1.
Hay
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Hay is grass, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored for use as animal fodder, particularly for grazing animals such as cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Hay is also fed to animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Pigs may be fed hay, but they do not digest it as efficiently as more fully herbivorous animals and it is also fed during times when an animal is unable to access pasture, such as when animals are kept in a stable or barn. Commonly used plants for hay include mixtures of such as ryegrass, timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda grass, orchard grass. Hay may also include legumes, such as alfalfa and clovers, legumes in hay are ideally cut pre-bloom. Other pasture forbs are also sometimes a part of the mix, straw is used mainly for animal bedding. Although straw is used as fodder, particularly as a source of dietary fiber. It is the leaf and seed material in the hay that determines its quality, farmers try to harvest hay at the point when the seed heads are not quite ripe and the leaf is at its maximum when the grass is mowed in the field. Hay is very sensitive to conditions, particularly when it is harvested. In drought conditions, both seed and leaf production are stunted, making hay that has a ratio of dry coarse stems that have very low nutritional values. If the weather is too wet, the cut hay may spoil in the field before it can be baled, the hay may also develop rot and mold after being baled, creating the potential for toxins to form in the feed, which could make the animals sick. It also has to be stored in a manner to prevent it from getting wet, mold and spoilage reduce nutritional value and may cause illness in animals. A symbiotic fungus in fescue may cause illness in horses and cattle, the successful harvest of maximum yields of high-quality hay is entirely dependent on the coincident occurrence of optimum crop, field, and weather conditions. When this occurs, there may be a period of activity on the hay farm while harvest proceeds until weather conditions become unfavourable. Hay or grass is the foundation of the diet for all grazing animals, Hay is usually fed to an animal in place of allowing the animal to graze on grasses in a pasture, particularly in the winter or during times when drought or other conditions make pasture unavailable. Animals that can eat hay vary in the types of grasses suitable for consumption, the ways they consume hay, most animals are fed hay in two daily feedings, morning and evening. However, this schedule is more for the convenience of humans, some animals, especially those being raised for meat, may be given enough hay that they simply are able to eat all day. The proper amount of hay and the type of hay required varies somewhat between different species, some animals are also fed concentrated feeds such as grain or vitamin supplements in addition to hay
2.
Drinking straw
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A drinking straw is a tube for transferring a beverage from its container to the mouth of the drinker. A thin tube of plastic or other material, straight or with an angle-adjustable bellows segment, it is used by being held one end in the mouth. Muscular action reduces air pressure in the mouth and above the liquid in the straw, the first known straws were made by the Sumerians, and were used for drinking beer, probably to avoid the solid byproducts of fermentation that sink to the bottom. The oldest drinking straw in existence, found in a Sumerian tomb dated 3,000 B. C. E. was a gold inlaid with the precious blue stone lapis lazuli. Argentines and their neighbors used a metallic device called a bombilla. In the 1800s, the rye grass straw came into fashion because it was cheap and soft, to address these shortcomings, Marvin C. Stone patented the modern drinking straw, made of paper, in 1888. He came upon the idea while drinking a mint julep on a hot day in Washington, D. C. the taste of the rye was mixing with the drink and giving it a grassy taste, which he found unsatisfactory. He wound paper around a pencil to make a tube, slid out the pencil from one end. He later refined it by building a machine that would coat the outside of the paper with wax to hold it together, early paper straws had a narrow bore similar to that of the grass stems then in common use. It was common to use two of them, to reduce the effort needed to take each sip, modern plastic straws are made with a larger bore, and only one is needed for ease of drinking. Drinking straws are a form of consumption when made. Made from polypropylene, they are strong and can be reused rather than recycled into other products, waste straws in Uganda are collected from beer and soft drink depots, cleaned, and woven into mats for picnics and prayers or joined to form bags. A basic drinking straw is straight for the full length, a bendable straw or bendy straw has a concertina-type hinge near the top for convenience. This variation was invented by Joseph Friedman in 1937, candy straws, such as licorice straws, are made from some type of chewy candy. A recent addition to the family is the cereal straw. Special color-changer straws change color when cold liquid passes through them, at some restaurants, frozen beverages like slush or frappes are served with color changing straws. Many of these are larger in diameter than typical straws to aid in drinking the thicker beverages, a crazy straw is hard, transparent or translucent plastic and has a number of twists and turns at the top. When liquid is sucked through the straw, it flows through the winding path, creating a mildly amusing spectacle
3.
Tarpaulin
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In some places such as Australia, and in military slang, a tarp may be known as a hootch. Tarpaulins often have reinforced grommets at the corners and along the sides to form attachment points for rope, inexpensive modern tarpaulins are made from woven polyethylene, this material is so associated with tarpaulins that it has become colloquially known in some quarters as polytarp. The word tarpaulin originated as a compound of the words tar, sailors often tarred their own overclothes in the same manner as the sheets or palls. By association, sailors became known as Jack Tars, thus constructed, they were placed upon a duck paulin, which was drawn up tightly around the beds and secured. Tarpaulins have multiple uses, including as shelter from the elements, i. e. wind, rain, or sunlight, tarpaulins are often used during the build process to protect brickwork and masonry from weather damage. Such was the demand for tarpaulins by the New South Wales Government Railways, up until 1990 and it is also used on outdoor market stalls to provide some protection from the elements of nature. Tarpaulins are also used for advertisement printing, most notably for billboards, perforated tarpaulins are typically used for large-medium advertising, or for protection on scaffoldings, the aim of the perforations is to reduce wind vulnerability. Polyethylene tarpaulins have also proven to be a source when an inexpensive. Many amateur builders of plywood sailboats turn to polyethylene tarpaulins for making their sails, as it is inexpensive, with the proper type of adhesive tape, it is possible to make a serviceable sail for a small boat with no sewing. Tarps can also be classified by size—a common determining factor for consumers in acquiring tarps—and measured in width by length, actual tarp sizes are generally about three to five percent smaller than the advertised size. Some other factors that may influence a purchase decision include color, grommet type, the weave count, a measure of tarp strength, often runs between and the greater the count, the greater its resistance against ripping in high wind conditions. Tarps may also be washable or non-washable and waterproof or non-waterproof, Tarp flexibility refers to its ability to remain pliable during cold winter months, some tarps offer more flexibility than others in cold weather. Some manufacturers also advertise their tarps as rot-proof, but this may be more an subjective than an objective measurement, a polyethylene tarp is not a traditional fabric, but rather, a laminate of woven and sheet material. The center is loosely woven from strips of plastic, with sheets of the same material bonded to the surface. This creates a material that resists stretching well in all directions and is waterproof. Sheets can be either of Low density polyethelene or High density polyethelene, canvas tarps are not 100% waterproof, though they are water resistant. Vinyl tarps are industrial-grade and intended for heavy-duty use and they are constructed of 10 oz. per sq. yd. -weight coated yellow vinyl. This makes the tarp waterproof and have high resistance and tear strength
4.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
5.
Grain
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Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
6.
Chaff
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Chaff is the dry, scaly protective casings of the seeds of cereal grain, or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material such as scaly parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. Chaff is indigestible by humans, but livestock can eat it and in agriculture it is used as livestock fodder, chaff comes from Middle English chaf, from Old English ceaf, related to Old High German cheva, husk. In grasses, the seed is surrounded by thin, dry, scaly bracts. Once it is removed it is referred to as chaff. In wild cereals and in the primitive domesticated einkorn, emmer and spelt wheats, before the grain can be used, the husks must be removed. The process of loosening the chaff from the grain so as to remove it is called threshing – traditionally done by milling or pounding. Separating remaining loose chaff from the grain is called winnowing – traditionally done by repeatedly tossing the grain up into a wind which gradually blows the lighter chaff away. This method typically utilizes a broad, plate-shaped basket or similar receptacle to hold, domesticated grains such as durum wheat and common wheat have been bred to have chaff that is easily removed. These varieties are known as free-threshing or naked, chaff should not be confused with bran, which is finer scaly material that is part of the grain itself. Chaff is also made by chopping straw into short lengths. Like grain chaff this is used as feed, and is a way of turning coarse fodder into a form more palatable to livestock. In botany, chaff refers to the thin receptacular bracts of many species in the sunflower family Asteraceae and they are modified scale-like leaves surrounding single florets in the flower-head. Chaff as a product from grain processing leads to a metaphorical use of the term. Compare also the Parable of the Tares, which refers to a mixture of wheat, another example is in Psalm 1,4 of the Bible, which says, The ungodly are not so, but are like the chaff which the wind driveth away. Hungarian engineer László Schremmer has recently discovered that by the use of chaff-based filters it is possible to reduce the content of water to 3 microgram/litre. This is especially important in areas where the water is provided by filtering the water extracted from the underground aquifer. Bran Biomass Combine harvester Rice hulls Rice huller Threshing Threshing machine Winnowing
7.
Barley
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Barley, a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago, Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods. It is used in soups and stews, and in barley bread of various cultures, Barley grains are commonly made into malt in a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In 2014, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced behind corn, rice, the Old English word for barley was bære, which traces back to Proto-Indo-European and is cognate to the Latin word farina flour. The direct ancestor of modern English barley in Old English was the derived adjective bærlic, the first citation of the form bærlic in the Oxford English Dictionary dates to around 966 CE, in the compound word bærlic-croft. The underived word bære survives in the north of Scotland as bere, the word barn, which originally meant barley-house, is also rooted in these words. Barley is a member of the grass family and it is a self-pollinating, diploid species with 14 chromosomes. The wild ancestor of domesticated barley, Hordeum vulgare subsp, spontaneum, is abundant in grasslands and woodlands throughout the Fertile Crescent area of Western Asia and northeast Africa, and is abundant in disturbed habitats, roadsides and orchards. Outside this region, the barley is less common and is usually found in disturbed habitats. However, in a study of genome-wide diversity markers, Tibet was found to be a center of domestication of cultivated barley. Wild barley has a spike, upon maturity, the spikelets separate. Domesticated barley has nonshattering spikes, making it easier to harvest the mature ears. The nonshattering condition is caused by a mutation in one of two linked genes known as Bt1 and Bt2, many cultivars possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is recessive, so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are homozygous for the mutant allele, spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the rachis. In wild barley, only the central spikelet is fertile, while the two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys, a pair of mutations result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys. Recent genetic studies have revealed that a mutation in one gene, two-row barley has a lower protein content than six-row barley, thus a more fermentable sugar content. High-protein barley is best suited for animal feed, Malting barley is usually lower protein which shows more uniform germination, needs shorter steeping, and has less protein in the extract that can make beer cloudy
8.
Oat
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The oat, sometimes called the common oat, is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name. While oats are suitable for consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats. The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the related minor crop. Genetic evidence shows the forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Domesticated oats appear relatively late, and far from the Near East, oats, like rye, are usually considered a secondary crop, i. e. derived from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates wheat and barley. As these cereals spread westwards into cooler, wetter areas, this may have favored the oat weed component, oats are best grown in temperate regions. Oats are a plant, and can be planted either in autumn or in the spring. Oats have numerous uses in foods, most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such as oatcakes, oatmeal cookies and oat bread. Oats are also an ingredient in many cold cereals, in particular muesli, historical attitudes towards oats have varied. Oat bread was first manufactured in Britain, where the first oat bread factory was established in 1899, in Scotland, they were, and still are, held in high esteem, as a mainstay of the national diet. In Scotland, a dish was made by soaking the husks from oats for a week, so the fine, floury part of the meal remained as sediment to be strained off, boiled and eaten. Oats are also used there as a thickener in soups. Oats are also used as feed for horses when extra carbohydrates. The oat hull may be crushed for the horse to easily digest the grain. They may be given alone or as part of a food pellet. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole or ground into a coarse flour using a mill, burr mill. Winter oats may be grown as a groundcover and ploughed under in the spring as a green fertilizer. They also can be used for pasture, they can be grazed a while, then allowed to head out for grain production, Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse producers as bedding, due to its soft, relatively dust-free, and absorbent nature
9.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
10.
Rye
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Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is a member of the tribe and is closely related to barley. Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, crisp bread, some whiskeys, some vodkas and it can also be eaten whole, either as boiled rye berries or by being rolled, similar to rolled oats. Rye is a grain and should not be confused with ryegrass, which is used for lawns, pasture. Rye is one of a number of species grow wild in central and eastern Turkey. It is possible that rye traveled west from Turkey as an admixture in wheat. Since the Middle Ages people have cultivated rye widely in Central and it serves as the main bread cereal in most areas east of the French-German border and north of Hungary. In Southern Europe, it was cultivated on marginal lands, claims of much earlier cultivation of rye, at the Epipalaeolithic site of Tell Abu Hureyra in the Euphrates valley of northern Syria remain controversial. Critics point to inconsistencies in the dates, and identifications based solely on grain. Winter rye is any breed of rye planted in the fall to provide cover for the winter. It grows during warmer days of the winter when sunlight temporarily warms the plant above freezing and it is sometimes used in winter gardens and is a common nurse crop. Rye is grown primarily in Eastern, Central and Northern Europe, the main rye belt stretches from northern Germany through Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Latvia into central and northern Russia. Rye is also grown in North America, in South America, in Oceania, in Turkey, in Kazakhstan, production levels of rye have fallen in most of the producing nations, as of 2012. For instance, production of rye in Russia fell from 13.9 million metric tons in 1992 to 2.1 t in 2012, most rye is consumed locally or exported only to neighboring countries, rather than being shipped worldwide. Rye is highly susceptible to the ergot fungus, consumption of ergot-infected rye by humans and animals results in a serious medical condition known as ergotism. Ergotism can cause physical and mental harm, including convulsions, miscarriage, necrosis of digits, hallucinations. Historically, damp northern countries that have depended on rye as a staple crop were subject to epidemics of this condition. There have been occurrence of ergotism with periods where there were incidents of people persecuted for being witches
11.
Wheat
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Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region but now cultivated worldwide. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize, since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st Century. This grain is grown on land area than any other commercial food. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined, globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. In a small part of the population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease, non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia. Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, in domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter, as the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plants natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild. Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE, jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE, Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE. Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 and 8400 BCE, that is, in the Neolithic period and these remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, the cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven, by 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China, the oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400-6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia. From Asia, wheat continued to spread throughout Europe, in the British Isles, wheat straw was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century
12.
Baler
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A baler, most often called a hay baler is a piece of farm machinery used to compress a cut and raked crop into compact bales that are easy to handle, transport, and store. Often bales are configured to dry and preserve some intrinsic value of the plants bundled, several different types of balers are commonly used, each producing a different type of bale – rectangular or cylindrical, of various sizes, bound with twine, strapping, netting, or wire. Industrial balers are also used in recycling facilities, primarily for baling metal, plastic. These haystacks lifted most of the plant fibers up off the ground, letting air in and water out, so the grasses could dry and cure. In the 1860s mechanical cutting devices were developed, from these came the modern devices including mechanical mowers and balers, in 1872 a reaper that used a knotter device to bundle and bind hay was invented by Charles Withington, this was commercialized in 1874 by Cyrus McCormick. The most common type of baler in industrialized countries today is the round baler and it produces cylinder-shaped round or rolled bales. The design has a thatched roof effect that withstands weather well, grass is rolled up inside the baler using rubberized belts, fixed rollers, or a combination of the two. When the bale reaches a size, either netting or twine is wrapped around it to hold its shape. The back of the baler swings open, and the bale is discharged, the bales are complete at this stage, but they may also be wrapped in plastic sheeting by a bale wrapper, either to keep hay dry when stored outside or convert damp grass into silage. Variable-chamber large round balers produce bales from 48 to 72 inches in diameter. The bales can weigh anywhere from 1,100 to 2,200 pounds, depending upon size, material, common modern small round balers produce bales 20 to 22 inches in diameter and 20.5 to 28 inches in width, generally weighing from 40 to 55 pounds. Originally conceived by Ummo Luebben circa 1910, the first round baler did not see production until 1947 when Allis-Chalmers introduced the Roto-Baler. Marketed for the water-shedding and light weight properties of its hay bales, over the next year Buchele and Haverdink developed a new design for a large round baler, completed and tested in 1966, and thereafter dubbed the Buchele-Haverdink large round baler. The large round bales were about 1.5 meters in diameter,2 meters long, the baler has become the predominant forage-handling machine in the United States. In the summer of 1969, the Australian Econ Fodder Roller baler came out, a design that made a 135 kg ground-rolled bale. In 1972, Gary Vermeer of Pella, Iowa, designed and fabricated a round baler after the design of the A-C Roto-Baler, the Vermeer design used belts to compact hay into a cylindrical shape as is seen today. In the early 1980s, collaboration between Walterscheid and Vermeer produced the first effective uses of CV joints in balers, and later in other farm machinery, due to the heavy torque required for such equipment, double Cardan joints are primarily used. Former Walterscheid engineer Martin Brown is credited with inventing this use for universal joints, by 1975, fifteen American and Canadian companies were manufacturing large round balers
13.
Fodder
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A crop is any cultivated plant, fungus, or alga that is harvested for food, clothing, livestock, fodder, biofuel, medicine, or other uses. In contrast, animals that are raised by humans are called livestock, microbes, such as bacteria or viruses, are referred to as cultures. Microbes are not typically grown for food, but are used to alter food. For example, bacteria are used to ferment milk to produce yogurt, major crops include sugarcane, pumpkin, maize, wheat, rice, cassava, soybeans, hay, potatoes, and cotton. Sleper, David A. Poehlman, John M. Breeding Field Crops
14.
Roughage
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Dietary fiber or roughage is the indigestible portion of food derived from plants. It has two components, Soluble fiber, which dissolves in water, is readily fermented in the colon into gases and physiologically active byproducts. It delays gastric emptying which in turn can cause a feeling of fullness. Insoluble fiber, which does not dissolve in water, is inert and provides bulking, or it can be prebiotic. Bulking fibers absorb water as they move through the digestive system, Dietary fibers can act by changing the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and by changing how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Some types of soluble fiber absorb water to become a gelatinous, viscous substance which is fermented by bacteria in the digestive tract, some types of insoluble fiber have bulking action and are not fermented. Lignin, a major dietary insoluble fiber source, may alter the rate, other types of insoluble fiber, notably resistant starch, are fully fermented. A novel position has been adopted by the US Department of Agriculture to include functional fibers as isolated fiber sources that may be included in the diet, the term fiber is something of a misnomer, since many types of so-called dietary fiber are not actually fibrous. Food sources of fiber are often divided according to whether they provide soluble or insoluble fiber. Plant foods contain both types of fiber in varying degrees, according to the plants characteristics, a disadvantage of a diet high in fiber is the potential for significant intestinal gas production and bloating. Originally, fiber was defined to be the components of plants that resist human digestive enzymes, the definition was later changed to also include resistant starch, along with inulin and other oligosaccharides. Official definition of dietary fiber differs a little among different institutions, Dietary fibers are found in fruits, vegetables, the exact amount of fiber contained in the food can be seen in the following table of expected fiber in USDA food groups/subgroups Dietary fiber is found in plants. While all plants contain some fiber, plants with high concentrations are generally the most practical source. Fiber-rich plants can be eaten directly, or, alternatively, they can be used to make supplements and fiber-rich processed foods. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, formerly the American Dietetic Association, some plants contain significant amounts of soluble and insoluble fiber. For example, plums and prunes have a thick skin covering a juicy pulp, the skin is a source of insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber is in the pulp. Grapes also contain an amount of fiber. The root of the plant, or glucomannan, produces results similar to fiber
15.
Basketry
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Basket weaving is the process of weaving or sewing pliable materials into two- or threedimensional artefacts, such as mats or containers. Craftspeople and artists specialised in making baskets are usually referred to as basket makers, Basketry is made from a variety of fibrous or pliable materials—anything that will bend and form a shape. Examples include pine straw, stems, animal hair, hide, grasses, thread, Indigenous peoples are particularly renowned for their basket-weaving techniques. These baskets may then be traded for goods but may also be used for religious ceremonies, twining actually refers to a weaving technique where two or more flexible weaving elements cross each other as they weave through the stiffer radial spokes. Wicker and Splint basketry using reed, cane, willow, oak and it is pliable, and when woven correctly, it is very sturdy. Also, while traditional materials like oak, hickory, and willow might be hard to come by, reed is plentiful and can be cut into any size or shape that might be needed for a pattern. The type of baskets that reed is used for are most often referred to as wicker baskets, wicker baskets are often used to store beer, grain, and even in some human sacrificing tribes, the heads of the sacrifice. Many types of plants can be used to create baskets, dog rose, honeysuckle, blackberry briars once the thorns have been scraped off, Willow was used for its flexibility and the ease with which it could be grown and harvested. Willow baskets were commonly referred to as wickerwork in England, water hyacinth is currently also being used as a base material in some areas where the plant has become a serious pest. For example, a group in Ibadan led by Achenyo Idachaba have been creating handicrafts in Nigeria, the parts of a basket are the base, the side walls, and the rim. A basket may also have a lid, handle, or embellishments, most baskets begin with a base. The base can either be woven with reed or wooden, a wooden base can come in many shapes to make a wide variety of shapes of baskets. The static pieces of the work are laid down first, in a round basket, they are referred to as spokes, in other shapes, they are called stakes or staves. Then the weavers are used to fill in the sides of a basket, a wide variety of patterns can be made by changing the size, colour, or placement of a certain style of weave. To achieve an effect, aboriginal artists first dye the twine. So without proper preservation, much of the history of basket making has been lost and is simply speculated upon, other baskets have been discovered in the Middle East that are up to 7,000 years old. However, baskets seldom survive, as they are made from perishable materials, the most common evidence of a knowledge of basketry is an imprint of the weave on fragments of clay pots, formed by packing clay on the walls of the basket and firing. During the Industrial Revolution, baskets were used in factories and for packing, wicker furniture became fashionable in Victorian society
16.
Beehive
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A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Though the word beehive is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific, nest is used to discuss colonies which house themselves in natural or artificial cavities or are hanging and exposed. Hive is used to structures used by humans to house a honey bee nest. Several species of Apis live in colonies, but only the honey bee. A bees nest is comparable to a birds nest built with a purpose to protect the dweller, the beehives internal structure is a densely packed group of hexagonal prismatic cells made of beeswax, called a honeycomb. The bees use the cells to store food and to house the brood, Beehives serve several purposes, production of honey, pollination of nearby crops, housing supply bees for apitherapy treatment, and to try to mitigate the effects of colony collapse disorder. In America, hives are commonly transported so that bees can pollinate crops in other areas, a number of patents have been issued for beehive designs. Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as nesting sites. In warmer climates they may occasionally build exposed hanging nests as pictured, members of other subgenera have exposed aerial combs. The nest is composed of multiple honeycombs, parallel to each other and it usually has a single entrance. Western honey bees prefer nest cavities approximately 45 litres in volume, bees usually occupy nests for several years. The bees often smooth the bark surrounding the nest entrance, honeycombs are attached to the walls along the cavity tops and sides, but small passageways are left along the comb edges. The peanut-shaped queen cells are built at the lower edge of the comb. Bees were kept in hives in Egypt in antiquity. The walls of the Egyptian sun temple of Nyuserre Ini from the 5th Dynasty, dated earlier than 2422 BC, inscriptions detailing the production of honey are found on the tomb of Pabasa from the 26th Dynasty, and describe honey stored in jars, and cylindrical hives. The archaeologist Amihai Mazar cites 30 intact hives that were discovered in the ruins of the city of Rehov and this is evidence that an advanced honey industry existed in Israel, approximately 4,000 years ago. The beehives, made of straw and unbaked clay, were found in rows, with a total of 150 hives. Ezra Marcus from the University of Haifa said the discovery provided a glimpse of ancient beekeeping seen in texts, an altar decorated with fertility figurines was found alongside the hives and may indicate religious practices associated with beekeeping
17.
Livestock
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Livestock are domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber, and labor. The term is used to refer solely to those raised for food. In recent years, some organizations have also raised livestock to promote the survival of rare breeds, animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods. Originally, livestock were not confined by fences or enclosures, but these practices have largely shifted to intensive animal farming and these practices increase yield of the various commercial outputs, but have led to increased concerns about animal welfare and environmental impact. Livestock production continues to play an economic and cultural role in numerous rural communities. Livestock as a word was first used between 1650 and 1660, as a merger between the live and stock. Older English sources, such as the King James Version of the Bible, the word cattle is derived from Old North French catel, which meant all kinds of movable personal property, including livestock, which was differentiated from immovable real estate. In later English, sometimes smaller livestock such as chickens and pigs were referred to as small cattle, today, the modern meaning of cattle, without a modifier, usually refers to domesticated bovines, but sometimes livestock refers only to this subgroup. Legal definition United States federal legislation sometimes more narrowly defines the term to make specified agricultural commodities either eligible or ineligible for a program or activity, for example, the Livestock Mandatory Reporting Act of 1999 defines livestock only as cattle, swine, and sheep. Animal-rearing originated during the transition to settled farming communities from hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animals are domesticated when their breeding and living conditions are controlled by humans, over time, the collective behaviour, lifecycle and physiology of livestock have changed radically. Many modern farm animals are unsuited to life in the wild, dogs were domesticated in East Asia about 15,000 years ago. Goats and sheep were domesticated around 8000 BC in Asia, swine or pigs were domesticated by 7000 BC in the Middle East and China. The earliest evidence of horse domestication dates to around 4000 BC, the term livestock is nebulous and may be defined narrowly or broadly. Broadly, livestock refers to any breed or population of animal kept by humans for a useful and this can mean domestic animals, semidomestic animals, or captive wild animals. Semidomesticated refers to animals which are only lightly domesticated or of disputed status and these populations may also be in the process of domestication. Some people may use the term livestock to refer to only used for red meat. Livestock are used by humans for a variety of purposes, many of which have an economic value, Livestock products include, Meat A useful form of dietary protein and energy, meat is the edible tissue of the animal carcass
18.
Biofuel
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Biofuels can be derived directly from plants, or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes. Renewable biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as those that occur in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis, other renewable biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass. This biomass can be converted to convenient energy-containing substances in three different ways, thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion and this biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can also be used directly for biofuels, bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe, in 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters, up 17% from 2009, and biofuels provided 2. 7% of the worlds fuels for road transport. Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the top producers. The worlds largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all production in 2010. As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level, the International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal. The production of biofuels also led into an automotive industry. There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues relating to production and use. Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density and this occurs naturally in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by a combustion engine. The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids, thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense and clean-burning. In addition, liquids can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, first-generation or conventional biofuels are made from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil. Biobutanol is often claimed to provide a replacement for gasoline
19.
Biobutanol
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Butanol may be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine. Because its longer hydrocarbon chain causes it to be fairly non-polar, Butanol has been demonstrated to work in vehicles designed for use with gasoline without modification. It has a four link hydrocarbon chain and it can be produced from biomass as well as fossil fuels, but biobutanol and petrobutanol have the same chemical properties. Butanol from biomass is called biobutanol and it can be used in unmodified gasoline engines. Biobutanol can be produced by fermentation of biomass by the A. B. E, the process uses the bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum, also known as the Weizmann organism, or Clostridium beijerinckii. It was Chaim Weizmann who first used C. acetobutylicum for the production of acetone from starch in 1916, the butanol was a by-product of this fermentation. The process also creates a recoverable amount of H2 and a number of other by-products, acetic, lactic and propionic acids, biobutanol can also be made using Ralstonia eutropha H16. This process requires the use of an electro-bioreactor and the input of carbon dioxide, the difference from ethanol production is primarily in the fermentation of the feedstock and minor changes in distillation. According to DuPont, existing plants can cost-effectively be retrofitted to biobutanol production. Additionally, butanol production from biomass and agricultural byproducts could be more efficient than ethanol or methanol production, biobutanol can be made entirely with solar energy and nutrients, from algae or diatoms. Although biofuel demand has risen to one billion liters yearly. Under normal living conditions, Clostridium bacterial communities have a low yield of butanol per gram of glucose, obtaining higher yields of butanol involves manipulation of the metabolic networks within bacteria to prioritize the synthesis of the biofuel. The universitys researchers have stated that the source of the TU-103 Clostridium bacteria strain was most likely from the waste from one of the plains zebra at New Orleans Audubon Zoo. Metabolic engineering can be used to allow an organism to use a substrate such as glycerol instead of glucose. Because fermentation processes require glucose derived from foods, butanol production can negatively impact food supply, glycerol is a good alternative source for butanol production. While glucose sources are valuable and limited, glycerol is abundant and has a low price because it is a waste product of biodiesel production. Butanol production from glycerol is economically viable using metabolic pathways that exist in Clostridium pasteurianum bacterium, a combination of succinate and ethanol can be fermented to produce butyrate by utilizing the metabolic pathways present in a gram-positive anaerobic bacterium Clostridium kluyveri. Succinate is an intermediate of the TCA cycle, which metabolizes glucose, anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium saccharobutylicum also contain these pathways
20.
Biogas
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Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as waste, manure, municipal waste, plant material, sewage. Biogas is an energy source and in many cases exerts a very small carbon footprint. Biogas can be produced by digestion with anaerobic organisms, which digest material inside a closed system. Biogas is primarily methane and carbon dioxide and may have small amounts of sulfide, moisture. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen and this energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel, it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity, Biogas can be compressed, the same way natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to power motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, biogas is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel and it qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane, Biogas is considered to be a renewable resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon dioxide. Organic material grows, is converted and used and then regrows in a repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released when the material is ultimately converted to energy. A biogas plant is the name given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. It can be produced using anaerobic digesters and these plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. During the process, the microorganisms transform biomass waste into biogas, other internal combustion engines such as gas turbines are suitable for the conversion of biogas into both electricity and heat. The digestate is the inorganic matter that was not transformed into biogas. It can be used as an agricultural fertiliser, there are two key processes, mesophilic and thermophilic digestion which is dependent on temperature. The dangers of biogas are mostly similar to those of natural gas, Biogas can be explosive when mixed in the ratio of one part biogas to 8-20 parts air. Special safety precautions have to be taken for entering an empty biogas digester for maintenance work and it is important that a biogas system never has negative pressure as this could cause an explosion
21.
Briquette
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A briquette is a compressed block of coal dust or other combustible biomass material such as charcoal, sawdust, wood chips, peat, or paper used for fuel and kindling to start a fire. The term comes from the French language and is related to brick, coal briquettes have long been produced as a means of using up small coal, the finely broken coal inevitably produced during the mining process. The first briquettes were known as culm and were hand-moulded with a wet clay as a binder. These could be difficult to burn efficiently, as the unburned clay produced an ash content. With Victorian developments in engineering, particularly the press, it became possible to produce machine-made briquettes with minimal binder content. A tar or pitch binder was used, obtained first from gas making and these binders burned away completely, making it a low-ash fuel. A proprietary brand of briquettes from the South Wales coalfield was Phurnacite and these were intended to emulate a high-quality anthracite coal, such as that from the Cynheidre measures. This involved blending a mixture of coals from different grades and colliery sources, Phurnacite used the following mix, Bituminous coal, 25% Steam coal, 45% Dry steam coal, 22% Pitch, 8% Early briquettes were large and brick-shaped. They could be stacked, or even built into walls, the Antarctic expeditions of both Shackleton and Scott took large quantities of these briquettes with them and used them to build pony stables. As the ponies were eaten, as planned, for food, Phurnacite briquettes later adopted a squared oval shape. This regular shape packed well as a good firebed, with plentiful airflow and they are also easy to mechanically feed, allowing the development of automatically controlled heating boilers that could run for days without human intervention. Charcoal briquettes sold for cooking food can include, Wood charcoal Lignite coal Anthracite coal Limestone Starch Borax Sodium nitrate Sawdust Wax, chaff Some briquettes are compressed and dried brown coal extruded into hard blocks. This is a technique for low rank coals. They are typically dried to 12-18% moisture, and are used in household. Throughout China, cylindrical briquettes, called fēng wō méi or Mei or liàn tàn, are used in purpose-built cookers, the origin of Mei is Rentan of Japan. Rentan was invented in Japan in the 19th century, and spread to Manchukuo, Korea, there were many Rentan factories in Manchukuo and Pyongyang. Although Rentan went out of use in Japan after the 1970s, it is popular in China, Korea. The cookers are simple, ceramic vessels with metal exteriors, two types are made, the single, or triple briquette type, the latter holding the briquettes together side by side
22.
Gas
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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter. A pure gas may be made up of atoms, elemental molecules made from one type of atom. A gas mixture would contain a variety of pure gases much like the air, what distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles. This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer, the interaction of gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered negligible as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image. One type of commonly known gas is steam, the gaseous state of matter is found between the liquid and plasma states, the latter of which provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature scale lie degenerative quantum gases which are gaining increasing attention, high-density atomic gases super cooled to incredibly low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as either a Bose gas or a Fermi gas. For a comprehensive listing of these states of matter see list of states of matter. The only chemical elements which are stable multi atom homonuclear molecules at temperature and pressure, are hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. These gases, when grouped together with the noble gases. Alternatively they are known as molecular gases to distinguish them from molecules that are also chemical compounds. The word gas is a neologism first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist J. B. van Helmont, according to Paracelsuss terminology, chaos meant something like ultra-rarefied water. An alternative story is that Van Helmonts word is corrupted from gahst and these four characteristics were repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed studies ultimately led to a relationship among these properties expressed by the ideal gas law. Gas particles are separated from one another, and consequently have weaker intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another, transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction of these forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical properties unique to each gas. A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion, the drifting smoke particles in the image provides some insight into low pressure gas behavior
23.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
24.
Torrefaction
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Torrefaction of biomass, e. g. wood or grain, is a mild form of pyrolysis at temperatures typically between 200 and 320 °C. Torrefaction changes biomass properties to provide a better fuel quality for combustion and gasification applications. Torrefaction leads to a dry product with no biological activity like rotting, Torrefaction combined with densification leads to a very energy-dense fuel carrier of 20 to 21 GJ/ton lower heating value. Torrefaction makes the material undergo Maillard reactions, biomass can be an important energy source. However, nature provides a diversity of biomass with varying characteristics. e. Make it easier to transport and store it, pellets or briquets are lighter, drier and stable in storage as opposed to the biomass they are made of. Torrefaction is a treatment of biomass at 200 to 320 °C. It is carried out under pressure and in the absence of oxygen. During the torrefaction process, the contained in the biomass as well as superfluous volatiles are released. The final product is the solid, dry, blackened material that is referred to as torrefied biomass or bio-coal. During the process, the biomass typically loses 20% of its mass and 10% of its heating value and this energy can be used as a heating fuel for the torrefaction process. The final product may repel water and thus can be stored in moist air or rain without appreciable change in content or heating value. The history of torrefaction goes back to the beginning of the 19th century, Torrefied and densified biomass has several advantages in different markets, which makes it a competitive option compared to conventional biomass wood pellets. Importantly, pelletizing or briquetting primarily increases energy density, Torrefaction alone typically decreases energy density, though it allows the material to be more easily pelletized or briquetted. More homogeneous composition, Torrefied biomass can be produced from a variety of raw biomass feedstocks while yielding similar product properties. Most woody and herbaceous biomass consists of three main structures, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Torrefaction primarily drives moisture and oxygen-rich and hydrogen-rich functional groups from these structures, hydrophobic behavior, Torrefied biomass has hydrophobic properties, i. e. repels water, and when combined with densification make bulk storage in open air feasible. Elimination of biological activity, All biological activity is stopped, reducing the risk of fire, improved grindability, Torrefaction of biomass leads to improved grindability of biomass
25.
Integrated gasification combined cycle
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An integrated gasification combined cycle is a technology that uses a high pressure gasifier to turn coal and other carbon based fuels into pressurized gas—synthesis gas. It can then remove impurities from the prior to the power generation cycle. Some of these pollutants, such as sulfur, can be turned into re-usable byproducts through the Claus process and this results in lower emissions of sulfur dioxide, particulates, mercury, and in some cases carbon dioxide. With additional process equipment, a water-gas shift reaction can increase gasification efficiency, the resulting carbon dioxide from the shift reaction can be separated, compressed, and stored through sequestration. Excess heat from the combustion and syngas fired generation is then passed to a steam cycle. This process results in improved thermodynamic efficiency compared to pulverized coal combustion. Coal can be found in abundance in the USA and many other countries, of the traditional fossil fuels - oil, coal, and natural gas - coal is used as a feedstock for 40% of global electricity generation. Fossil fuel consumption and its contribution to large-scale, detrimental environmental changes is becoming a pressing issue, in particular, coal contains more CO2 per BTU than oil or natural gas and is responsible for 43% of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion. Thus, the emissions that IGCC technology allows through gasification and pre-combustion carbon capture is crucial to addressing aforementioned concerns. In this example the syngas produced is used as fuel in a gas turbine which produces electrical power, in a normal combined cycle, so-called waste heat from the gas turbine exhaust is used in a Heat Recovery Steam Generator to make steam for the steam turbine cycle. An IGCC plant improves the process efficiency by adding the higher-temperature steam produced by the gasification process to the steam turbine cycle. This steam is used in steam turbines to produce additional electrical power. IGCC plants are advantageous in comparison to conventional power plants due to their high thermal efficiency, low non-carbon greenhouse gas emissions. The key disadvantage is the amount of CO2 released without pre-combustion capture, the solid coal is gasified to produce syngas, or synthetic gas. Syngas is synthesized by gasifying coal in a closed pressurized reactor with a shortage of oxygen, the shortage of oxygen ensures that coal is broken down by the heat and pressure as opposed to burning completely. The chemical reaction between coal and oxygen produces a product that is a mixture of carbon and hydrogen, or syngas. CxHy + O2 → CO2 + H2 The heat from the production of syngas is used to steam from cooling water which is then used for steam turbine electricity production. The syngas must go through a separation process to remove CO2
26.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
27.
Cob (material)
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Cob, cobb or clom is a natural building material made from subsoil, water, some kind of fibrous organic material, and sometimes lime. The contents of subsoil naturally vary, and if it not contain the right mixture it can be modified with sand or clay. Cob is fireproof, resistant to seismic activity, and inexpensive and it can be used to create artistic, sculptural forms, and its use has been revived in recent years by the natural building and sustainability movements. In technical building and engineering such as the Uniform Building Code. Cob is an English term attested to around the year 1600 for an ancient building material that has used for building since prehistoric times. The etymology of cob and cobbing is unclear, but in several senses means to beat or strike, some of the oldest man-made structures in Afghanistan are composed of rammed earth and cob. Cobwork was used in the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 11th and 12th centuries, Cob material is known by many names including adobe, lump clay, puddled clay, chalk mud, wichert, clay daubins, swish, torchis, bauge, bousille, and cat and clay. Cob structures can be found in a variety of climates across the globe, a number of cob cottages survive from mid-19th-century New Zealand. Traditionally, English cob was made by mixing the clay-based subsoil with sand, straw, English soils contain varying amounts of chalk, and cob made with significant amounts of chalk are called chalk cob or wychert. The earthen mixture was then ladled onto a foundation in courses. The construction would progress according to the time required for the course to dry. After drying, the walls would be trimmed and the next course built, with lintels for later such as doors. The walls of a cob house are generally about 24 inches thick, the thick walls provided excellent thermal mass which was easy to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. Walls with a thermal mass value act as a thermal buffer inside the home. The material has a long life-span even in rainy and/or humid climates, provided a tall foundation, Cob is fireproof, while fire cob is a refractory material, and historically, has been used to make chimneys, fireplaces, forges and crucibles. Without fiber, however, cob loses most of its tensile strength, when Kevin McCabe constructed a two-story, four bedroom cob house in England, UK in 1994, it was reputedly the first cob residence built in the country in 70 years. His techniques remained very traditional, the innovations he made were using a tractor to mix the cob and adding sand or shillet. From 2002 to 2004, sustainability enthusiast Rob Hopkins initiated the construction of a cob house for his family and it was a community project, but an unidentified arsonist destroyed it shortly before completion
28.
Straw-bale construction
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Straw-bale construction is a building method that uses bales of straw as structural elements, building insulation, or both. This construction method is used in natural building or brown construction projects. Research has shown that construction is a sustainable method for building. Advantages of straw-bale construction over conventional building systems include the nature of straw, cost, easy availability, naturally fire-retardant. Disadvantages include susceptibility to rot, difficulty of obtaining insurance coverage, research has been done using moisture probes placed within the straw wall in which 7 of 8 locations had moisture contents of less than 20%. This is a level that does not aid in the breakdown of the straw. However, proper construction of the wall is important in keeping moisture levels down. Straw houses have built on the African plains since the Paleolithic Era. Straw bales were used in construction 400 years ago in Germany, in the New World, teepees were insulated in winter with loose straw between the inner lining and outer cover. Straw-bale construction was facilitated by the mechanical hay baler, which was invented in the 1850s and was widespread by the 1890s. It proved particularly useful in the Nebraska Sandhills, pioneers seeking land under the 1862 Homestead Act and the 1904 Kinkaid Act found a dearth of trees over much of Nebraska. In many parts of the state, the soil was suitable for dugouts, however, in the Sandhills, the soil generally made poor construction sod, in the few places where suitable sod could be found, it was more valuable for agriculture than as a building material. The first documented use of hay bales in construction in Nebraska was a built in 1896 or 1897. Unfenced and unprotected by stucco or plaster, it was reported in 1902 as having been eaten by cows, to combat this, builders began plastering their bale structures, if cement or lime stucco was unavailable, locally obtained gumbo mud was employed. Between 1896 and 1945, an estimated 70 straw-bale buildings, including houses, farm buildings, churches, schools, offices, since the 1990s straw-bale construction has been substantially revived, particularly in North America, Europe, and Australia. However, Straw-bale construction does encounter issues regarding building codes depending on the location building, Straw bale building typically consists of stacking rows of bales on a raised footing or foundation, with a moisture barrier or capillary break between the bales and their supporting platform. There are two types of commonly used, those bound together with two strings and those with three. The three string bale is the larger in all three dimensions, Bale walls can be tied together with pins of bamboo or wood, or with surface wire meshes, and then stuccoed or plastered, either with a lime-based formulation or earth/clay render
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Building construction
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Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
30.
Thermal insulation
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Thermal insulation is the reduction of heat transfer between objects in thermal contact or in range of radiative influence. Thermal insulation can be achieved with specially engineered methods or processes, as well as with suitable object shapes, heat flow is an inevitable consequence of contact between objects of differing temperature. Thermal insulation provides a region of insulation in which thermal conduction is reduced or thermal radiation is reflected rather than absorbed by the lower-temperature body, the insulating capability of a material is measured with thermal conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating capability, in thermal engineering, other important properties of insulating materials are product density and specific heat capacity. Solid materials chosen for insulation have a low thermal conductivity k, as the thickness of insulation is increased, the thermal resistance also increases. For insulated cylinders, a critical radius must be reached, before the critical radius is reached any added insulation increases heat transfer. If the outside radius of a cylinder is increased by applying insulation, however, at the same time, the convective resistance is reduced. This implies that adding insulation below a critical radius actually increases the heat transfer. If the radius of the cylinder is smaller than the critical radius for insulation. Gases possess poor thermal conduction properties compared to liquids and solids, in order to further augment the effectiveness of a gas it may be disrupted into small cells which cannot effectively transfer heat by natural convection. Convection involves a larger flow of gas driven by buoyancy and temperature differences. In order to accomplish gas cell formation in man-made thermal insulation, glass and this principle is used industrially in building and piping insulation such as, cellulose, rock wool, polystyrene foam, urethane foam, vermiculite, perlite, and cork. Trapping air is also the principle in all highly insulating clothing materials such as wool, down feathers, the air-trapping property is also the insulation principle employed by homeothermic animals to stay warm, for example down feathers, and insulating hair such as natural sheeps wool. In both cases the primary insulating material is air, and the used for trapping the air is natural keratin protein. Maintaining acceptable temperatures in buildings uses a proportion of global energy consumption. For a period of time, Asbestos was also used, however, when well insulated, a building, is energy-efficient, thus saving the owner money. Provides more uniform throughout the space. Unlike heating and cooling equipment, insulation is permanent and does not require maintenance, upkeep, lowers the carbon footprint of a building
31.
Thermal mass
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In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building which enables it to store heat, providing inertia against temperature fluctuations. It is sometimes known as the flywheel effect. Scientifically, thermal mass is equivalent to thermal capacitance or heat capacity and it is typically referred to by the symbol Cth and measured in units of J/°C or J/K. Thermal mass may also be used for bodies of water, machines or machine parts, living things, in those contexts, the term heat capacity is typically used instead. The equation relating thermal energy to thermal mass is, Q = C t h Δ T where Q is the energy transferred, Cth is the thermal mass of the body. For example, if 250 J of heat energy is added to a gear with a thermal mass of 38.46 J/°C. If the body consists of a material with sufficiently known physical properties. For discussion of why the energy storage abilities of pure substances vary. For bodies composed of different materials, the thermal masses for the different components can just be added together. Thermal mass is effective in improving building comfort in any place that experiences these types of daily temperature fluctuations—both in winter as well as in summer. When used well and combined with passive solar design, thermal mass can play an important role in major reductions to energy use in heating and cooling systems. Ideal materials for mass are those materials that have, high specific heat capacity, high density Any solid, liquid. A common misconception is that concrete or earth soil has thermal mass. A table of heat capacity for building materials is available here. The correct use and application of mass is dependent on the prevailing climate in a district. Thermal mass is placed within the building and situated where it still can be exposed to low-angle winter sunlight. In summer the thermal mass should be obscured from higher-angle summer sunlight in order to prevent overheating of the structure. The thermal mass is warmed passively by the sun or additionally by internal heating systems during the day, thermal energy stored in the mass is then released back into the interior during the night
32.
Building code
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A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
33.
Passive solar building design
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In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, the key to design a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the local climate performing an accurate site analysis. Elements to be considered include window placement and size, and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, Passive solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can be adapted or retrofitted. Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems, such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat, cause air-movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A common example is a solarium on the equator-side of a building, Passive cooling is the use of the same design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements. Low-grade energy needs, such as space and water heating, have proven over time to be better applications for use of solar energy. In fact, passive-solar design features such as a greenhouse/sunroom/solarium can greatly enhance the livability, daylight, views, much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many unscientific, intuition-based expensive construction experiments have attempted and failed to achieve zero energy - the total elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills, one of the most useful post-construction evaluation tools has been the use of thermography using digital thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientific energy audit. Thermal imaging can be used to document areas of thermal performance such as the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer day. The scientific lessons learned over the last three decades have been captured in sophisticated comprehensive building energy simulation computer software systems, scientific passive solar building design with quantitative cost benefit product optimization is not easy for a novice. The economic motivation for design and engineering is significant. If it had been applied comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980, America could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy, the ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal variations in the suns path throughout the day. This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earths axis of rotation in relation to its orbit, the sun path is unique for any given latitude. In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther than 23, in equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate from north to south and back again during the year. The 47-degree difference in the altitude of the sun at solar noon between winter and summer forms the basis of solar design. By strategic placement of such as glazing and shading devices. Movable shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts can accommodate day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain, careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive solar design. A common recommendation for residential dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon, a heliodon is a traditional movable light device used by architects and designers to help model sun path effects
34.
Renewable energy
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Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas, electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, based on REN21s 2016 report, renewables contributed 19. 2% to humans global energy consumption and 23. 7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 8. 9% coming from biomass,4. 2% as heat energy,3. 9% hydro electricity and 2. 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries like China, globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable, Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation. In international public opinion there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade, for example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply to 100% renewable energy by 2050. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Renewable energy systems are becoming more efficient and cheaper. Their share of energy consumption is increasing. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables, in its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the financial crisis better than many other sectors. As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables, outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%
35.
Composite lumber
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Composite lumber is a material that is a mixture of wood fiber, plastic, and some type of binding agent. These ingredients are put together to form a material that is denser, stronger, and heavier than wood alone, until the 1990s, wood was the material of choice for deck construction. However, new products, composites, began to emerge at this time and these new products offered the look and workability of wood, but they were more water resistant and required less maintenance. Over time, these lower maintenance decking options increased in popularity, working with composite lumber is similar to working with wood. However, composite lumber has the benefit of being less likely to split or delaminate. Some composite lumber is also engineered to be lighter weight for easier handling, Composite lumber is also more stain, scratch, and mold resistant, and is therefore supposed to have a longer life than wood lumber. Composite lumber comes from the manufacturer as a finished product, there is no need to stain, sand, or paint the material. Composite materials usually cost more than lumber, but their long life, many composites are often made partially out of recycled plastics and waste wood, such as Trex Decking, which makes them an environmentally friendly, efficient use of resources. Composite lumber is more costly than normal or treated lumber. Composites may last longer, but the investment is likely to be higher. Many composites are formulated to be fade, scratch, and stain resistant, although composite lumber may resist these marring effects better than other materials, it will still show signs of wear over time. Composite lumber often has a plastic-like or synthetic appearance, although manufacturers do mold the product with a wood grain or brush stroke pattern, some consumers simply do not like the artificial sheen. The growth of products continues to fuel a debate about their environmental value when compared to wood, treated wood, metal. Many suggest that wood decking is made from a more sustainable ingredient, capped composite decking is composite decking, with a thin, approximately 1/16th inch, PVC-like veneer, or cap. This cap provides protection for the composite underneath, the cap is also formulated differently, in order to provide increased fade, stain, and scratch resistance. Capped composite decking is more expensive than both normal composite decking and wood decking because of the more involved manufacturing process in adding the second, capped composites also lack the feel of real wood. Although manufacturers form the product with a wood grain or brush stroke, some contractors. Capped composites, although formulated to resist fading, stains, and scratches, will show some wear over time, manufacturers of capped composite boards will often leave one side uncapped to prevent the material from expanding and mushrooming out of the corners of the boards
36.
Handicraft
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One of the worlds oldest handicraft is Dhokra, this is a sort of metal casting has been used in India for over 4,000 years and is still used. Collective terms for handicrafts include artisanry, handicrafting, crafting, many handicrafters use natural, even entirely indigenous, materials while others may prefer modern, non-traditional materials, and even upcycle industrial materials. The individual artisanship of an item is the paramount criterion. Most crafts require the development of skill and the application of patience, like folk art, handicraft output often has cultural and/or religious significance, and increasingly may have a political message as well, as in craftivism. The Arts and Crafts movement originated as a late 19th-century design reform and social movement principally in Europe, North America and Australia and this was held up in contrast to what was perceived to be the alienating effects of industrial labor. These activities were called crafts because originally many of them were professions under the guild system, adolescents were apprenticed to a master craftsman, and refined their skills over a period of years in exchange for low wages. Simple arts and crafts projects are an elementary and middle school activity in both mainstream and alternative education systems around the world. e. The use of traditional handicrafting techniques by professional fine artists, many community centers and schools run evening or day classes and workshops, for adults and children, offering to teach basic craft skills in a short period of time. If sold, they are sold in Direct sales, Gift shops, Public markets, in developing countries, handicrafts are sold to locals and as Souvenirs to tourists. Sellers tend to speak at least a few words of common tourist languages
37.
Corn dolly
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Corn dollies or corn mothers are a form of straw work made as part of harvest customs of Europe before mechanization. Before Christianisation, in traditional pagan European culture it was believed that the spirit of the corn lived amongst the crop, among the customs attached to the last sheaf of the harvest were hollow shapes fashioned from the last sheaf of wheat or other cereal crops. The corn spirit would then spend the winter in this home until the corn dolly was ploughed into the first furrow of the new season, dolly may be a corruption of idol or may have come directly from the Greek word eidolon, that which represents something else. In some parts of Holstein the last sheaf is dressed in womens clothes and it is carried home on the last waggon, and then thoroughly drenched with water. The drenching with water is doubtless a rain-charm, in the district of Bruck in Styria the last sheaf, called the Corn-mother, is made up into the shape of a woman by the oldest married woman in the village, of an age from 50 to 55 years. In other villages of the district the Corn-mother, at the close of harvest, is carried by two lads at the top of a pole. Many more customs are instanced by Frazer, however, a number of English and Scottish farmers are still growing the traditional varieties of wheat, such as Maris Wigeon, Squarehead Master, Elite Le Peuple. Mainly because they are in demand in thatching, a craft which is enjoying a renaissance. There are also corn dolly designs from other countries, for example the Kusa Dasi from Turkey, a countrymans favour was usually a plait of three straws and tied into a loose knot to represent a heart. It is reputed to have made by a young man with straws picked up after the harvest. If she was wearing it next to her heart when he saw her then he would know that his love was reciprocated. Three straws can be plaited using the hair plait or a cats foot plait, favours can be made with two, three, four or more straws. Other examples include, Bride of the Corn Devonshire Cross, a harvest cross from Topsham, Devon Dedham Cross St Brigids Cross, larnaca Fringe Montenegrin Fringe Lancashire Fringe These are representations of deities, animals or spirits, made from an entire sheaf. Y Wrach or The Hag in Caernarvonshire, Wales Whittlesey Straw Bear, here the straw is not plaited, but tied with yarn, wool, raffia or similar. This type of work is particularly popular in Scandinavia and German-speaking countries. Examples of these are the Oro, the Tomte or Nisse and these are straw sculptures which are placed on the ridge of the thatched roof. They are sometimes purely for decoration, but can be the signature of a particular thatcher, animal shapes are the most common. In days gone by, hay-ricks would also be thatched, and topped with a straw decoration
38.
Straw marquetry
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Straw marquetry is a craft very similar to that of wood marquetry, except that straw replaces the wood veneer. It is thought to have first been practised in the East, to mimic the varying shades of wood veneer, wheat or oat straw has to be split, then soaked in cold, warm, or hot water. The strips are then ironed, and there will be a variety of tones from pale gold to deepest dark brown, there are accounts of nuns in France and Switzerland making a variety of items using straw marquetry. The most famous straw marquetry was practised by prisoners of war from the Napoleonic wars, dartmoor and other prisons had been built for them, the prison most famous for straw marquetry was Norman Cross, Huntingdon. Easter eggs are decorated with applique, especially in Eastern European countries. Geometric shapes, stars and flower motifs are the most common themes, there is a slight difference in the way the straw is prepared, however, for marquetry, the straws are soaked, split and ironed, for egg decoration the straw is not ironed. Corn dolly, Straw, Oat, Wheat, Barley, Rye, Easter egg
39.
Straw painting
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Straw paintings are craft objects made by shaping straw into patterns and representational images. By modeling and playing with straw, people, especially women and these paintings have become a speciality of China, Mexico, and Subotica in Serbia and its vicinity. Straw patchwork art is a Chinese folk art that dates back to the Han Dynasty, during the Song Dynasty, straw patchwork was enjoyed by royalty. Wheat straw is smoked, steams, whitening, dyed, cut, today wheat straw patchwork is a decorative art and popular item for tourists to China. In Mexico, straw mosaics are known as art, from the Spanish name for sacaton grass, Sporobolus. The art form has Precolumbian roots, the grass grows in states of Mexico, Morelos, Hidalgo, and Puebla. Mexico City is the center of art, and several award-winning artists have formed a workshop, Popotillo y Color. While common in the 19th century, popotillo art enjoyed the most popularity in the 1930s and 1940s in Mexico City, Popotillo workshops have been offered in. Before European contact, exclusively natural dyes were used and the straw was soaked in aguamiel or agave juice, then the artist draws a design, which is then covered by a fine layer of cera de Campeche, a special type of beeswax. The straw is cut down to workable sizes, sometimes as fine as a single millimeter in length. The artist then carefully presses the pieces of straw into the beeswax, when the design is finished, a fixative is applied to protect the finished work. Popotillo Galeria, Artesania Mexicana Marcela Brčić Kostić & Ljiljana Letić HKPD Matija Gubec Tavankut From Grain to Painting Corn dolly Straw marquetry Straw plaiting
40.
Straw plaiting
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Straw plaiting is a method of manufacturing textiles by braiding straw and the industry that surrounds the craft of producing these straw manufactures. Straw is plaited to produce products including straw hats and ornaments, to plait comes from late 14c. Straw is also plaited to produce bonnets and hats, the districts around Luton in Bedfordshire and the neighbouring counties were, since the beginning of the 17th century, the British home of the straw-plait industry. The straw of certain varieties of wheat cultivated in that region is, in seasons, possessed of a fine bright color and due to tenacity. The straw is cut as in ordinary harvesting, but is allowed to dry in the sun, subsequently straws are selected from the sheaves, and of these the pipes of the two upper joints are taken for plaiting. The pipes are assorted into sizes by passing them through graduated openings in a wire frame. Spotted and discoloured straws are dyed either in pipe or in plait, the plaiters work up the material in a damp state, either into whole straw or split straw plaits. The straws were put through a small mangle to flatten them and they were then braided to produce a woven strip which was sold on to the makers of hats, baskets and other wares. The plaiting was carried out by women and children who were taught the skills in plait schools, at its peak in the early nineteenth century a woman could earn more by plaiting than a man could earn on the land. There was concern that the industry led to dissolution and idleness in the menfolk, the English industry was eventually killed by free trade from 1860 which allowed cheap imports of plait from Italy and later China and Japan. Worldwide, the most valuable straw for plaits is grown in Tuscany, the straw of Tuscany, specially grown for plaiting, is distinguished into three grades of quality. The highest quality is Pontederas Semone, the second highest is Mazzuolo, the bulk of the plaits are made from this grade of straw. The third grade, Santa Fioro, is used to plaite Tuscan pedals. The wheat-seed for these straws is sown very thickly on comparatively elevated and arid land, the pipe of the upper joint alone is selected for plaiting, the remainder of the straw being used for other purposes. These pipes are made up in bundles, bleached in sulfur fumes in a closed chest, assorted into sizes. Straw-plaiting is a domestic industry among the women and young children of Tuscany, the finest work is excessively trying to the eyes of the plaiters, who can at most give to it two or three hours labor daily. Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported as follows, - The art of plaiting is diligently practised, for the coarser mats coco-nut fibre is employed, for the finer, pandanus leaves and rushes. An intelligent Fijian can always tell you from which island a mat came, the coarser kinds are used as floorcloths and hangings to the huts, the finer as sails, or sleeping-mats, or for children
41.
Scarecrow
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A scarecrow or sahl is a decoy or mannequin in the shape of a human. It is usually dressed in old clothes and placed in fields to discourage birds such as crows or sparrows from disturbing and feeding on recently cast seed. The most effectual method of banishing them from a field, as far as experience goes, is to combine with one or other of the scarecrows in vogue the frequent use of the musket. Nothing strikes such terror into these sagacious animals as the sight of a fowling-piece and the explosion of gun powder, which they have known so often to be fatal to their race. Such is their dread of a fowling-piece, that if one is placed upon a dyke or other eminence, many people now, however, believe that crows like most other birds, do more good by destroying insects and worms, etc. than harm by eating grain. Crows can be a problem for gardens in the springtime. In the southern Appalachians another common method of scaring off crows was use of a dead crow hung upside down from a pole, modern scarecrows, though still essentially decoys, seldom take a human shape. On California farmland, highly reflective aluminized PET film ribbons are tied to the plants to create shimmers from the sun, another approach is automatic noise guns powered by propane gas. One winery in New York uses inflatable tube men or airdancers to scare away birds, in Kojiki, the oldest surviving book in Japan, a scarecrow known as Kuebiko appears as a deity who cannot walk, yet knows everything about the world. Nathaniel Hawthornes short story Feathertop is about a scarecrow created and brought to life in 17th century Salem, the basic framework of the story was used by American dramatist Percy MacKaye in his 1908 play The Scarecrow. L. Frank Baums tale The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has a scarecrow as one of the main protagonists, the Scarecrow of Oz was searching for brains from the Great Wizard. Worzel Gummidge, a scarecrow who came to life in a form, first appeared in series of novels by Barbara Euphan Todd in the 1930s. The Scarecrow is the ego of the Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn. The story was made into the movie Doctor Syn in 1937, a film directed by Jerry Schatzberg in 1973 starring Al Pacino and Gene Hackman is titled Scarecrow and deals with two characters on a journey reminiscent of the one in L. Frank Baums book. The Scarecrow is a character in the DC Comics universe, a supervillain, similar characters, known as Scarecrow and Straw Man, have appeared in Marvel Comics. British band Pink Floyd recorded a song called The Scarecrow for their debut album, john Cougar Mellencamps album Scarecrow, which peaked at No.2 in 1985, spawned five Top 40 singles including Rain on the Scarecrow. Melissa Etheridge recorded the song Scarecrow for her 1999 album Breakdown, the song is actually about Matthew Shepard. The title makes reference to the bicyclist who found Shepard tied to a fence, tobias Sammet recorded his third Avantasia album with a title The Scarecrow, as a first part of Wicked Trilogy, which tells the story about a Scarecrow
42.
Neko chigura
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Neko chigura or Neko tsugura is a kind of cat house made of straw in Japan. It is a craft of Sekikawa-mura, Niigata-ken, or Akiyamago. It is called Nekochigura in Sekikawa, and Nekotsugura in Akiyamago, chigura or tsugura is written as 稚座 in kanji, and means bassinet in the Niigata dialect where there is the custom to use rice straw baskets for babies. Niigata constitutes, in fact, a granary and the basket industry is a side business in the winter season when the prefecture becomes snowbound. Presently, chigura for cats vary in shape according to the originality of the producer, there are two common types, Pillbox type and pot-shaped type, there are also some basket types. As cats seem to prefer small enclosed spaces, they like neko chigura to sleep in, japanese handicrafts Cat café#Japan Culture of Japan Sekikawa-mura Neko chigura, Official Site
Baynes, T.S.; Smith, W.R., eds. (1887). "Straw Manufactures". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
Baynes, T.S.; Smith, W.R., eds. (1887). "
