1.
Student exchange program
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A student exchange program is a program in which students from a secondary school or university study abroad at one of their institutions partner institutions. A student exchange program may involve international travel, but does not necessarily require the student to study outside of his or her home country, for example, the National Student Exchange program offers placements throughout the United States and Canada. Foreign exchange programs provides students with an opportunity to study in a different country and environment experiencing the history and culture of another country. The term exchange means that a partner institution accepts a student, Exchange students live with a host family or in a designated place such as a hostel, an apartment, or a student lodging. Costs for the program vary by the country and institution, participants fund their participation via scholarships, loans, or self-funding. Student exchanges also increased further after the end of the Cold War, an exchange student typically stays in the host country for a period of 6 to 10 months. International students or those on study abroad programs may stay in the host country for several years, some exchange programs also offer academic credit. More than 94,000 students have participated in the program since it was founded in 1968, NSE is designed for students who are looking for opportunities to study in a different state rather than a different country. NSE operates at member colleges and universities in the United States, Canada, Guam, Puerto Rico, nearly 200 universities and colleges are registered as NSE members. The application process, placement, and the process are coordinated by the home NSE coordinator. The student can choose to pay the tuition fees to their home campus or to the host campus. Students may only participate in the exchange for a total of one calendar year, defined as an academic year. A short-term exchange program is known as summer/intensive or cultural exchange program. These focus on homestays, language skills, community service, or cultural activities, high school and university students can apply for the programs through various government or non-governmental organizations that organize the programs. A short-term exchange lasts from one week to three months and doesn’t require the student to study in any school or institution. The students are exposed to a program that increases their understanding of other cultures, communities. A long-term exchange is one which lasts six to ten months or up to one full year, participants attend high school in their host countries, through a student visa. Typically, guest students coming to the United States are issued a J-1 cultural exchange visa or an F-1 foreign student visa, students are expected to integrate themselves into the host family, immersing themselves in the local community and surroundings
2.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
3.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
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International student
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International students are those who travel to a country different from their own for the purpose of tertiary study. The definition of international student varies in each country in accordance to their own education system. New Zealand citizens do not require a visa to study in Australia, much of the increase in international students in the U. S. during 2013–2014 was fueled by undergraduate students from China, the reports authors found. The number of students in tertiary education is also rapidly increasing as higher education becomes an increasingly global venture. During 2014-15,974,926 international students came to study in the U. S, Chinese students have always been the largest demographic amongst international students. UNESCO also predicted that the number of international students might rise to approximately 7 million by the year 2020, the main destinations preferred by international students are the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Canada and Australia. Overall, the number of international students more than doubled to over 2 million between 2000 and 2007, however the sharpest percentage increases of international students have occurred in New Zealand, Korea, the Netherlands, Greece, Spain, Italy and Ireland. In recent years, some Asian and Middle East countries have started to more international students. These regions have entered the market with declared ambitions to become regional education centers by attracting as many as several hundred international students to their countries. More recently however they have had to compete with the rapidly growing Asian higher education market, International student mobility in the first decade of the 21st century has been transformed by two major external events, 9/11 and the recession of 2008. 9/11 forced US to tighten requirements for students and Australia. In 2009, international students represented 21. 5% and 15. 3% of higher education enrollment in Australia, according to OECD, almost one out of five international students is regionally mobile. This segment of regionally mobile students who seek global education at local cost is defined as glocal students, many glocal students consider pursing transnational or cross-border education which allows them to earn a foreign credential while staying in their home country. The number of Chinese students increased, overall, the total number of international students with a US Visa to study at colleges and universities increased by 3 per cent to a record high of nearly 691,000 in the 2009/2010 academic year. The 30 per cent increase in Chinese student enrolment was the main contributor to this years growth, japan, Canada and New Zealand are perceived as evolving destinations for international students. Japan has around 180000 overseas students studying at its institutions, Canada has seen a large increase in the number of Indian students, where the number of Indian students rose 280% in 2010 compared to 2008. Organizations such as Learnhub are taking advantage of this trend of Indian international students by providing recruitment services that bring Indian students abroad. Recent changes to Canadas immigration regulations that came into effect on January 1,2015 have placed international graduates from Canadian universities at a disadvantage
5.
Dresden
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Dresden is the capital city and, after Leipzig, the second-largest city of the Free State of Saxony in Germany. It is situated in a valley on the River Elbe, near the border with the Czech Republic, Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendour. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque, the controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the inner city, including the Katholische Hofkirche, the Zwinger. Since German reunification in 1990 Dresden is again a cultural, educational and political centre of Germany, the Dresden University of Technology is one of the 10 largest universities in Germany and part of the German Universities Excellence Initiative. The economy of Dresden and its agglomeration is one of the most dynamic in Germany and it is dominated by high-tech branches, often called as “Silicon Saxony”. The city is one of the most visited in Germany with 4,3 million overnight stays per year. The royal buildings are among the most impressive buildings in Europe, main sights are also the nearby National Park of Saxon Switzerland, the Ore Mountains and the countryside around Elbe Valley and Moritzburg Castle. The most prominent building in the city of Dresden is the Frauenkirche, built in the 18th century, the church was destroyed during World War II. The remaining ruins were left for 50 years as a war memorial, the church was rebuilt from 1994 to 2005. Although Dresden is a relatively recent city of Germanic origin followed by settlement of Slavic people, Dresdens founding and early growth is associated with the eastward expansion of Germanic peoples, mining in the nearby Ore Mountains, and the establishment of the Margraviate of Meissen. Its name etymologically derives from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the forest, Dresden later evolved into the capital of Saxony. Around the late 12th century, a Slavic settlement called Drežďany had developed on the southern bank, another settlement existed on the northern bank, but its Slavic name is unknown. It was known as Antiqua Dresdin by 1350, and later as Altendresden, dietrich, Margrave of Meissen, chose Dresden as his interim residence in 1206, as documented in a record calling the place Civitas Dresdene. After 1270, Dresden became the capital of the margraviate and it was given to Friedrich Clem after death of Henry the Illustrious in 1288. It was taken by the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1316 and was restored to the Wettin dynasty after the death of Valdemar the Great in 1319, from 1485, it was the seat of the dukes of Saxony, and from 1547 the electors as well. The Elector and ruler of Saxony Frederick Augustus I became King Augustus II the Strong of Poland in personal union and he gathered many of the best musicians, architects and painters from all over Europe to the newly named Royal-Polish Residential City of Dresden. His reign marked the beginning of Dresdens emergence as a leading European city for technology, during the reign of Kings Augustus II the Strong and Augustus III of Poland the Zwinger Royal Palace, the Hofkirche and the Frauenkirche were built
6.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
7.
Travel visa
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A visa is a conditional authorization granted by a country to a foreigner, allowing them to enter and temporarily remain within, or to leave that country. Visas are associated with the request for permission to enter a country and thus are, in countries, distinct from actual formal permission for an alien to enter. In each instance, a visa is subject to permission by an immigration official at the time of actual entry. A visa is most commonly a sticker endorsed in the applicants passport or other travel document, some countries do not require visas for short visits. Some countries require that their citizens, as well as foreign travelers, uniquely, the Norwegian special territory of Svalbard is an entirely visa-free zone under the terms of the Svalbard Treaty. Some countries – such as those in the Schengen Area – have agreements with other countries allowing each others citizens to travel between them without visas, the World Tourism Organization announced that the number of tourists who require a visa before traveling was at its lowest level ever in 2015. Some countries do not require a visa in some situations, such as a result of reciprocal treaty arrangements, the possession of a visa is not in itself a guarantee of entry into the country that issued it, and a visa can be revoked at any time. A visitor may also be required to undergo and pass security or health checks upon arrival at the border, in Western Europe in the late 19th century and early 20th century, passports and visas were not generally necessary for moving from one country to another. The relatively high speed and large movements of people traveling by train would have caused bottlenecks if regular passport controls had been used, passports and visas became usually necessary travel documents only since World War I. Long before that, in ancient times, passports and visas were usually the type of travel documents. In the modern world, visas have become separate secondary travel documents and these agencies are authorized by the foreign authority, embassy, or consulate to represent international travelers who are unable or unwilling to travel to the embassy and apply in person. Private visa and passport services collect a fee for verifying customer applications, supporting documents. If there is no embassy or consulate in ones home country, alternatively, in such cases visas may be pre-arranged for pickup on arrival at the border. The issuing authority, usually a branch of the foreign ministry or department. Some countries ask for proof of status, especially for long-term visas, some countries deny such visas to persons with certain illnesses. The exact conditions depend on the country and category of visa, notable examples of countries requiring HIV tests of long-term residents are Russia and Uzbekistan. However, in Uzbekistan, the HIV test requirement is not strictly enforced. Other countries require a medical test which includes an HIV test even for short term tourism visa, for instance Cuban citizens and international exchange students require such a test approved by a medical authority to enter Chilean territory
8.
Congress-Bundestag Youth Exchange
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The Congress-Bundestag Youth Exchange is a youth student exchange program founded in 1983. The exchange year culminates in a conference in Washington, D. C. in which German and American students reflect on their exchange year, the scholarship program is merit-based and is funded based on congressional district for Americans and Bundesland for Germans. It consists of a High School program, a Young Professionals program, the largest portion of the scholarship program has been the high school scholarships. Originally the program was open to high school sophomores and juniors. Applications are due in December of the prior to the scholarship year. After receipt of an application, select students will be offered an interview. These selection committees then put forward the names of the best candidates to receive the scholarships, through CBYXs first decade and a half, Youth For Understanding had been the primary administrative organization for the program. YFU’s organization administration of the CBYX program ended after the dissolution of the United States Information Agency in late 1999, the USIA had overseen the program on behalf of the U. S. Federal Government. In 2008 YFU again became an administrative organization for the grant. American students who win the scholarship usually spend 11 months in Germany, the first few weeks of the program are taken up by an Orientation and Language Seminar. The remaining 10 months of the program usually see the spread out over Germany. They attend a Gymnasium, the German equivalent of high school, other seminars take place over the course of the year, including a trip to the capital in Berlin, where the scholars speak, in German, to the German Bundestag. The admission rate in Germany to this Programm is very low, in the last years the admission rate to this Programm was less than 2%. The scholarship is earned in competition process, currently 75 young Germans and 75 young Americans participate in the exchange, living in all 16 German Bundesländer and 39 US states. Cultural Vistas administers the program in the United States and the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Beziehungen GmbH administers the program in Germany, German language skills are not required to participate. Applications are due December 1 of each year, and can be completed online at www. culturalvistas. org/cbyx, candidates must be in a practical training track and must complete their training before the program start date. English skills are required for program participation, applications are due in September of each year. After an interview with InWent and taking a Test of English as a Foreign Language, one hundred candidates are then selected for the program
9.
AFS Intercultural Programs
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AFS Intercultural Programs is an international youth exchange organization. In 2007, almost 13,000 participants traveled abroad on AFS cultural exchanges between 65 countries, as supported by 44,000 active volunteers. The U. S. -based partner, AFS-USA, sends more than 1,100 U. S. students abroad and places international students with more than 2,300 U. S. families each year. More than 424,000 people have gone abroad with AFS, the American Ambulance of 1914 took over the premises of the unfinished Lycée Pasteur in the suburb of Neuilly-sur-Seine—and was run by the nearby American Hospital of Paris. The volunteer drivers of 1914 found themselves behind the wheels of motorized, not horse-driven, vehicles, Model-Ts, French army policy prohibited foreign nationals from traveling into battle zones. In March 1915, Andrew met with Captain Aime Doumenc, head of the French Army Automobile Service and pleaded his case for the American volunteers. They desired above all, he said, to pick up the wounded from the front lines…, to look squarely in the face, in a word, to mingle with the soldiers of France. Doumenc agreed to give Andrew a trial, the success of Section Z was immediate and overwhelming, and by April 15,1915, the French created American Ambulance Field Service operating under French Army command. This marked the beginning of American Ambulance Field Service, three units of which made their mark during battles in northern France, the Champagne, Verdun. Edmund L. Gros, was the Field Service’s in-house physician, before the AFS was absorbed into the much larger, federalized U. S. Army Ambulance Service, it had numbered more than 2500 volunteers, including some 800 drivers of French military transport trucks. It had actively recruited its drivers from the campuses of American colleges and universities, other volunteer ambulance corps served the French Army as “foreign sanitary sections” during World War I. The first was Henry Harjes’ “Formation” units under the American Red Cross, followed by Richard Norton’s American Volunteer Motor-Ambulance Corps, later, both would merge —under the American Red Cross—as the “Norton-Harjes”. Once the Americans entered the war, many drivers joined combat units, both French and American, serving as officers in a variety of assignments, notably in air force and artillery units. The young AFS drivers came from prominent families in the States, also represented were a smaller group from Americas professional class, doctors, lawyers, architects, painters, brokers, businessmen, poets and writers. This literate group produced many letters, diaries, journals, the AFS collected many of these writings into Friends of France, published in 1916. The Service used this volume to recruit volunteers to the gloriously exciting. Also published in 1916, Ambulance Number 10, by Leslie Buswell, was composed of the letters back to the States. Buswell went on to assist Henry Sleeper in the AFSs recruiting and fundraising offices in Boston, other literary ambulanciers brought their letters and journals and memoirs to American publishers in the coming years
10.
AIESEC
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AIESEC is the worlds largest non-profit student-run organization. The AIESEC network includes approximately 70,000 members in 127 countries and territories and it is the largest youth-run organization in the world. AIESECs international headquarters are in Rotterdam, Netherlands, the idea behind AIESEC started in 1938, when representatives from schools across Europe exchanged information about various programs and schools that specialized in business and economics. Students were carrying out internships in other countries, mostly on their own initiative but it came to a standstill with the onslaught of World War II. In 1944, the neutral Scandinavian countries were still exchanging students, in Stockholm, Bertil Hedberg, an official at the Stockholm School of Economics, and students Jaroslav Zich, Jean Choplin and Stanislas Callens founded AIESEC. This was the predecessor of AIESEC, which was founded in 1948. At the time, the stated mission was “to expand the understanding of a nation by expanding the understanding of the individuals, changing the world one person at a time. ”At the time of AIESECs founding at the conclusion of the 1940s. Factories and enterprises were in desperate need of executives, managers and leaders, AIESEC was formed to address both of these concerns. Students from seven nations, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, Norway, in the first year of AIESECs existence,89 students were exchanged among the member nations. The organization grew exponentially in the years, with more than 1,000 exchanges took place in 1955 alone. As the organization grew, a governing body was created and led by democratically elected Secretary General. Morris Wolff, from the United States, was chosen as the first Secretary General in 1960, and established the first permanent international office for AIESEC in Geneva, Switzerland. Over the following decade, AIESEC expanded to eastern Asia, Australia, and deeper within Europe, Africa, North America, as of 2015, AIESEC has since expanded to 127 countries and territories across the globe. AIESEC annually offers over 27,500 leadership positions and delivers over 500 leadership conferences to its membership of over 100,000 students, AIESEC is supported by over 8,000 partner organizations. AIESEC provides a platform for students in different universities and colleges and these young individuals can develop their leadership potential by working and leading international teams. Each year members have an opportunity to live and work in a foreign country, participants can choose to work in areas of management, technology, education, or development, helping to build one’s corporate skills. AIESEC hosts over 500 conferences every year that range in length, topics of interest the organization focuses on include, Leadership, Sustainable development, Entrepreneurship, Innovation, Corporate Social Responsibility, and youth impact on modern society. Global Volunteer is an AIESEC program which offers voluntary internships and they are usually short term in nature and involve working on diverse community projects and in different organizations
11.
EducationUSA
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EducationUSA is a U. S. Department of State network of over 400 international student advising centers in more than 170 countries. EducationUSA is officially a branch in the Office of Global Educational Programs in the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. S, history, society, art and culture in all of its diversity to overseas audiences. Advisers offer a range of in-person and virtual services to students and their families based on Your 5 Steps to U. S. Study. This is done through Your 5 Steps to U. S. Study, however, the network also focuses on assisting U. S. higher education representatives to connect with students and is increasingly working to engage more with foreign institutions and governments. Roughly half a million international students enroll in a U. S. institution of higher learning last year, many seek advice from a regional EducationUSA adviser before, during, and after the application process. Roughly 500+ Advisers are located in advising centers located in 170 countries, Advisers reach out to students, professors, local institutions, and other groups and individuals through individual advising, admissions visits, college fairs, and virtual consulting. The Open Doors Report, published through the Institute of International Education, is a census of international students in the U. S. and U. S. students abroad. EducationUSA funds this and other research on study abroad, in addition to academic abilities, Opportunity Funds students bring cultural and socio-economic diversity to U. S. campuses. More than 100 colleges and universities have enrolled Opportunity Funds students since 2006. S, higher education, develop the tools necessary to build capacity within their own systems, and engage with the U. S. higher education sector in effective, sustained ways. MOOC Camp MOOC Camps are facilitated discussions around massive open online courses, Open Courseware and they are hosted at U. S. embassies, consulates, American Spaces, and in other public venues around the world. U. S. embassies and consulates in more than 60 countries are participating in MOOC Camps with subjects ranging from entrepreneurship and college writing to science. Course content is drawn from major MOOC providers, including Coursera, EdX, EducationUSA Training Institutes EducationUSA facilitates several training institutes in the United States for EducationUSA advisers. Each two-week EducationUSA Training Institute comprises a Washington, D. C. -based workshop, with sessions at the U. S. Department of State, and campus-based training. The campus-based training week offers an opportunity for U. S. institutions to bring a group of EducationUSA advisers directly to their campuses. Competitive College Clubs EducationUSA Competitive College Clubs are cohort-based advising programs that help the best and brightest students apply to competitive U. S. colleges and universities, CCC advisers work intensively to prepare students for the application process. CCCs are open to students in grades 8-11 who are in the top 10% of their class, CCC advisers organize student activities, including study groups, intensive SAT and ACT preparation, reading assignments, lectures, and community service projects. Students sign a contract detailing their responsibilities, which include attending all meetings during the school year and summer sessions. While there are no guarantees that a CCC student will be accepted to a U. S. college or university, some CCC students also qualify for the Opportunity Funds program
12.
Erasmus Programme
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The Erasmus Programme is a European Union student exchange programme established in 1990. Erasmus+, or Erasmus Plus, is the new programme combining all the EUs current schemes for education, training, youth and sport, the Erasmus Programme, together with a number of other independent programmes, was incorporated into the Socrates programme established by the European Commission in 1994. At the same time, ERASMUS is a backronym meaning European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students, by the time the Erasmus Programme was adopted in June 1987, the European Commission had been supporting pilot student exchanges for 6 years. This method of voting was not accepted by some of the opposing Member States, in 2006, over 150,000 students, or almost 1% of the European student population, took part. The proportion is higher among university teachers, where Erasmus teacher mobility is 1. 9% of the population in Europe. In the past twenty years, over two million students have benefited from Erasmus grants, and the European Commission aims to reach a total of 3 million by 2012. The Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 replaced the Socrates programme as the umbrella under which the Erasmus programmes operate from 2007. The Erasmus Mundus programme is another, parallel programme that is oriented towards globalising European education, whereas the Erasmus Programme is open to Europeans, Erasmus Mundus is open to non-Europeans with Europeans being exceptional cases. On 9 May 2012, Fraternité2020 was registered as Europes first European Citizens Initiative and its goal was to increase the budget for EU exchange programmes like Erasmus or the European Voluntary Service from 2014. To be successful it would have needed 1 million signatures by 1 November 2013 and it ultimately collected only 71,057 signatures from citizens across the EU. Erasmus+, also called Erasmus Plus, is the new 14.7 billion euro catch-all framework programme for education, training, youth, the Erasmus+ regulation was signed on 11 December 2013. In 2012-13 alone,270,000 took part, the most popular destinations being Spain, Germany, Erasmus students represented 5 percent of European graduates as of 2012. A number of studies have raised issues related to the selection into the programme, such studies have raised doubts about the inclusiveness of the programme, by socio-economic background, level of study, or academic performance. Other study argues that the reason why the Erasmus programme misses its mark to reinforce a European identity is that it addresses university students, who are already very likely to feel European. The Erasmus Programme had previously restricted to applicants who had completed at least one year of tertiary-level study. Students who join the Erasmus Programme study at least 3 months or do an internship for a period of at least 2 months to a year in another European country. The Erasmus Programme guarantees that the period spent abroad is recognised by their university when they come back, Switzerland has been suspended as a participant in the Erasmus programme as of 2015, following the popular vote to limit the immigration of EU citizens into Switzerland. As a consequence, Swiss students will not be able to apply for the programme, a main part of the programme is that students do not pay extra tuition fees to the university that they visit
13.
Erasmus Student Network
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Erasmus Student Network is a Europe-wide student organisation. Its goal is to support and develop student exchange on a local, national and international level and it is composed of around 13,500 members in over 500 local sections in 39 countries in Higher Education Institutions, including universities, polytechnics, and university colleges. The network offers its services to around 160,000 international students, ESN facilitates the social and personal integration of international students. The local ESN sections offer help, guidance and valuable information to exchange students and students doing a full degree abroad. ESN provides information about academic exchange programmes and student mobility in general, in 1987, the European Community approved a plan to create a mobility scheme for higher education. Part of it was the Erasmus programme - an exchange programme for students to students with the opportunity to spend part of their studies abroad. In 1989 the Erasmus Bureau invited 32 former Erasmus Students for a meeting in Ghent. This meeting was the point for the Erasmus Student Network. The lack of support was singled out as a major issue. ESN International became a legal association, desiree Majoor from Utrecht, Netherlands became the first president in ESN history. By 1994 ESN had 60 sections in 14 countries, in 2004 the ESN network consisted of 170 sections in and outside Europe, from Scandinavia to Morocco. ESN has been growing with a rate of around 12% since then. In 2005, ESN established its headquarters in Brussels and legally registered as a Belgian non-profit organisation, as of July 2016, the Erasmus Student Network consists of 521 local associations in 39 countries and has more than 13,500 volunteers across Europe. ESN works on three levels - local, national and international and it is only active within the borders defined by the Council of Europe. Its president for the 2015-16 term is Safi Sabuni, ESN on local level consists of sections that directly work with the international students. They organize activities like introduction programmes, get-togethers and cultural events and represent the students and their needs towards academic institutions. Together the local sections, or rather representatives from the form the Annual General Meeting. The national level represents the needs of students towards governments
14.
Fulbright Program
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The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. It is one of the most prestigious scholarships in the world, the Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education and it operates in over 160 countries around the world. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an appropriation from the U. S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from governments, foundations, corporations. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers, in countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the U. S. Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began, fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes, eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes. In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U. S. government war property to international exchange between the U. S. and other countries. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and it was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be. If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace. On August 1,1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis, each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U. S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were Cuba in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations. The Fulbright Program works two ways, U. S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country, citizens may come to the U. S. Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees fields of study span the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences. Student Program offers fellowships for U. S. graduating seniors, graduate students, young professionals and artists to research, study, the Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young professionals and artists from abroad to conduct research and study in the United States. Some scholarships are renewed after the year of study. This program is currently on hiatus, the Fulbright-mtvU Fellowships award up to four U. S. students the opportunity to study the power of music as a cultural force abroad. Fellows conduct research for one year on projects of their own design about a chosen musical aspect
15.
Intercultural relations
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Intercultural Relations, sometimes called Intercultural Studies, is a relatively new formal field of social science studies. It is a practical, multi-field discipline designed to train its students to understand, communicate, Intercultural Relations involves, at a fundamental level, learning how to see oneself and the world through the eyes of another. It is a rather than deep discipline that seeks to prepare students for interaction with cultures both similar to their own or very different from their own. The study of intercultural relations incorporates many different academic disciplines, often, Intercultural programs are designed to translate these academic disciplines into a practical training curricula. Graduate programs will also prepare students for research and publication. However, in a globalized world, the broader discipline attracts persons from many backgrounds with many different career goals. Both bachelors and masters degrees are offered in the discipline
16.
Youth For Understanding
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Youth For Understanding is an international educational exchange organization. A network of over 50 independent national organizations worldwide, YFU representatives work together to advance learning across cultures, within each countrys culture, YFU organizations subscribe to and operate under a common set of principles and standards that aim to facilitate cooperation and harmony. Each year, YFU exchanges approximately 4,500 students worldwide, YFU conducts its exchange programs via direct contact between independent national organizations in over 50 countries. These autonomous organizations represent the community network of YFU. Other YFU international activities are carried out by a volunteer International Advisory Council, YFU organizations around the world subscribe to a set of basic operating and philosophic standards that embody YFU’s commitment to conducting high quality programs. The standards set the requirements that YFU programs must meet. In 1951 it was proposed to leaders in Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA that teenagers from Germany be brought to the United States to live with a family. As a result,75 German teenagers arrived in Michigan in July 1951 and were hosted by volunteer U. S. families, the exchange program itself originated in late summer 1951 by the High Commission in Germany as the Urban/Rural Teen-Age Exchange Program. Already in its first year it was supported by members of the Michigan Council of Churches under the motto Youth for Understanding, within the next 10 years it evolved into two organizations YFU-USA and YFU-Germany. The first exchange from the USA to Germany was a program with 30 US high school students organized by MCC-alumni. In 1961/62, an exchange program from the US to Germany was added with 6 initial students from the US. The first exchanges across the Pacific and to Mexico were established in 1958, YFU, Inc. the non-profit educational organization, was established in 1964, and the organizations offices were moved to Rosedale in Washington, D. C. in 1978. During most of the 1990s, YFU, Inc, with the dissolution of the USIA toward the end of 1999, the CBYX scholarship program began to be reorganized on a regional basis, and YFU ceased its central administrative control. On March 8,2002 YFU, Inc. ceased operations, the YFU organization in United States was reorganized as YFU USA Inc. which opened on March 9,2002. The organizations offices were moved to Bethesda, Maryland later in 2002, ulrich Zahlten, founder and former chair of YFU Germany, became the new chairman of the board of YFU USA. This reorganization also reversed the organizations misfortunes, the report for 2005 reports four consecutive years of budget surpluses. YFU USA has five offices, Founders, Heartland, Horizon. YFU remains a volunteer-based organization as YFU USA has almost 1,400 active volunteers, the guidelines for the work of the national YFU organizations will be decided by the International Advisory Council
17.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
18.
JSTOR
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JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
19.
DMOZ
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DMOZ was a multilingual open-content directory of World Wide Web links. The site and community who maintained it were known as the Open Directory Project. It was owned by AOL but constructed and maintained by a community of volunteer editors, DMOZ used a hierarchical ontology scheme for organizing site listings. Listings on a similar topic were grouped into categories which included smaller categories. It was announced on February 28,2017 that DMOZ would close down on March 14,2017, DMOZ was founded in the United States as Gnuhoo by Rich Skrenta and Bob Truel in 1998 while they were both working as engineers for Sun Microsystems. Skrenta had developed TASS, an ancestor of tin, the popular threaded Usenet newsreader for Unix systems, the original category structure of the Gnuhoo directory was based loosely on the structure of Usenet newsgroups then in existence. The Gnuhoo directory went live on June 5,1998, then objected to the use of Hoo in the name, prompting a proposed name change, to ZURL. Prior to switching to ZURL, NewHoo was acquired by Netscape Communications Corporation in October 1998, Netscape released Open Directory data under the Open Directory License. Netscape was acquired by AOL shortly thereafter and DMOZ was one of the assets included in the acquisition, by the time Netscape assumed stewardship, the Open Directory Project had about 100,000 URLs indexed with contributions from about 4500 editors. On October 5,1999, the number of URLs indexed by DMOZ reached one million, according to an unofficial estimate, the URLs in DMOZ numbered 1.6 million in April 2000, surpassing those in the Yahoo. DMOZ achieved the milestones of indexing two million URLs on August 14,2000, three million listings on November 18,2001 and four million on December 3,2003. As of April,2013 there were 5,169,995 sites listed in over 1,017,500 categories, on October 31,2015, there were 3,996,412 sites listed in 1,026,706 categories. In January 2006, DMOZ began publishing reports to inform the public about the development of the project. The first report covered the year 2005, monthly reports were issued subsequently until September 2006. These reports gave greater insight into the functioning of the directory than the statistics provided on the front page of the directory. The number of listings and categories cited on the front page included Test and Bookmarks categories, there were about 7330 active editors during August 2006. 75,151 editors had contributed to the directory as of March 31,2007, as of April 2013, the number of contributing editors had increased to 97,584. On October 20,2006, DMOZs main server suffered a failure that prevented editors from working on the directory until December 18,2006
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