1.
Der Untertan
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Der Untertan is one of the best known novels of German author Heinrich Mann. The novel was completed during the July Crisis in 1914, shortly before the outbreak of World War I, extracts had been published in the satirical magazine Simplicissimus from 1912 onwards, causing great controversy. A book edition was not published until 1918 by Kurt Wolff in Leipzig, the socio-critical novel portrays the life of Diederich Hessling, a slavish and fanatical admirer of Kaiser Wilhelm II, as an archetype of Wilhelmine Germany. The name Hessling alludes to the German word for ugly, hässlich, Hessling is unthinkingly obedient to authority and maintains a rigid dedication to the nationalist goals of the newly created German state. As a self-conscious and snivelling child, he acts as an informer and he later gains self-confidence by joining a duelling student fraternity, practising as a drunkard and Stammtisch agitator, and by narrowly obtaining a doctorate of chemistry. He becomes a manufacturer, family patriarch, and eventually the most influential man in his small town. The plot ends with the inauguration of an Emperor William monument, with Hessling delivering the speech. He faces the death of Buck, an old veteran of the democratic 1848 Revolution, diederichs ideals, blood and iron, and the might of opulent power, are exposed as hollowness and weakness. He is an allegory depicting German societys increasing susceptibility to chauvinism, jingoism, ultra-nationalism, anti-Semitism. His character is juxtaposed, in both words and appearance to Kaiser Wilhelm II. In one instance, Hesslings behavior and outward appearance move an observer to stammer, Mann uses the moral bankruptcy and shallow ridiculousness of Hesslings life to critique Wilhelmine German society generally. Thomas Mann, however, rejected the work as heinous aestheticism, the novel is frequently read in German schools up to today. A lithograph named Der Untertan was created by Karl Hubbuch in 1923, in East Germany, the book was made into the 1951 DEFA film Der Untertan, directed by Wolfgang Staudte and starring Werner Peters as Diederich Hessling. It received the National Prize of the German Democratic Republic and initially was banned in West Germany until a version was released in 1957. A radio drama was produced by the public Westdeutscher Rundfunk broadcaster in 1971, the BBC adapted the book for a six-part TV mini-series Man of Straw, broadcast in 1972, with Derek Jacobi as Hessling. Full 1921 English translation at Google Books Man of Straw, Der Untertan at the Internet Movie Database Man of Straw at the Internet Movie Database
2.
Aunt Sally
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Aunt Sally is a traditional English game usually played in pub gardens and fairgrounds that dates back to the 17th Century in which players throw sticks or battens at a model of an old womans head. Leagues of pub teams, each consisting of eight players, still play the game today, throughout the spring and summer months, mainly in Oxfordshire, the game was traditionally played in central English pubs and fairgrounds. An Aunt Sally was originally the head of an old woman with a clay pipe in her mouth. There are also theories of how the game started, one such theory is that a live cockerel was placed on the stick. Whoever killed it won the game and took home the chicken, the object was for players to throw sticks at the head in order to break the pipe. The game bears some resemblance to a shy or skittles. Today, the game of Aunt Sally is still played as a pub game in Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire and Warwickshire. The ball is on a plinth about 100 to 150 mm high x 75mm diameter, known as the dolly. Players throw sticks or short battens at the dolly, trying to knock it off without hitting the spike, successfully hitting the dolly off is known as a doll, however if the spike is hit first, then the score does not count and is called an iron. Chesterton, in his ironically-titled anti-German book The Crimes of England, Penelope Keith visits Hook Norton in Oxfordshire. Whilst there, she spoke to people about Aunt Sally and showed numerous people playing the game, also showed old footage of David Cameron playing the game. Aunt Sally also featured on the BBC Countryfile programme in August 2013
3.
William McKinley
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McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law, in 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Partys expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office and he was elected Ohios governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and he defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated sound money and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Rapid economic growth marked McKinleys presidency and he promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. William McKinley, Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, there, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy and he met Nancy Allison there, and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvanias earliest settlers, the family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohios Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, William followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist, in 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio so that their children could attend the better schools there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville and he remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio and he did not graduate from either university. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohios earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers, they would be designated by Ohios governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, McKinley quickly took to the soldiers life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause
4.
Carl Schurz
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Carl Christian Schurz was a German revolutionary, American statesman and reformer, U. S. Minister to Spain, Union Army General in the American Civil War, U. S. Senator and he was also an accomplished journalist, newspaper editor and orator, who in 1869 became the first German-born American elected to the United States Senate. Carl Christian Schurz was born on March 2,1829 in Liblar, in Rhenish Prussia, the son of Marianne, a speaker and journalist, and Christian Schurz. He studied at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne, and learned piano under private instructors, financial problems in his family obligated him to leave school a year early, without graduating. Later he graduated from the gymnasium by passing a special examination, at Bonn, he developed a friendship with one of his professors, Gottfried Kinkel. In response to the events of the revolutions of 1848, Schurz and Kinkel founded the Bonner Zeitung. At first Kinkel was the editor and Schurz a regular contributor and these roles were reversed when Kinkel left for Berlin to become a member of the Prussian Constitutional Convention. When the Frankfurt rump parliament called for people to take up arms in defense of the new German constitution, Schurz, Kinkel, during the 1849 military campaign in Palatinate and Baden, he joined the revolutionary army, fighting in several battles against the Prussian Army. Schurz was adjunct officer of the commander of the artillery, Fritz Anneke, the Annekes would later move to the U. S. where each became Republican Party supporters. Annekes brother, Emil Anneke, was a founder of the Republican party in Michigan, when the revolutionary army was defeated at the fortress of Rastatt in 1849, Schurz was inside. Knowing that the Prussians intended to kill their prisoners, Schurz managed to escape, in 1850, he returned secretly to Prussia, rescued Kinkel from prison at Spandau and helped him to escape to Edinburgh, Scotland. Schurz then went to Paris, but the police forced him to leave France on the eve of the coup détat of 1851, remaining there until August 1852, he made his living by teaching the German language. While in London, Schurz married fellow revolutionary Johannes Ronges sister-in-law, Margarethe Meyer, in July 1852 and then, like many other Forty-Eighters, in Wisconsin, Schurz soon became immersed in the anti-slavery movement and in politics, joining the Republican Party. In 1857, he was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for lieutenant-governor, in 1858, he was admitted to the Wisconsin bar and began to practice law in Milwaukee. In the state campaign of 1859, he made a speech attacking the Fugitive Slave Law, arguing for states rights. In Faneuil Hall, Boston, on April 18,1859, he delivered an oration on True Americanism, Wisconsin Germans unsuccessfully urged his nomination for governor in 1859. During the American Civil War, Schurz served with distinction as a general in the Union Army, persuading Lincoln to grant him a commission in the Union army, Schurz was commissioned brigadier general of Union volunteers in April 1862. In June, he took command of a division, first under John C, frémont, and then in Franz Sigels corps, with which he took part in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862
5.
Oswald Garrison Villard
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Oswald Garrison Villard was an American journalist and editor of the New York Evening Post. He was a rights activist, a founding member of the NAACP. In 1913 he wrote to President Woodrow Wilson to protest his administrations racial segregation of federal offices in Washington, DC, Villard also was a founder of the American Anti-Imperialist League, favoring independence for territories taken in the Spanish-American War. He provided a direct link between the anti-imperialism of the late 19th century and the conservative Old Right of the 1930s and 1940s. Villard was born in Wiesbaden, Germany, on March 13,1872 and he was the son of Henry Villard, an American newspaper correspondent who had been an immigrant from Germany, and Fanny Villard, daughter of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. Fanny Villard was a suffragist and one of the founders of the Womens Peace Movement and his father later invested in railroads, and bought The Nation and the New York Evening Post. The family returned to the United States soon after Villards birth, Villard graduated from Harvard University in 1893 and, after touring Europe with his father for a year, returned to Harvard to earn his graduate degree in American History. He served as an assistant, and could have pursued a career in academia. In 1896 he joined the staff of The Philadelphia Press, and he soon joined the staff of his father’s Evening Post, serving as the editor of the Saturday features page. He began to regularly for the New York Evening Post and The Nation. We were radical in our demand for trade and our complete opposition to the whole protective system. Villard was also a founder of the American Anti-Imperialist League, which favored independence for the territories captured in the Spanish–American War, to further the cause, he worked to organize a third ticket in 1900 to challenge William Jennings Bryan and William McKinley. He was joined in this effort by several key veterans of the 1896 National Democratic Party, not surprisingly, Villard made a personal appeal to ex-president Grover Cleveland, a hero of the gold Democrats, urging him to be the candidate. Cleveland demurred, asserting that no longer cared what he had to say. Villard also consistently used the page of the Evening Post to argue against imperialism and expansionism. Villard was a pioneer, and today largely unsung, civil rights leader, in 1910, he donated space in the New York Evening Post for the call to the meeting that formally organized the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. Villard became a co-founder of the organization, along with W. E. B, du Bois and other influential individuals. For many years, Villard served as the NAACPs disbursing treasurer while Moorfield Storey, Villard supported Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 election, and during an interview with the president convinced Wilson to work to improve conditions for African Americans
6.
Richard Olney
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Richard Olney was an American statesman. He served as United States Attorney General and Secretary of State under President Grover Cleveland, as secretary of state, he raised the status of America in the world by elevating U. S. diplomatic posts to the status of embassy. Olney was born into a family of means in Oxford, Massachusetts and his father was Wilson Olney, a textiles manufacturer and banker. Shortly after his birth, the moved to Louisville, Kentucky. The family then moved back to Oxford and Olney attended school at the Leicester Academy in Leicester, after completing his education there, he went to Brown University, where he graduated with high honors as class orator in 1856. He then attended Harvard Law School, where he received a bachelor of degree in 1858. In 1859, he passed the bar and began practicing law in Boston, attaining a reputation as an authority on probate, trust, in 1861, Olney married Agnes Park Thomas of Boston, Massachusetts. He was a member of the Board of Selectmen of West Roxbury, Massachusetts, during the 1880s, Olney became one of the city’s leading railroad attorneys and the general counsel for Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway. In March 1893, Olney became U. S. Attorney General and used the law to thwart strikes and he replied, The Commission… is, or can be made, of great use to the railroads. It satisfies the popular clamor for a government supervision of the railroads, when the legal measures failed, he advised President Cleveland to send Federal troops to Chicago to quell the strike, over the objections of the governor of Illinois. Olney argued that the government must prevent interference with its mails, upon the death of Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham, Cleveland named Olney as his successor on June 10,1895 and he quickly elevated U. S. foreign diplomatic posts to the title of embassy, thus making it official that the U. S. would be regarded as an equal of the worlds greater nations. Olney returned to the practice of the law in 1897, at the expiration of Clevelands term, Olney was unwilling to take on new responsibilities at his advanced age. Olney received the degree of LL. D from Harvard and Brown in 1893. Despite these accolades, but on the side, author H. W. Olney was the uncle of Massachusetts Congressman Richard Olney II. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Young, Intervention Under the Monroe Doctrine, The Olney Corollary, Political Science Quarterly, Vol.57, No
7.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
8.
Aristotle
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Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
9.
Straw
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Straw is an agricultural by-product, the dry stalks of cereal plants, after the grain and chaff have been removed. Straw makes up half of the yield of cereal crops such as barley, oats, rice, rye. It has many uses, including fuel, livestock bedding and fodder and it is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bundle of straw tightly bound with twine or wire. Bales may be square, rectangular, or round, depending on the type of baler used. Current and historic uses of straw include, Animal feed Straw may be fed as part of the component of the diet to cattle or horses that are on a near maintenance level of energy requirement. It has a low energy and nutrient content. The heat generated when microorganisms in a herbivores gut digest straw can be useful in maintaining body temperature in cold climates, due to the risk of impaction and its poor nutrient profile, it should always be restricted to part of the diet. It may be fed as it is, or chopped into short lengths, basketry Bee skeps and linen baskets are made from coiled and bound together continuous lengths of straw. The technique is known as lip work, bedding, humans or livestock The straw-filled mattress, also known as a palliasse, is still used in many parts of the world. It is commonly used as bedding for ruminants and horses and it may be used as bedding and food for small animals, but this often leads to injuries to mouth, nose and eyes as straw is quite sharp. Biofuels The use of straw as an energy source is increasing rapidly, especially for biobutanol. Straw or hay briquettes are a substitute to coal. Biogas Straw, processed first as briquettes, has been fed into a plant in Aarhus University, Denmark. Biomass The use of straw in large-scale biomass power plants is becoming mainstream in the EU, the straw is either used directly in the form of bales, or densified into pellets which allows for the feedstock to be transported over longer distances. Finally, torrefaction of straw with pelletisation is gaining attention, because it increases the density of the resource. This processing step also makes storage easier, because torrefied straw pellets are hydrophobic. Torrefied straw in the form of pellets can be directly co-fired with coal or natural gas at high rates and make use of the processing infrastructures at existing coal. Because the torrefied straw pellets have superior structural, chemical and combustion properties to coal, they can replace all coal, first generation pellets are limited to a co-firing rate of 15% in modern IGCC plants
10.
Scarecrow
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A scarecrow or sahl is a decoy or mannequin in the shape of a human. It is usually dressed in old clothes and placed in fields to discourage birds such as crows or sparrows from disturbing and feeding on recently cast seed. The most effectual method of banishing them from a field, as far as experience goes, is to combine with one or other of the scarecrows in vogue the frequent use of the musket. Nothing strikes such terror into these sagacious animals as the sight of a fowling-piece and the explosion of gun powder, which they have known so often to be fatal to their race. Such is their dread of a fowling-piece, that if one is placed upon a dyke or other eminence, many people now, however, believe that crows like most other birds, do more good by destroying insects and worms, etc. than harm by eating grain. Crows can be a problem for gardens in the springtime. In the southern Appalachians another common method of scaring off crows was use of a dead crow hung upside down from a pole, modern scarecrows, though still essentially decoys, seldom take a human shape. On California farmland, highly reflective aluminized PET film ribbons are tied to the plants to create shimmers from the sun, another approach is automatic noise guns powered by propane gas. One winery in New York uses inflatable tube men or airdancers to scare away birds, in Kojiki, the oldest surviving book in Japan, a scarecrow known as Kuebiko appears as a deity who cannot walk, yet knows everything about the world. Nathaniel Hawthornes short story Feathertop is about a scarecrow created and brought to life in 17th century Salem, the basic framework of the story was used by American dramatist Percy MacKaye in his 1908 play The Scarecrow. L. Frank Baums tale The Wonderful Wizard of Oz has a scarecrow as one of the main protagonists, the Scarecrow of Oz was searching for brains from the Great Wizard. Worzel Gummidge, a scarecrow who came to life in a form, first appeared in series of novels by Barbara Euphan Todd in the 1930s. The Scarecrow is the ego of the Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn. The story was made into the movie Doctor Syn in 1937, a film directed by Jerry Schatzberg in 1973 starring Al Pacino and Gene Hackman is titled Scarecrow and deals with two characters on a journey reminiscent of the one in L. Frank Baums book. The Scarecrow is a character in the DC Comics universe, a supervillain, similar characters, known as Scarecrow and Straw Man, have appeared in Marvel Comics. British band Pink Floyd recorded a song called The Scarecrow for their debut album, john Cougar Mellencamps album Scarecrow, which peaked at No.2 in 1985, spawned five Top 40 singles including Rain on the Scarecrow. Melissa Etheridge recorded the song Scarecrow for her 1999 album Breakdown, the song is actually about Matthew Shepard. The title makes reference to the bicyclist who found Shepard tied to a fence, tobias Sammet recorded his third Avantasia album with a title The Scarecrow, as a first part of Wicked Trilogy, which tells the story about a Scarecrow
11.
Effigy
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An effigy is a representation of a specific person in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional medium. The use of the term is restricted to certain contexts in a somewhat arbitrary way, recumbent effigies on tombs are so called. Likenesses of religious figures in sculpture are not normally called effigies and it is common to burn an effigy of a person as an act of protest. The word first appeared in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French, from the Latin effigies and this spelling was originally used in English for singular senses, even a single image was the effigies of. In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century, the word occurs in Shakespeares As You Like It of 1600, where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation. The best known British example of a caricature effigy is the figure of the 1605 Gunpowder Plotter Guy Fawkes, found in charge of gunpowder to blow up the King in the House of Lords. On November 5, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night, his effigy, typically made of straw, in many parts of the world, there are traditions of large caricature effigies of political or other figures carried on floats in parades at festivals. Political effigies serve a similar purpose in political demonstrations and annual community rituals such as that held in Lewes. In Lewes, models of important or unpopular figures in current affairs are burned on Guy Fawkes Night, in Oriental Orthodox Christianity, populace used to burn an effigy of Judas, just before Easter. Now it is considered a custom and there are currently no attempts at revival. Caricature effigies, in Greek skiachtro, are still in use to prevent birds from eating mature fruit and they were shown lying on the coffin at the funeral, and then often displayed beside or over the tomb. The figures were dressed in the clothes of the deceased, only the face, from the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1680, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, nelsons effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Pauls Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Pauls. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed an attraction for admirers of Nelson. In the field of numismatics, effigy has been used to describe the image or portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict “the ruler’s effigy”. It can also be the case that the monarchs reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current, in the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed in effigy as a symbolic act
12.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
13.
Checkers speech
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The Checkers speech or Fund speech was an address made on September 23,1952, by the Republican candidate for vice president of the United States, California Senator Richard Nixon. Nixon had been accused of improprieties relating to a fund established by his backers to reimburse him for his political expenses. Nixon, as he related in his address, came from a family of moderate means, after his successful 1950 Senate campaign, Nixons backers continued to raise money to finance his political activities. These contributions went to him for travel costs, postage for political mailings which he did not have franked. Such a fund was not illegal at the time, but as Nixon had made a point of attacking government corruption, the press became aware of the fund in September 1952, two months after Nixons selection as General Dwight D. Eisenhowers running mate. Within a few days, the story grew until the controversy threatened Nixons place on the ticket, Nixons speech was seen or heard by about 60 million Americans, including the largest television audience to that time, and led to an outpouring of public support. A huge majority of the millions of telegrams and phone calls received by the RNC and he was retained on the ticket, which then swept to victory weeks later in November 1952. The Checkers speech was an example of a politician using television to appeal directly to the electorate. Checkers speech has come more generally to any emotional speech by a politician. In 1950, California Congressman Richard Nixon was elected to the Senate, with the six-year term secured, Nixon campaign officials discussed how to further his career. Campaign manager Murray Chotiner and campaign chairman Bernie Brennan proposed a campaign for the next six years. Nixons Southern California campaign treasurer Dana Smith suggested what became known as the Fund, to be administered by himself, payment of airmail and long-distance phone charges above his allowance. To send out to the people, defraying expenses of his Christmas cards to the people who worked in his campaign or contributed financially. Paying for getting out material for radio broadcasts and television programs, as a senator, Nixon received an annual salary of $12,500. Contributors were drawn only from his supporters, and contributions were limited to $1,000. Nixon was not to be informed of the names of contributors, however, by October 30,1951, some $16,000 had been raised, of which Nixon had spent approximately $12,000, principally from contributors in the Los Angeles area. The senators Christmas card expense for 1950 and 1951 totaled $4,237.54, despite the initial fundraising success, only $2,200 could be raised from November 1951 to July 1952, and an engraving bill was unpaid pending a hoped-for contribution of $500. In 1952, the Republicans chose Dwight D, a disgruntled Warren supporter from Pasadena leaked the Fund story to several reporters
14.
Louisiana State Legislature
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The Louisiana State Legislature is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Louisiana. It is a body, comprising the lower house, the Louisiana House of Representatives with 105 representatives, and the upper house. Members of both houses are elected from single-member constituencies, the State Legislature meets in the Louisiana State Capitol in Baton Rouge. Members of both houses of the serve a four-year term, with a term limit of three terms. Term limits were passed by voters in a constitutional referendum in 1995 and were subsequently added as Article III, §4. The year 2007 saw legislators termed out of office for the first time, the term limits are consecutive rather than lifetime. The officers of each house of the Legislature are elected at the beginning of term to serve for four-year terms. The Louisiana House of Representatives elects from among its members a speaker and speaker pro tempore, although the procedure is not mandated constitutionally, the speaker of the House is traditionally recommended by the governor of Louisiana to the body. The current speaker, Taylor Barras, a Republican, presides over the House, the House also elects its chief clerical officer, the clerk of the House, who is not an elected member. The Louisiana Senate elects its presiding officer, the President of the Senate, from among its membership, the current President is John Alario. Each house provides for the election of its officers, originally the Lieutenant Governor presided over the Louisiana Senate from 1853 until the adoption of the Louisiana constitution of 1974. Today, the Lieutenant Governor exercises powers delegated to him by the Governor as provided by law and he also serves as governor in the event of a vacancy in the office, if the Governor is unable to act as governor, or is out of the state. Since the Lieutenant Governor no longer serves as president of the Senate, he has made an ex-officio member of each committee, board. Additionally, the Lieutenant Governor serves as head of the Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation, in even-numbered years, a state legislature convenes at noon on the last Monday in March to extend for no longer than 60 legislative days during a period of 85 days. In odd-numbered years, a limited jurisdiction session convenes at noon on the last Monday in April for no longer than 45 legislative days during a period of 60 days, the legislature also may convene for extraordinary sessions and for veto sessions. The legislature is required to meet in a session, which cannot exceed three days, on the date its members take office. A special session may be called by the Governor or may be convened by the officers of both houses upon a written petition of a majority of the elected members of each house. A special session is limited to the number of days stated in the proclamation, the power to legislate in a special session is limited to the objects specifically enumerated in the proclamation
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Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
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On the Origin of Species
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On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwins book introduced the theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream, the book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley, during the eclipse of Darwinism from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size, resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time. Individuals in a population significantly from one another. Much of this variation is heritable and this slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species. In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle, Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious, in Gods benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffon suggested that some species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism. Charles Darwins grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s and this process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel, Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, in Britain, William Paleys Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial design by the Creator acting through natural laws
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Racism
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Racism is discrimination and prejudice towards people based on their race or ethnicity. Today, the use of the term racism does not easily fall under a single definition, the Holocaust is the classic example of institutionalized racism which led to the death of millions of people based on their race. Ethnicity is often used in a close to one traditionally attributed to race. Therefore, racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, according to a United Nations convention on racial discrimination, there is no distinction between the terms racial and ethnic discrimination. Racist ideology can become manifest in many aspects of social life, Racism can be present in social actions, practices, or political systems that support the expression of prejudice or aversion in discriminatory practices. Associated social actions may include nativism, xenophobia, otherness, segregation, hierarchical ranking, supremacism, in the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the belief that the human population can be divided into races. The term racism is a noun describing the state of being racist, the origin of the root word race is not clear. Linguists generally agree that it came to the English language from Middle French, a recent proposal is that it derives from the Arabic ras, which means head, beginning, origin or the Hebrew rosh, which has a similar meaning. Early race theorists generally held that some races were inferior to others and these early theories guided pseudo-scientific research assumptions, the collective endeavors to adequately define and form hypotheses about racial differences are generally termed scientific racism. To date, there is evidence in human genome research indicating that race can be defined in such a way as to be useful in a genetic classification of humans. An entry in the Oxford English Dictionary defines racialism simply as An earlier term than racism, but now superseded by it. The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term racism in a quote from the year,1903. It was first defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as he theory that human characteristics and abilities are determined by race. Additionally, the Oxford English Dictionary records racism as a synonym of racialism, as its history indicates, popular use of the word racism is relatively recent. The word came into usage in the Western world in the 1930s, when it was used to describe the social and political ideology of Nazism. It is commonly agreed that racism existed before the coinage of the word, garner summarizes different existing definitions of racism and identifies three common elements contained in those definitions of racism. First, a historical, hierarchical power relationship between groups, second, a set of ideas about racial differences, and, third, the UDHR was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. They are born equal in dignity and rights and all form a part of humanity
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Internet troll
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This sense of both the noun and the verb troll is associated with Internet discourse, but also has been used more widely. Media attention in recent years has equated trolling with online harassment, for example, the mass media have used troll to mean a person who defaces Internet tribute sites with the aim of causing grief to families. Application of the troll is subjective. Some readers may characterize a post as trolling, while others may regard the same post as a contribution to the discussion. Like any pejorative term, it can be used as an ad hominem attack, as noted in an OS News article titled Why People Troll and How to Stop Them, The traditional definition of trolling includes intent. That is, trolls purposely disrupt forums, whether someone intends to disrupt a thread or not, the results are the same if they do. Others have addressed the issue, e. g. Claire Hardaker, in her Ph. D. thesis Trolling in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Regardless of the circumstances, controversial posts may attract a strong response from those unfamiliar with the robust dialogue found in some online, rather than physical. The trollface is an occasionally used to indicate trolling in Internet culture. At times, the word can be abused to refer to anyone with controversial opinions they disagree with, such usages goes against the ordinary meaning of troll in multiple ways. Most importantly, trolls dont actually believe the views they claim. Farhad Manjoo criticises this view, noting that if the person really is trolling, there are competing theories of where and when troll was first used in Internet slang, with numerous unattested accounts of BBS and UseNet origins in the early 1980s or before. The English noun troll in the sense of ugly dwarf or giant dates to 1610. The word evokes the trolls of Scandinavian folklore and childrens tales, antisocial, quarrelsome, early non-Internet slang use of trolling can be found in the military, by 1972 the term trolling for MiGs was documented in use by US Navy pilots in Vietnam. It referred to use of. decoys, with the mission of drawing. fire away, the contemporary use of the term is alleged to have appeared on the Internet in the late 1980s, but the earliest known attestation according to the Oxford English Dictionary is in 1992. The context of the quote cited in the Oxford English Dictionary sets the origin in Usenet in the early 1990s as in the phrase trolling for newbies, as used in alt. folklore. urban. Commonly, what is meant is a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, for example, a veteran of the group might make a post on the common misconception that glass flows over time. Long-time readers would recognize the posters name and know that the topic had been discussed a lot, but new subscribers to the group would not realize
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Media manipulation
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Media manipulation is a series of related techniques in which partisans create an image or argument that favours their particular interests. It is used within public relations, propaganda, marketing, etc, while the objective for each context is quite different, the broad techniques are often similar. As illustrated below, many of the modern mass media manipulation methods are types of distraction, on the assumption that the public has a limited attention span. Activism is the practice or doctrine that has an emphasis on direct vigorous action especially supporting or opposing one side of a controversial matter and it is quite simply starting a movement to effect or change social views. It is frequently started by individuals but is done collectively through social movements with large masses. These social movements can be done through public rallies, strikes, street marches, most of Kings movements were done through non-violence rallies and public speeches to show the white American population that they were peaceful but also wanted change in their community. In 1964, the Civil Rights Acts commenced giving African Americans equality with all races, advertising is the action of attracting public attention to something, especially through paid announcements for products and services. This tends to be done by businesses who wish to sell their product by paying media outlets to show their products or services on television breaks, banners on websites and these advertisements are not only done by businesses but can also be done by certain groups. Non-commercial advertisers are those who spend money on advertising in a hope to raise awareness for a cause or promote specific ideas and these include groups such as interest groups, political parties, government organizations and religious movements. Most of these organizations intend to spread a message or sway public opinion instead of trying to sell products or services, advertising can not only be found on social media, it is also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud, when a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams as hoaxes, a common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer and it must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must be able to attract attention from the public, once it has done that then a hoax is in full effect. The word hoax became popular in the middle to late eighteenth century and it is thought to have come from the saying hocus pocus. Hocus pocus means meaningless talk which is designed to trick others or conceal the truth about a situation. The key word in something becoming a hoax is public, a lie or a deception only becomes a hoax when it is acknowledged by the public. A popular hoax that is evident in todays times would be the Microwave your spoon hoax and this hoax originated from a video which shows a metallic spoon being heated inside a microwave oven
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Red herring
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A red herring is something that misleads or distracts from a relevant or important issue. It may be either a logical fallacy or a device that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. A red herring might be used, such as in mystery fiction or as part of rhetorical strategies. The origin of the expression is unknown, the phrase was later borrowed to provide a formal name for the logical fallacy and literary device. As an informal fallacy, the red herring falls into a class of relevance fallacies. Unlike the straw man, which is premised on a distortion of the partys position. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a red herring may be intentional, or unintentional, the expression is mainly used to assert that an argument is not relevant to the issue being discussed. For example, I think we should make the academic requirements stricter for students, I recommend you support this because we are in a budget crisis, and we do not want our salaries affected. The second sentence, though used to support the first sentence, in fiction and non-fiction a red herring may be intentionally used by the writer to plant a false clue that leads readers or audiences towards a false conclusion. The characters name is a loose Italian translation of red herring, in a literal sense, there is no such fish as a red herring, it refers to a particularly strong kipper, a fish that has been strongly cured in brine and/or heavily smoked. This process makes the fish particularly pungent smelling and, with strong enough brine, turns its flesh reddish. In its literal sense as a strongly cured kipper, the term can be dated to the century, in the poem The Treatise by Walter of Bibbesworth. Prior to 2008, the sense of red herring was thought to originate from a supposed technique of training young scent hounds. There are variations of the story, but according to one version, later, when the dog was being trained to follow the faint odour of a fox or a badger, the trainer would drag a red herring perpendicular to the animals trail to confuse the dog. The dog eventually learned to follow the original scent rather than the stronger scent, another variation of the dog story is given by Robert Hendrickson who says escaping convicts used the pungent fish to throw off hounds in pursuit. Ross researched the origin of the story and found the earliest reference to using herrings for training animals was in a tract on horsemanship published in 1697 by Gerland Langbaine. Langbaine recommended a method of training horses by dragging the carcass of a cat or fox so that the horse would be accustomed to following the chaos of a hunting party and he says if a dead animal is not available, a red herring would do as a substitute. This recommendation was misunderstood by Nicholas Cox, published in the notes of another book around the same time, either way, the herring was not used to distract the hounds or horses from a trail, rather to guide them along it
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Tilting at windmills
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Tilting at windmills is an English idiom which means attacking imaginary enemies. The word tilt, in context, comes from jousting. It may also connote an importune, unfounded, and vain effort against adversaries real or imagined for a vain goal, the phrase derives from an episode in the novel Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes, wherein protagonist Don Quixote fights windmills that he imagines are giants. A relevant portion of the states, Just then they came in sight of thirty or forty windmills that rise from that plain. And no sooner did Don Quixote see them that he said to his squire, do you see over yonder, friend Sancho, thirty or forty hulking giants. I intend to do battle with them and slay them, with their spoils we shall begin to be rich for this is a righteous war and the removal of so foul a brood from off the face of the earth is a service God will bless. Those you see there, replied his master, with their long arms. Some of them have arms well nigh two leagues in length and those over there are not giants but windmills. Those things that seem to be their arms are sails which, Cervantes wrote Don Quixote in two parts, published respectively in 1605 and 1615, during the latter part of a historical period known as the Spanish Golden Age. During this age, Spain pursued military conquests in parts of Europe and conquered parts of the Americas. In La Mancha, Castilla, there are some of the old windmills that Don Quixote found in his adventures. Cervantes wrote and published Don Quixote during the Eighty Years War, or Dutch War of Independence, the movie They Might Be Giants features a reference to Don Quixote thinking that the windmills are giants, and the movie is named after that reference. The band They Might Be Giants took their name from the eponymous 1971 film and it is theorised that their song that also bears this name discusses Quixotic attitudes. The hardcore punk band Dead Kennedys references Don Quixote in their song Rambozo the Clown, the song compares Don Quixotes delusional assault on the windmills to right-wing advocation of the Vietnam war. The alternative Santa Barbara band Toad the Wet Sprocket released the album Dulcinea in 1994, named for the love interest of Don Quixote, the album features the song Windmills. The first lyric reads, I spend too much time raiding windmills We go side by side laughing until its right, Don Quixote, true to his romantic tendencies, puts Dulcinea on a pedestal. As such, the reality of the character does not correspond to his fantasy of her, the progressive metal band Protest the Hero released a song on their 2013 album, Volition, called Tilting Against Windmills. The song is about homosexuality in the Church
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Madsen Pirie
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Duncan Madsen Pirie is a British researcher, author, and educator. He is the founder and current President of the Adam Smith Institute, born in Hull, Pirie is the son of Douglas Pirie and Eva Madsen. As a child he attended the Humberstone Foundation School in Old Clee and he graduated with an MA in History from the University of Edinburgh, with a PhD in Philosophy from the University of St Andrews, and with an MPhil in Land Economy from Pembroke College, Cambridge. Before co-founding the Adam Smith Institute, a Libertarian think tank and he was a Distinguished Visiting Professor of Logic and Philosophy at Hillsdale College, Hillsdale, Michigan, USA. Pirie was one of three Britons living in the United States who founded the Adam Smith Institute, the Institute is a UK-based think tank that champions the ideas of free market policy. In January 2010 Foreign Policy and the University of Pennsylvania named the Adam Smith Institute among the top 10 think tanks in the world outside of the US, the Institute is highly influential in UK public policy, and was a pioneer of privatisation in the UK and elsewhere. It undertook many initiatives aimed at replacing state controls and monopolies with opportunities for competition choice in a broad area. The ASI proposed reforms in taxation, public services, transport and it published Douglas Masons original paper advocating a poll tax or community charge as it was later called. Pirie is seen as the architect of Margaret Thatchers privatisation policy and his work in helping to develop the Citizens Charter led to his appointment to the British Prime Minister John Majors Advisory Panel from 1991 to 1995. Apart from his work with the Adam Smith Institute, Pirie is an author in several fields and he has written on economics, including Economics Made Simple, and a series of YouTube videos entitled Economics is Fun. He has co-authored Test Your IQ, Boost Your IQ, and he also published Think Tank – the Story of the Adam Smith Institute. He has published, in addition, several science fiction novels for young adults and he is also on the Board of Advisers of the UK Liberty League, which describes itself as a network for freedom-loving groups across the nation. In 2010 he was joint winner of the National Free Enterprise Award, Economy and Local Government Strategy Two The Logic of Economics Free Ports Test Your I. Q. Q
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
