 groups were deployed in December 1943 to airfields in India for Operation Matterhorn operations against Japan, a football team made up of Second Air Force personnel defeated Hardin-Simmons University in the 1943 Sun Bowl. A third B-29 organization, XXII Bomber Command was formed by Second Air Force in August 1944, however the organization never got beyond forming Headquarters echelon and Headquarters squadron. Inactivated before any operational groups were assigned, as XX Bomber Command units were reassigned from India to the Marianas, the training of B-29 groups and replacement personnel continued until August 1945 and the end of the Pacific War. With the wars end, Second Air Force was inactivated on 30 March 1946, the command was reactivated on 6 June 1946 under Air Defense Command, at Fort Crook, Nebraska. During this period of the forces history its home base was redesignated Offutt Air Force Base, the Second Air Force assumed responsibility for the air defense of certain portions of the continental United States. In 1947, the 73d Bomb Wing was reactivated with the 338th and 351st Bomb Groups being assigned to it, the wing was assigned to Second Air Force. A third group, the 381st was added in 1948, however SAC was having enough difficulties keeping its front-line active duty bomb units in the air to maintain even minimal pilot proficiency in the late 1940s. The wing and its groups were all inactivated in 1949. The Second Air Force was also assigned the reserve 96th Bomb Wing, which was redesignated an air division. One of these groups was the 440th Troop Carrier Group and it was again inactivated on 1 July 1948
31.
Eighth Air Force
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The Eighth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, the command serves as Air Forces Strategic – Global Strike, one of the air components of United States Strategic Command. The Eighth Air Force includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber, the B-1 Lancer supersonic bomber, and it was the largest of the deployed combat Army Air Forces in numbers of personnel, aircraft, and equipment. Elements of 8 AF engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. Eighth Air Force is one of two active duty numbered air forces in Air Force Global Strike Command, Eighth Air Force, with headquarters at Barksdale AFB, in the Bossier City – Shreveport, Louisiana, metro area, supports U. S. Joint Forces Command, and is designated as U. S. Strategic Commands Task Force 204, providing on-alert, the mission of The Mighty Eighth is to safeguard Americas interests through strategic deterrence and global combat power. Eighth Air Force controls long-range nuclear-capable bomber assets throughout the United States and its flexible, conventional and nuclear deterrence mission provides the capability to deploy forces and engage enemy threats from home station or forward positioned, anywhere, any time. The 8th Air Force motto is Peace Through Strength and this air power includes the heart of Americas heavy bomber force, the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. The B-2 force consists of 20 bombers assigned to the 509th Bomb Wing at Whiteman AFB, for additional history and lineage, see United States Air Forces in Europe The history of Eighth Air Force begins on 2 January 1942 with its activation at Savannah Air Base, Georgia. In quick order, on 5 January, Major General Carl Spaatz assumed command of HQ Eighth Air Force at Bolling Field, Washington, on 8 January the order activating the U. S. Air Forces in the British Isles was announced. On 12 May, the first contingent of USAAF personnel arrived in England to join the Eighth Air Force, on 15 June, Spaatz arrived in England to establish the Headquarters of Eighth Air Force at Bushy Park,15 miles WSW of London. Eighth Air Force was the command and control organization over its operational components, VIII Bomber Command Strategic bombardment using heavy, VIII Fighter Command Provide fighter escort of heavy bombers VIII Air Support Command Provide reconnaissance, troop transport, and tactical bombardment using twin-engine medium bombers. VIII Air Service Command Service and logistical support, VIII Bomber Command was activated at Langley Field, Virginia, It was reassigned to Savannah Air Base, Georgia on 10 February 1942. The first combat group of VIII Bomber Command to arrive in the United Kingdom was the ground echelon of the 97th Bombardment Group, during World War II, the offensive air forces of the United States Army Air Forces came to be classified as strategic or tactical. In Europe, Eighth Air Force was the first USAAF strategic air force, Eighth Air Force carried out strategic daytime strategic bombing operations in Western Europe from airfields in eastern England. On 4 January 1944, the B-24s and B-17s based in England flew their last mission as a part of VIII Bomber Command. On 22 February 1944, a reorganization of American airpower took place in Europe. VIII Bomber Command was redesignated as Eighth Air Force, with VIII Fighter and this is from where the present-day Eighth Air Forces history, lineage and honors derive
32.
15th Expeditionary Mobility Task Force
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The Fifteenth Expeditionary Mobility Task Force was one of two EMTFs assigned to the United States Air Force Air Mobility Command and was headquartered at Travis Air Force Base, California. The 15 EMTF was inactivated on 20 March 2012 and its functions,15 EMTF provided strategic and theater airlift for all United States Department of Defense agencies as well as air refueling for the Air Force in both peace and wartime. Primary aircraft assigned to its units were the C-5 Galaxy, C-9 Nightingale, C-17 Globemaster III, C-21, C-130 Hercules, KC-10 Extender,15 EMTF was a redesignation of Fifteenth Air Force, effective 1 October 2003. During the Cold War,15 AF was one of three Numbered Air Forces of the United States Air Force Strategic Air Command, commanding USAF strategic bombers and missiles on a global scale. Elements of 15th Air Force engaged in operations during the Korean War, Vietnam War. The first commander was General Jimmy Doolittle, 15th AF resulted from a reorganization of Doolittles Twelfth Air Force into the 15th with Doolittle in command, and the Ninth Air Force with Lewis H. Brereton in command. The new air force was activated with a strength of ninety B-24 Liberators and 210 B-17 Flying Fortresses, inherited from the Twelfth Air Force, in December, new groups, most of which were equipped with B-24s soon started arriving from the United States. It was hoped that the 15th AF stationed in the Mediterranean would be able to operate when the Eighth Air Force in England was socked in by bad English weather. The 9th AF would later move to England to serve as a unit to take part in the invasion of Europe. Assigned to the 15th Special Group in January 1945, on 1 December 1943, the Headquarters was moved to Bari Airfield, Italy. On 4 January 1944, Fifteenth, along with Twelfth Air Force were organized into Mediterranean Allied Air Forces, MAAF was the southern component of U. S. Strategic Air Forces, Europe, the overall USAAF command and control organization in Europe. The first major operation carried out by Fifteenth Air Force was bombing missions in support of the Anzio Landings in Italy, strikes on German and fascist Italian targets were carried out and caused widespread damage to Axis forces. Big Week was the name of an intense Eighth and Fifteenth Air Forces series of attacks on Germany in a series of co-ordinated raids on the German aircraft industry, on 22 February 1944, Fifteenth Air Force made its first attack on Germany, with an attack on Regensburg. The Fifteenth dispatched a force of 183 bombers to the Oberstraubing Messerschmidt assembly plant, some 118 bombed with good results but fourteen were shot down. The next day the 15th sent 102 bombers to the Steyr ball-bearing works in Austria where they destroyed twenty percent of the plant, on 24 February, over 180 Liberators inflicted considerable damage to the Messerschmitt Bf 110 assembly plant at Gotha, losing 28 aircraft. On 25 February 114 B-17s and B-24s were dispatched to Steyr again, but the force became separated, despite these losses, it was believed that the USSTAF had dealt the German aircraft industry a severe blow. In April, General Eisenhower ordered the USSTAF to attack German fuel production centers by striking both the oil refineries and the factories producing synthetic fuels. The 15th started the offensive on 5 April when it dispatched 235 B-17s, the refineries were attacked again on 15 and 24 April, inflicting additional damage
33.
Air Combat Command
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Air Combat Command is one of ten Major Commands in the United States Air Force, reporting to Headquarters, United States Air Force at the Pentagon. ACC is headquartered at Langley Field, Joint Base Langley–Eustis, Virginia and its commander is General Herbert Hawk Carlisle, with Major General Jerry D. Harris Jr. as Vice Commander, and Chief Master Sergeant Steve K. McDonald as the Command Chief Master Sergeant, in addition, ACC augments the forces of the United States European Command, United States Pacific Command and United States Central Command when needed. Air Combat Command consists of approximately 98,000 active duty members, in 2015, responsibility for the B-1 Lancer bomber fleet was also transferred from ACC to AFGSC. Air Combat Command was created 1 June 1992 after the inactivation of the Tactical Air Command, Strategic Air Command, furthermore, ACC had some KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling tankers and C-130 tactical airlift aircraft in its composite, reconnaissance, and certain other combat wings. In 1993, control of the ICBM force was transferred to the Air Force Space Command until transferred again to Air Force Global Strike Command on 1 Dec 2009. S, Air Force and the U. S. Navy. Historically, combat command was an air unit designation. During 1941 and early 1942, the air units of the War Department, formerly known as the GHQ Air Force. The AFCC was dissolved in the reorganization of the United States Army, effective 9 March 1942, not long after activation, ACC underwent organizational and mission changes. The first such change was the transfer of the combat search. With the realigning of search and rescue units, ACC gained additional resources, the formal transfer took place on 1 February 1993, when the Air Rescue Service was assigned to ACC. On 2 July of the year, the ARS was disestablished. The USAF Combat Rescue School was subsequently assigned to the 57th Wing at Nellis AFB, one of the most significant changes for Air Combat Command resulted from an overhaul of flying training responsibilities. Following its activation, ACC was responsible for aircrew training, including initial weapon system. On 1 July 1993, the 58th and 325th Fighter Wings—F-16 and F-15 training units transferred from ACC to Air Education and Training Command. Concurrently, Luke AFB, Arizona, and Tyndall AFB, Florida, for which those respective wings were the host units, however, on 1 October 2012, both Tyndall AFB and the 325th Fighter Wing returned to the control of ACC. The next major change resulted from a fine-tuning of aerial refueling. From its activation, Air Combat Command had assumed ownership of some C-130 Hercules theater airlift assets and KC-10 Extender, there was historical precedent for the reassignment of C-130s to Air Combat Command
34.
Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
35.
Pacific Air Forces
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Pacific Air Forces is a Major Command of the United States Air Force and is also the air component command of the United States Pacific Command. The mission of Pacific Air Forces is to provide air and space power to promote U. S. interests in the Asia-Pacific region during peacetime, through crisis. PACAF comprises three numbered Air Forces, nine main bases and nearly 375 aircraft. The commands area of responsibility extends from the west coast of the United States to the east coast of Asia and from the Arctic to the Antarctic, the area is home to nearly two billion people who live in 44 countries. Not to be confused with Far East Air Force, the military organization of the United States Army in the Philippine Islands from 1941 to 1942. The beginnings of PACAF can be traced back to June 1944, Far East Air Forces was activated on 3 August 1944, at Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. FEAF had actually created on 15 June 1944, and Fifth Air Force assigned to it. FEAF was subordinate to the U. S. Army Forces Far East, the creation of FEAF consolidated the command and control authority over United States Army Air Forces units widely deployed throughout the southwest Pacific in World War II. A realignment of forces was needed by the USAAF to better organize its forces in the Pacific for peacetime. Shortly afterwards, Eighth Air Force was reassigned to the newly established Strategic Air Command on 7 June 1946, the major mission of PACUSA in the postwar years was occupation duty in Japan and the demilitarization of the Japanese society in conjunction with the United States Army. In addition, PACUSA helped to support atomic bomb testing in the Pacific Proving Grounds beginning with the Operation Crossroads test on Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands in 1946. With the impending establishment of the United States Air Force as an independent service later that year, on that same date, Seventh Air Force in Hawaii was inactivated with its organization absorbed by HQ, FEAF. On 25 June 1950, the forces of the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea invaded South Korea. On 27 June, the United Nations Security Council voted to assist the South Koreans in resisting the invasion, president Harry Truman authorized General of the Army Douglas MacArthur to commit units to the battle. MacArthur ordered General George E. Stratemeyer, CIC of FEAF, despite the post-World War II demobilization of United States armed forces, the U. S. Air Force still had substantial forces in the Pacific to oppose the North Korean military. Support units were equipped with the Douglas C-54 Skymaster cargo aircraft and the Boeing RB-17 Flying Fortress, the 512th and 514th Weather Reconnaissance Squadrons of the 2143d Air Weather Wing were located at Yokota Air Base, Japan, and Andersen Air Force Base, Guam. On 29 June 1950, the unit began flying missions over the Korean Peninsula in their RB-29 Superfortresses to provide FEAF Bomber Command with target. Eventually, these USAF F-86 units would establish a kill ratio of 10,1 versus their KPAF adversaries, during the Korean War FEAFs Fifth Air Force was the main United Nations combat air command until the Korean Armistice Agreement ended the combat 1953
36.
Air Education and Training Command
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Air Education and Training Command was established 1 July 1993, with the realignment of the former Air Training Command and the extant Air University. It is one of the U. S. Air Forces ten major commands and reports to Headquarters, AETC is headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas. Its commander is Lieutenant General Darryl Roberson, with Lieutenant General Douglas H. Owens as vice commander and Chief Master Sergeant Gerardo Tapia, more than 48,000 active duty and Air Reserve Component members and 14,000 civilian personnel make up AETC. The command has responsibility for approximately 1,600 aircraft, AETCs mission is to recruit, train and educate Airmen to deliver air power for America. AETCs mission begins with the Air Force Recruiting Service, an AETC activity also headquartered at Randolph AFB, Texas. Recruiters in more than 1,000 offices worldwide recruit the men and women needed as both enlisted airmen and commissioned officers to meet the demands of the U. S. Air Force. AFRS recruitment of commissioned officers is limited to 4-year college/university graduates via Air Force Officer Training School, the first stop for all Regular Air Force, Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command enlisted personnel is Basic Military Training at Lackland AFB, Texas. More than 36,000 new airmen will complete this recently lengthened eight-and-a-half-week program each year, a recently established technical training institute at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, also conducts training in several medical career fields. Each base is responsible for a portion of formal technical training airmen require to accomplish the Air Force mission. 2 AF also conducts specialized training for military working dogs and dog handlers at Lackland AFB, Texas, for the entire Department of Defense and the Federal Aviation Administration. Additionally, the Inter-American Air Forces Academy at Lackland AFB hosts more than 160 courses in aviation specialties, taught in Spanish, the Air Education and Training Command, along with the USAF Academy, are responsible for teaching these principles throughout the Air Force. When AETC was established in 1993, Nineteenth Air Force was also established as a numbered air force to 2 AF within AETC. On 12 July 2012,19 AF was temporarily inactivated for budgetary reasons in an effort to gain efficiencies, Air Force pilot candidates begin their flying careers with Initial Flight Screening at Pueblo Memorial Airport, Colorado. S. Air Force Academy, Air Force ROTC and Air Force OTS and this program was terminated on 25 July 2013 with the graduation of the final USAF student pilot from primary training at NAS Whiting Field. S. Air Force and various European air forces, during the primary phase, students master contact, instrument, low-level and formation flying. After the primary phase of SUPT and ENJJPT, student pilots elect one of three advanced training tracks based on their class standing and those qualified for fighter or bomber assignments are assigned to the fighter/bomber track and train in the T-38 Talon at the SUPT and ENJJPT bases. Following completion of the track, graduates will be assigned to the A-10, F-15 Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16, F-22 and F-35, B-1. NOTE, The U-2 is not an option for new graduates of the Fighter/Bomber track, prospective U-2 pilots must be qualified in another fighter, bomber, reconnaissance or mobility aircraft before applying to fly the U-2
37.
United States Strategic Command
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United States Strategic Command is one of nine Unified Combatant Commands of the United States Department of Defense. Strategic Command was established in 1992 as a successor to Strategic Air Command and it is headquartered at Offutt Air Force Base south of Omaha, Nebraska. In October 2002, it merged with the United States Space Command and it employs more than 2,700 people, representing all four services, including DoD civilians and contractors. Strategic Command is one of the three Unified Combatant Commands organized along a functional basis, the other six are organized on a geographical basis. On 1 June 1992, President George H. W. Bush established the U. S. Strategic Command from the Strategic Air Command and other Cold War military bodies, the Command unified planning, targeting and wartime employment of strategic forces under one commander. Day-to-day training, equipment and maintenance responsibilities for its forces remained with the Air Force, as a result of the 2002 Nuclear Posture Review, the Cold War system of relying solely on offensive nuclear response was modified. Shortly after a meeting between President George W, the activation of the new USSTRATCOM took place on 1 October 2002. The merged command was responsible for early warning of and defense against missile attack as well as long-range strategic attacks. This combination of roles, capabilities and authorities under a unified command was unique in the history of unified commands. U. S. Strategic Command officials were expected to deliver a detailed plan on the separation to General Cartwright for approval by September 2006 and this comes after some concern by officials and lawmakers such as U. S. S. Department of Defense and specifically the way space has been organized at U. S. Strategic Command, as result of the separation, the Missile Correlation Center in Cheyenne Mountain AFS was broken into two separate entities. NORAD/NORTHCOM now controls the Missile and Space Domain and JFCC Space controls the Missile Warning Center and they are both still located at Cheyenne Mountain AFS. It was expected that MSD would eventually move to Peterson AFB to join the rest of N2C2 and this combination of authorities, oversight, leadership and management is supposed to enable a more responsive, flattened organizational construct according to the commands leadership. U. S. Cyber Command United States Cyber Command —The CYBERCOM is a unified command under United States Strategic Command. The current commander is Admiral Michael S. Rogers, CYBERCOM was created by United States Defense Secretary Robert Gates on 23 June 2009, and activated in September of that year. The command was first led by the director of the National Security Agency and it combines elements of JTF-GNO and JFCC-NW, which were dissolved in October 2010. In an interview of General Alexander, now retired, he stated that United States Special Operations Command was a model for the future evolution of CYBERCOM. Joint Functional Component Command for Global Strike The Commander Eighth Air Force serves as the Joint Functional Component Commander for Global Strike, some of these tasks belonged to a JFCC for Space and Global Strike before being split into two components
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Unified combatant command
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A unified combatant command is a United States Department of Defense command that is composed of forces from at least two Military Departments and has a broad and continuing mission. These commands are established to provide command and control of U. S. military forces, regardless of branch of service, in peace. They are organized either on a basis or on a functional basis, such as special operations, power projection. UCCs are joint commands with specific badges denoting their affiliation, the creation and organization of the unified combatant commands is legally mandated in Title 10, U. S. Code Sections 161–168. The Unified Command Plan is updated annually in conjunction with the DoD fiscal year, as of September 2011, there are nine unified combatant commands as specified in Title 10 and the latest annual UCP. Six have regional responsibilities, and three have functional responsibilities, each time the Unified Command Plan is updated, the organization of the combatant commands is reviewed for military efficiency and effectiveness, as well as alignment with national policy. Each unified command is led by a combatant commander, who is a general or admiral. The chain of command for operational purposes goes from the President through the Secretary of Defense to the combatant commanders, in the European Theater, Allied military forces fell under the command of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force. After SHAEF was dissolved at the end of the war, the American forces were unified under a single command, the Joint Chiefs of Staff continued to advocate in favor of establishing permanent unified commands, and President Harry S. Truman approved the first plan on 14 December 1946. Known as the Outline Command Plan, it would become the first in a series of Unified Command Plans, the original Outline Command Plan of 1946 established seven unified commands, Far East Command, Pacific Command, Alaskan Command, Northeast Command, the U. S. Atlantic Fleet, Caribbean Command, and European Command, however, on 5 August 1947, the CNO recommended instead that CINCLANTFLT be established as a fully unified commander under the broader title of Commander in Chief, Atlantic. The Army and Air Force objected, and CINCLANTFLT was activated as a command on 1 November 1947. A few days later, the CNO renewed his suggestion for the establishment of a unified Atlantic Command and this time his colleagues withdrew their objections, and on 1 December 1947, the U. S. Atlantic Command was created under the Commander in Chief, Atlantic, under the original plan, each of the unified commands operated with one of the service chiefs serving as an executive agent representing the Joint Chiefs of Staff. This arrangement was formalized on 21 April 1948 as part of a paper titled the Function of the Armed Forces. Northeast Command were disestablished under the Unified Command Plan of 1956–57, CONAD itself was disestablished in 1975. Although not part of the plan, the Joint Chiefs of Staff also created specified commands that had broad. Examples include the U. S. Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean, like the unified commands, the specified commands reported directly to the JCS instead of their respective service chiefs
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
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Carl Andrew Spaatz
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Carl Andrew Tooey Spaatz was an American World War II general. As commander of Strategic Air Forces in Europe in 1944, he pressed for the bombing of the enemy’s oil production facilities as a priority over other targets. He became Chief of Staff of the newly formed United States Air Force in 1947. Born as Carl Andrew Spatz, he added the second a in 1937 at the request of his wife. The second a was added, as it was in the European branch of his family, to out the sound like ah. The result was intended to suggest a Dutch rather than a German origin, however, he was of German ancestry. Spaatz received his nickname Tooey at West Point because of his resemblance to another red-headed cadet named F. J. Toohey and he graduated as a second lieutenant of Infantry 12 June 1914, ranked 97th out of a class of 107. He was detailed to the Aviation Section, U. S. Signal Corps in Mexico on 8 June 1916 after earning his Junior Military Aviator rating, Spaatz served in the First Aero Squadron which was attached to General John J. Pershing during the Punitive Expedition. Spaatz was promoted to First Lieutenant on 1 July 1916 and to Captain on 15 May 1917, following Americas entry into World War I, Spaatz was sent with the American Expeditionary Forces in command of the 31st Aero Squadron. In this brief period, Spaatz shot down three planes and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, during the time he was promoted to the temporary rank of major on 17 June 1918. In early 1919, he was appointed to one of the three troupes of the U. S. Army Air Service Victory Loan Flying Circus. His group consisted of about twenty-five officers and fifty enlisted men and his airplanes included on the tour included five JN6 Jennies, five Fokker D VIIs, four RAE SE-5s and five Spad VIIs. The team gave promotional rides and flew aerial demonstrations across the Western and Southwestern United States from early April through mid-May 1919 to raise money to retire the World War I debt. He served in California and Texas and became assistant department air service officer for the Western Department in July 1919, Spaatz experienced the chaotic ups and downs in rank common to Regular officers in 1920, when the National Defense Act of 1920 reorganized the military. He first reverted to his permanent rank of captain of Infantry 27 February 1920 and this made him senior to a number of officers, including Henry H. Arnold, with greater longevity of service. He graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School, Langley Field, Virginia, in June 1925, later that year he testified for the defence at the court martial of Colonel Billy Mitchell. From May 8,1929, to October 29,1931, Spaatz commanded the 7th Bombardment Group at Rockwell Field, California, and he then served in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps and became chief of the Training and Operations Division. In August 1935, he enrolled in the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on 7 November 1939, Spaatz received a temporary promotion to colonel, and during the Battle of Britain in 1940, spent several weeks in England as a special military observer
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United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe
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The United States Strategic Air Forces was a formation of the United States Army Air Forces. It became the command and control authority of the United States Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II. USSTAF had started as the Eighth Air Force, a command to that of the smaller Ninth Air Force, Twelfth Air Force. The USSTAF was established with the redesignation of the former VIII Bomber Command as the Eighth Air Force on 22 February 1944, VIII Fighter Command was brought under the command of the newly redesignated Eighth Air Force, while VIII Bomber Command was inactivated. Beginning in March 1944, Air Service Command, USSTAF progressively took over all service functions. Shortly after VE-Day, the United States Army Air Forces in Europe began to demobilize, in May 1945, USSTAF consisted of about 17,000 aircraft and about 500,000 personnel. In Europe the aim was to maintain a small USAAF organization, exclusively for communication, on 7 August 1945, the United States Strategic Air Forces was redesignated as the United States Air Forces in Europe. Headquarters USAFE was relocated to Wiesbaden, Germany, on 28 September 1945, by the end of 1946, the American Air Force in Europe was reduced drastically, to around 75,000 personnel and less than 2,000 aircraft. Established as 8th Air Force on 19 January 1942 Activated on 28 January 1942. afhra. af. mil/, Maurer, Maurer, ed. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. Cees Steijger, A History of USAFE, Voyageur, ISBN 1-85310-075-7
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United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific
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The United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific was a World War II command and control authority of the United States Army Air Forces in the Pacific theater of World War II. USASTAF was the Pacific counterpart of the United States Strategic Air Forces in Europe and its mission was to coordinate strategic bombing of the Japanese home islands during the expected invasion of Japan. General Curtis E. Lemay was appointed Spaatzs Chief of Staff, Guam was the headquarters of the XXI Bomber Command and until the arrival of the Eighth Air Force would provide the bulk of men and equipment of the new command. LeMay took command on that date, on the same day the Eighth was reassigned to Okinawa, as a paper transfer as it arrived without men or equipment. Spaatz arrived in theater on 29 July and began organizing his forces—a task he had not completed by the wars end, the primary combat missions carried out by USASTAF forces were the firebombing of Japanese cities and industrial targets during June and July 1945 by Twentieth Air Force. No Eighth Air Force combat missions were flown, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were carried out by direct order of USAAF Chief of Staff General Henry Hap Arnold though the 509th Composite Group. On 6 December 1945 USASTAF was abolished by the inactivation of its headquarters and headquarters squadron and its personnel, equipment and aircraft were assigned to Pacific Air Command, United States Army which was assigned to United States Army Forces, Pacific. PACUSA was reassigned to Tokyo, Japan on 17 May 1946, photos of USASTAF facilities on Guam,1945
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Twentieth Air Force
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The Twentieth Air Force is a numbered air force of the United States Air Force Global Strike Command. It is headquartered at Francis E. Warren Air Force Base,20 AFs primary mission is Intercontinental Ballistic Missile operations. The Twentieth Air Force commander is also the Commander, Task Force 214, established on 4 April 1944 at Washington D. C,20 AF was a United States Army Air Forces combat air force deployed to the Pacific Theater of World War II. Operating initially from bases in India and staging though bases in China,20 AF conducted strategic bombardment of the Japanese Home Islands and it relocated to the Mariana Islands in late 1944, and continued the strategic bombardment campaign against Japan until the Japanese capitulation in August 1945. The 20 AF 509th Composite Group conducted the atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Twentieth Air Force headquarters is unique in that it has dual responsibilities to Air Force Global Strike Command, as the missile Numbered Air Force for AFGSC, 20th Air Force is responsible for maintaining and operating the Air Forces ICBM force. Designated as STRATCOMs Task Force 214, 20th Air Force provides on-alert, combined with the other two legs of the Triad, bombers and submarines, STRATCOM forces protect the United States with an umbrella of deterrence. Headquarters, Francis E. Warren AFB, Wyoming 90th Missile Wing, Twentieth Air Force was to be commanded by General Arnold himself at Joint Chiefs of Staff level. Twentieth Air Force was completely autonomous and its B-29s were to be independent of other command structures. In addition Twentieth Air Force was chosen to be the component of the Manhattan Project in 1944. However, in early 1944, the B-29 was not yet operationally ready, the aircraft had been in development at Boeing since the late 1930s and the first XB-29 flew on 21 September 1942. However, the aircraft suffered from a number of development issues. As a result, most of the first production B-29s were still held up at Air Technical Service Command modification centers, awaiting modifications, by March 1944, the B-29 modification program had fallen into complete chaos, with absolutely no bombers being considered as combat ready. General Arnold became alarmed at the situation and directed that his assistant, Major General B. E. Meyer, the resulting burst of activity that took place between 10 March and 15 April 1944 came to be known as the Battle of Kansas. The mechanics often had to work outdoors in freezing weather, as a result of superhuman efforts on the part of all concerned,150 B-29s had been handed over to the XX Bomber Command by 15 April 1944. See, Operation Matterhorn and XX Bomber Command for expanded history Operation Matterhorn was the name for the B-29 Superfortress offensive against the Empire of Japan from airfields in China, on 10 April 1944, the Joint Chiefs of Staff informally approved Operation Matterhorn. The operational vehicle was to be the 58th Bombardment Wing of the XX Bomber Command, the headquarters of the XX Bomber Command had been established at Kharagpur India on 28 March 1944. The commander was General Kenneth B, the first B-29 reached its base in India on 2 April 1944
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U.S. Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
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Combined Bomber Offensive
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The Combined Bomber Offensive was an Anglo-American offensive of strategic bombing during World War II in Europe. The primary portion of the CBO was against Luftwaffe targets which was the highest priority from June 1943 to 1 April 1944, the subsequent highest priority campaigns were against V-weapon installations and petroleum, oil, and lubrication plants. Additional CBO targets included railyards and other targets, particularly prior to the invasion of Normandy and, along with army equipment. The US effort was by day – massed formations of bombers with escorting fighters, together they made up a round-the-clock bombing effort except where weather conditions prevented operations. The Pointblank directive of 14 June 1943 ordered RAF Bomber Command, eighth Air Force to bomb specific targets such as aircraft factories, and the order was confirmed at the Quebec Conference,1943. Both the British and the US had drawn up their plans for attacking the Axis powers, after initiating the preparation of a U. S. The COA report recommended 18 operations during each three-month phase against a total of 76 specific targets, using the COA report and information from the MEW, in April 1943 an Anglo-American committee under Lieutenant General Ira C. Eaker added a summary and final changes such as, If the growth of the German fighter strength is not arrested quickly, a committee under Gen. Ira C. Eaker, led by Brig. Gen. Haywood S. Hansell, Jr. and including Brig. Gen. Orvil A. Anderson, finished in April 1943, the plan recommended 18 operations during each three-month phase against a total of 76 specific targets. The plan also projected the US bomber strength for the four phases through 31 March 1944, Eakers Combined Bomber Offensive Plan was a document devised to help Arnold get more planes and men for the 8th Air Force and not designed to affect British operations in any substantive way. The Combined Chiefs of Staff approved the Eaker Plan on May 19,1943, primary objectives, German submarine yards and bases The remainder of the German aircraft industry Ball bearings Oil 3. In August 1943, the Quebec Conference upheld this change of priorities, the Combined Bomber Offensive began on 10 June 1943 during the British bombing campaign against German industry in the Ruhr area known as the Battle of the Ruhr. Pointblank operations against the intermediate objective began on 14 June, July 1943 was the first time that the USAAF would coordinate a raid on the same location as the RAF. They were to fly two missions against industrial targets in Hamburg following the opening raid of the RAF campaign against Hamburg. However fires started by the nights bombing obscured the targets and the USAAF were not keen to follow. RAF raids in the future. should be unambiguously and publicly stated. That aim is the destruction of German cities, the killing of German workers, and they are not by-products of attempts to hit factories. The subject of morale had been dropped and gave me a wide range of choice, the new instructions therefore made no difference to RAF Bomber Command operations. The February 13 plan was given the code name Argument, and after the weather became favorable on February 19, Harris claimed the Argument plan was not a reasonable operation of war, and the Air Staff had to order Harris to bomb the Pointblank targets at Schweinfurt
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European theatre of World War II
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The Allied forces fought the Axis powers on two major fronts as well as in the adjoining Mediterranean and Middle East Theatre. Germany was humiliated in front of the world and had to pay very large war reparations, many Germans blamed their countrys post-war economic collapse and hyperinflation on the treatys conditions. After Hitler took Germany out of the League of Nations, Mussolini of Fascist Italy and Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin axis, later, Empire of Japan, under the government of Hideki Tojo, would also join as an Axis power. Japan and Germany had already signed the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1939, other smaller powers also later joined the Axis throughout the war. On September 17, the Soviet forces joined the invasion of Poland, the Polish government evacuated the country for Romania. Poland fell within five weeks, with its last large operational units surrendering on October 5 after the Battle of Kock, as the Polish September Campaign ended, Hitler offered to Britain and France peace on the basis of recognition of German European continental dominance. On October 12, the United Kingdom formally refused, despite the quick campaign in the east, along the Franco-German frontier the war settled into a quiet period. This relatively non-confrontational and mostly non-fighting period between the major powers lasted until May 10,1940, and was known as the Phoney War, several other countries, however, were drawn into the conflict at this time. By September 28,1939, the three Baltic Republics felt they had no choice but to permit Soviet bases and troops on their territory, the Baltic Republics were occupied by the Soviet army in June 1940, and finally annexed to the Soviet Union in August 1940. The Soviet Union wanted to annex Finland and offered an agreement, but Finland rejected it. In the Moscow Peace Treaty of March 12,1940, Finland ceded 10% of her territory, the Finns were embittered over having lost more land in the peace than on the battlefields, and over the perceived lack of world sympathy. Meanwhile, in western Scandinavia, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, sweden was able to remain neutral. Most Allied forces were in Flanders, anticipating a re-run of the World War I Schlieffen Plan, as a result of this, and also the superior German communications and tactics, the Battle of France was shorter than virtually all pre-war Allied thought could have conceived. It lasted six weeks, including the Luftwaffe bombing of Paris June 3, on June 10 Italy declared war on both France and the United Kingdom, but did not gain any significant success in this campaign. French government fled Paris, and soon, France surrendered on June 22, many French soldiers, as well as those of other occupied countries, escaped to Britain. The General de Gaulle proclaimed himself the leader of Free France. Following the unexpected victory, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony. Later, on April 24,1941, the USSR gave full recognition to the Vichy government situated in the non-occupied zone in France
US Air Force
United States of America
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