1.
Styria
–
Styria is a state or Bundesland, located in the southeast of Austria. In area it is the second largest of the nine Austrian federated states and it borders Slovenia and the Austrian states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Burgenland, and Carinthia. The capital city is Graz which had 276,526 inhabitants at the beginning of 2015, the March of Styria derived its name from the original seat of its ruling Otakar dynasty, Steyr, in todays Upper Austria. In German, the area is still called Steiermark while in English the Latin name Styria is used, the ancient link between Steyr and Styria is also apparent in their nearly identical coats of arms, a white Panther on a green background. The term Upper Styria used by an Austrian refers to the northern and northwestern parts of the federal-state, the term West Styria is used for the districts to the west of Graz, the districts east of Graz are referred to as East Styria. The western and eastern parts of the district Graz-Umgebung may or may not be considered parts of West and East Styria, the southern parts of the Duchy of Styria, which have formed part of Yugoslavia or Slovenia since 1918, were referred to as Lower Styria. During early Roman times, Styria was inhabited by Celtic tribes, after its conquest by the Romans, the eastern part of what is now Styria was part of Pannonia, while the western one was included in Noricum. During the Barbarian invasions, it was conquered or crossed by the Visigoths, the Huns, the Ostrogoths, the Rugii, the Lombards, the Franks, in 595 the latter were defeated by the Slavs, who thenceforth ruled it. In 1180 Styria separated from the Duchy of Carinthia and became a Grand Duchy of its own, after the hereditary subdivision of the latter, Styria formed the central part of Inner Austria. Styria developed culturally and economically under John, Archduke of Inner Austria between 1809 and 1859, as elsewhere in the developed world, there has been a shift away from the manufacturing sector towards the service sector in Styria. This has had consequences for the industrial regions of upper Styria which have suffered a steady decline in population in recent years. Styria is home to more than 150 clean technology companies, of one dozen are world technology leaders in their field. The revenue of Styrian cleantech companies totals €2.7 billion and this equals to 8 percent of the Gross Regional Product, and is one of the highest concentrations of leading clean technology companies in Europe. The companies have a growth rate of 22 percent per year—well above the worldwide cleantech market growth of 18 percent per year. The region created roughly 2,000 additional green jobs in 2008 alone, the state is divided into 13 districts, one of them a statutory city. Graz however is a stronghold of the left-wing Communist Party, the governor has usually been an ÖVP member. In these elections, the KPÖ also received votes after it had gained much popularity through its role in local politics in Graz during the preceding few years. The two right-wing populist parties, the Freedom Party of Austria and the Alliance for the Future of Austria, gebirgsdivision Robert Stolz, composer born in Graz Getty Kaspers, lead vocals of Dutch band Teach-In, who won the 1975 Eurovision Song Contest
Styria
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Grüner See
Styria
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Flag
Styria
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Historical view of the border between Styria and Carinthia, 1830
Styria
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View over the vineyards of South-Styria
2.
Sevnica
–
Sevnica is a town on the left bank of the Sava River in central Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Sevnica and it is one of the three major settlements in the Lower Sava Valley. The settlement was first attested in records in 1275 in German as Liechtenwalde. The Slovene name is derived from a hydronym referring to Sevnična Creek. This name is derived from the adjective selьnъ belonging to a settlement, the Slovene name is not connected to the German name, which refers to deciduous woods. In the past the German name of the town was Lichtenwald, for centuries, the town of Sevnica was situated on the border of two historical regions of the Habsburg Empire, Carniola and Styria. It was first mentioned in documents dating to 1275 by its German name Liehtenwalde. At that time, it was one of the most important settlements in the Windic March, in 1322 it acquired the status of a market town, with extended market rights in 1513. Between the 14th and 17th centuries, it suffered greatly from frequent Ottoman raids, in the 16th century it was an important center of Protestant reformation in the Slovene Lands, the Slovene Lutheran author Jurij Dalmatin also preached in the town. In the 18th century it was included in the administrative sub-region of Lower Carniola, between 1809 and 1813, it was a border town between the French-administered Illyrian Provinces and the Austrian Empire. In the mid-19th century, it became an important center of the Slovene national revival, in 1869, in 1862 it received a railway connection, which boosted the local economy. In 1938 railway from Sevnica to Trebnje was completed, during World War II, when the area was annexed to the Third Reich, the majority of its Slovene inhabitants were expelled and replaced by ethnic Germans resettled from Gottschee County. Many locals died in Nazi concentration camps, after the war, the town started developing as an industrial center in the newly named Lower Sava Valley. Sevnica is the site of four known mass graves associated with the Second World War, three of them contain the remains of undetermined victims. The Vrtača Mass Grave is located in the woods 50 m west of the hamlet of Vrtača, the Florian Street Mass Grave is located on the north edge of a large field next to a small woods. The Hraste Mass Grave is located among the vineyards above the houses on Trubar Street, the Dobrava Mass Grave is located in a thicket 15 m north of the house at Trubar Street no.7. It contains the remains of German soldiers, the parish church in the town is dedicated to Saint Nicholas and belongs to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Celje. It was built in 1862 on the site of a 15th-century building, other churches in town are dedicated to Saint Florian, the Mother of God and Saint Anne, all belonging to the same parish
Sevnica
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Sevnica
Sevnica
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Sevnica Castle with the "Lutheran Cellar", where the Slovene Protestant author
Jurij Dalmatin preached in the 16th century
3.
Slovenia
–
Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a nation state in southern Central Europe, located at the crossroads of main European cultural and trade routes. It is bordered by Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and it covers 20,273 square kilometers and has a population of 2.06 million. It is a republic and a member of the United Nations, European Union. The capital and largest city is Ljubljana, additionally, the Dinaric Alps and the Pannonian Plain meet on the territory of Slovenia. The country, marked by a significant biological diversity, is one of the most water-rich in Europe, with a river network, a rich aquifer system. Over half of the territory is covered by forest, the human settlement of Slovenia is dispersed and uneven. Slovenia has historically been the crossroads of South Slavic, Germanic, Romance, although the population is not homogeneous, the majority is Slovene. Slovene is the language throughout the country. Slovenia is a largely secularized country, but its culture and identity have been influenced by Catholicism as well as Lutheranism. The economy of Slovenia is small, open, and export-oriented and has strongly influenced by international conditions. It has been hurt by the Eurozone crisis, started in the late 2000s. The main economic field is services, followed by industry and construction, Historically, the current territory of Slovenia was part of many different state formations, including the Roman Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, followed by the Habsburg Monarchy. In October 1918, the Slovenes exercised self-determination for the first time by co-founding the State of Slovenes, Croats, in December 1918, they merged with the Kingdom of Serbia into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II, Slovenia was occupied and annexed by Germany, Italy, and Hungary, with a tiny area transferred to the Independent State of Croatia, in June 1991, after the introduction of multi-party representative democracy, Slovenia split from Yugoslavia and became an independent country. Present-day Slovenia has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and there is evidence of habitation from around 250,000 years ago. A pierced cave bear bone, dating from 43100 ±700 BP, in the 1920s and 1930s, artifacts belonging to the Cro-Magnon such as pierced bones, bone points, and needle were found by archaeologist Srečko Brodar in Potok Cave. It shows that wooden wheels appeared almost simultaneously in Mesopotamia and Europe, in the transition period between the Bronze age to the Iron age, the Urnfield culture flourished. Archaeological remains dating from the Hallstatt period have been found, particularly in southeastern Slovenia, among them a number of situlas in Novo Mesto, in the Iron Age, present-day Slovenia was inhabited by Illyrian and Celtic tribes until the 1st century BC
Slovenia
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A
pierced cave bear bone, possibly
flute, from
Divje Babe
Slovenia
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Flag
Slovenia
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Roman
Emona 's south wall (reconstruction) in present-day Ljubljana
Slovenia
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Prince's Stone, symbol of
duchy of Carantania
4.
Slovenian Littoral
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The Slovene Littoral is one of the five traditional regions of Slovenia. Its name recalls the former Austrian Littoral, the Habsburg possessions on the upper Adriatic coast, the region forms the westernmost part of Slovenia, bordering with the Italian region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia. It stretches from the Adriatic Sea in the south up to the Julian Alps in the north, the Slovene Littoral comprises two traditional provinces, Goriška and Slovenian Istria. The Goriška region takes its name from the town of Gorizia now in Italy, Slovenian Istria comprises the northern part of the Istria peninsula and provides, on the Slovenian Riviera coastline with the ports of Koper, Izola, and Piran, the countrys only access to the sea. After Ljubljana, the Slovene Littoral is the most developed and economically most prosperous part of Slovenia, the western part of Slovenian Istria is a bilingual region where both Slovene and Italian may be used in education, legal and administrative environments. The northern part of the Slovene Littoral is part of the larger Gorizia Statistical Region, after they had acquired the Carniola hinterland in 1335, the Habsburgs gradually took possession of the coastal areas. In 1500 they inherited the lands of Gorizia, when the last Count Leonhard of Gorizia died childless. The Habsburg Princely County of Gorizia and Gradisca was established in 1754, with the Istrian march and the Imperial Free City of Trieste it was re-arranged as the Austrian Littoral crown land in 1849. Incorporated into the Julian March a forced Italianization of the Slovene minority began, intensified after the Fascists under Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922, the Slovenes in Italy lacked any minority protection under international or domestic law. Numerous Slovenes emigrated to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, others fought against Italian occupation in the anti-fascist TIGR organization, after World War II, according to the 1947 Paris Peace Treaties, the bulk of the region with the upper Soča Valley fell to Yugoslavia. Parts of the area were re-arranged as the Free Territory of Trieste, while Italy retained the urban centres of Gorizia, in 1954 also recovered the main port of Trieste. As a result, the new urban centres on the Slovenian side of the border developed, battles of the Isonzo Goriška Morgan Line Treaty of Osimo Karst Plateau Vipava Valley Soča Slovenian wine Venetian Slovenia Media related to Slovene Littoral at Wikimedia Commons
Slovenian Littoral
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Mount Krn in the
Julian Alps
Slovenian Littoral
Slovenian Littoral
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Kozjak Falls in the
Soča (or
Isonzo) Valley
Slovenian Littoral
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The
Brda wine region
5.
Upper Carniola
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Upper Carniola is a traditional region of Slovenia, the northern mountainous part of the larger Carniola region. The centre of the region is Kranj, while other urban centers include Jesenice, Tržič, Škofja Loka, Kamnik and it has around 300,000 inhabitants or 14% of the population of Slovenia. Its origins as a political entity can be traced back to the 17th century. This division was described by the scholar Johann Weikhard von Valvasor in his 1689 work The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola. The districts were known in German as Kreise, nevertheless, the regional identity remained strong also thereafter. The Carniolan regional identity soon faded away, but the identification with its sub-units remained strong. To the north, Upper Carniola is delimited by the Austrian state of Carinthia, the historic Lower Styria region to the east, and the Slovenian Littoral to the west. An 1809 atlas shows the border with Lower Carniola to the southeast generally following the line of the Sava, Ljubljanica, Iščica, the landscape is characterised by the mountains of the Southern Limestone Alps, predominantly by the Julian Alps and the Karawanks range at its northern rim. Historically, Ljubljana was part of Upper Carniola, since the 19th century, Kranj, not Ljubljana, has been considered the unofficial capital of Upper Carniola. The modern notion of Upper Carniola does not fully correspond to the historical borders, for example, the Municipality of Jezersko used to be part of the Duchy of Carinthia, in 1918, it was occupied by Slovene volunteers and annexed to Yugoslavia by the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain. Now it is generally considered an integral part of Upper Carniola. The borders of Upper Carniola are only vaguely similar those of Slovenias Upper Carniola Statistical Region, traditionally, most of the people of Upper Carniola have spoken the Upper Carniolan dialect, which is one of the geographically most extended and linguistically most compact Slovene dialects. It covers most of the province, except for some areas in south-western and north-western Upper Carniola. It belongs to the Upper Carniolan dialect group, which includes the Selca dialect, spoken in the mountainous Upper Carniolan villages of Železniki, Selca, Dražgoše. Nevertheless, other dialects are spoken in Upper Carniola, as well, in the village of Rateče, people speak the Gail Valley dialect, which belongs to the Carinthian dialect group. In the area around Kranjska Gora and Gozd Martuljek, a transitional dialect between the Carinthian and Upper Carniolan dialect group is spoken, this is known as the Kranjska Gora subdialect, in the mountainous areas of eastern Upper Carniola, dialects from the Rovte dialect group are spoken. Beginning in the 18th century, the Upper Carniolan dialect became the basis on which standard Slovene was developed, the poet and journalist Valentin Vodnik, who was born in Šiška, now a suburb of Ljubljana, also wrote in the Upper Carniolan dialect. The first two Slovene language newspapers, Lublanske novice and Kmetijske in rokodelske novice were also published in the Upper Carniolan regional variety of Slovene, the poetic language of France Prešeren, the Slovenian national poet, also has many specific Upper Carniolan features
Upper Carniola
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An
Austrian map from the late 18th century of "Upper Carniola a.k.a. District of
Ljubljana "
Upper Carniola
Upper Carniola
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Upper Carniola near
Spodnja Sorica
Upper Carniola
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Upper Carniolan folk costumes
6.
Inner Carniola
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Inner Carniola is a traditional region of Slovenia, the southwestern part of the larger Carniola region. It comprises the Hrušica karst plateau up to Postojna Gate, bordering the Slovenian Littoral in the west and its administrative and economic center of the region is Postojna, while other minor centers include Logatec, Cerknica, Pivka and Ilirska Bistrica. The English name Inner Carniola, like the Slovene name Notranjska, is a translation of German Innerkrain, the name was created by analogy with Inner Austria, referring to the southwestern Habsburg hereditary lands. Inner Carniola was a kreis of the Duchy of Carniola, ruled by the archducal House of Habsburg within the Inner Austrian lands since the 14th century, the territorial arrangement was described by the scholar Johann Weikhard von Valvasor in his 1689 work The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola. Part of the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces from 1809, Carniola returned to the Austrian Empire by the 1814 Treaty of Paris, first administrated within the Austrian Kingdom of Illyria, the Carniolan duchy again became a Habsburg crown land from 1849 till 1919. After World War One, the part of the region was occupied by Italian military. In 1920, the Treaty of Rapallo transferred the part of the region to the Kingdom of Italy. The eastern third was included into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Italy was given the districts of Vipava, Postojna, Ilirska Bistrica, Senožeče, and Idrija. The region was divided among the provinces of Gorizia, Trieste, with the rise of Fascism, it was subjected to a policy of violent Italianization until the downfall of Fascism in Italy
Inner Carniola
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Inner Carniola or Postojna District, late 18th century map
Inner Carniola
Inner Carniola
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Predjama Castle
Inner Carniola
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Postojna Cave
7.
Lower Carniola
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Lower Carniola is a traditional region in Slovenia, the southeastern part of the historical Carniola region. The southernmost region down to the border with Croatia on the Kolpa River is called White Carniola, within the Kočevje Rog karst plateau, the mountains reach an elevation of up to 1,099 m. The historic centre of Lower Carniola is Novo Mesto, and other towns include Kočevje, Grosuplje, Krško, Trebnje, Mirna, Črnomelj, Semič, in the 17th century, the Habsburg duchy of Carniola was internally divided into three administrative districts. This division was described by the scholar Johann Weikhard von Valvasor in his 1689 work The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola. The districts were known in German as Kreise, while the bulk of the population spoke Slovene, the German-speaking exclave of the Gottschee Germans existed around Kočevje in the south. Nevertheless, the regional identity remained strong also thereafter, the Carniolan regional identity soon faded away, but the regional identification with its sub-units remain strong. In the early 21st century the Brotherhood and Unity Highway was replaced with the modern A2 motorway, Lower Carniolan dialect group Gottscheerish Southeast Slovenia Statistical Region Media related to Lower Carniola at Wikimedia Commons
Lower Carniola
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Typical Lower Carniolan landscape in
Sveti Vrh.
Lower Carniola
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1714 map of Carniola by
Johann Homann, Lower Carniola in green
Lower Carniola
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Novo Mesto
Lower Carniola
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Stična Abbey
8.
Carinthia (Slovenia)
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Carinthia, also Slovene Carinthia or Slovenian Carinthia, is a traditional region in northern Slovenia. It has no centre, but a local centre in each of the three central river valleys among the heavily forested mountains. Since the entry of Slovenia into the European Union in May 2004, much effort has made to re-integrate Carinthia as a cultural, tourist. The historic region has no status as an administrative district within Slovenia. The Municipality of Jezersko south of the Seeberg Saddle mountain pass, all these municipalities border on the Austrian state of Carinthia in the north. The landscape of Carinthia is very diverse, with predominance of hilly and mountainous relief, the climate is partially an alpine climate, and partially a transitional continental climate. An important element is temperature inversion, over two thirds of Carinthia is covered by forest and the percentage is still increasing. The predominant tree species are beech, fir, and spruce, the lower areas have been polluted by lead due to a lead mine. Despite this, Carinthia is home to game and alpine animal species above the timberline. The Drava River is home to many fish, the name derives from the early mediæval Slavic principality of Carantania, whose territory stretched from the present-day Austrian state of Carinthia down to the Styrian lands on the Sava river. The area was part of the Imperial Carinthian duchy established in 976 and ruled by the House of Habsburg from 1335, upon the Austrian defeat in World War I, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1919 occupied southern Carinthia. During the 1941 Balkan Campaign of World War II, the area was annexed by Nazi Germany and put under the administration of the Reichsgau of Carinthia, led by Friedrich Rainer. Upon the German Instrument of Surrender in May 1945, Yugoslav Partisans entered the region, the area around Dravograd and Prevalje is the site of several mass graves. After the war, the formed part of the Yugoslav Socialist Republic of Slovenia. The Carinthia Statistical Region had 73,754 inhabitants in 2008, with an uneven settlement, nonetheless, due to low birth rate and shorter life span, the number of inhabitants is decreasing. The biggest employer is the processing industry, many people are commuters, working in Ljubljana, Maribor, Velenje and Austria. In 2008, there was high unemployment,10. 5% in the mining town of Črna na Koroškem and 11.8 in Ravne na Koroškem. In the 1990s, the lead and zinc mine in the Meža Valley, the most highly industrialized valley of the region, the only factory in the area around the mine still operating is TAB, a manufacturer of batteries
Carinthia (Slovenia)
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Typical Lower Carinthian landscape in
Ravne na Koroškem.
Carinthia (Slovenia)
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1791/92 map of Lower Carinthia
Carinthia (Slovenia)
–
Ravne steelworks, 1960
9.
Prekmurje
–
It maintains certain specific linguistic, cultural and religious features that differentiate it from other Slovenian traditional regions. It is named after the Mur river, which separates it from the rest of Slovenia, in Hungarian, the region is known as Muravidék, and in German as Übermurgebiet. The name Prekmurje was introduced in the century, although it is derived from an older term. Before 1919, the Slovenian-inhabited lands of the Vas County in the Kingdom of Hungary and Austria-Hungary were known under the name Slovene March or Vendic March, the part of modern Prekmurje that belonged to the Zala County was not considered to be part of the Slovenian March. After 1919, this name was rediscovered and introduced again, now for administrative purposes, by the new Yugoslav administration. It however did not gain popularity among the locals, the name Slovenian March was still used by the local inhabitants till the mid 1920s. The current Hungarian name for Prekmurje, Muravidék, dates from the period and is a translation of the Slovenian Murska krajina. From the mid 1930s onward, Prekmurje became widely used in the press, after World War II, this name replaced all previous denominations. North-east of Lendava, there is a small hilly sub-region, known as Lendava Hills, the administrative and commercial centre of the region is the town of Murska Sobota. The only other town is Lendava. Other larger rural centres are Dobrovnik, Turnišče, Beltinci, the majority of the inhabitants of the region are ethnic Slovenes. There are also a sizable Hungarian and Romani minorities in the region, in 1921, the total population of the area numbered 92,295 people, including 74,199 Slovene speakers,14,065 speakers of Hungarian, and 2,540 German speakers. Since then, the number of Hungarian speakers has been falling slowly but steadily, the German-speaking community, which used to be concentrated in three villages near the Austrian border and in Murska Sobota, was either expelled from the area or assimilated after World War II. Since the early 1950s, Hungarian has had co-official status in the areas of settlement of the Hungarian minority. Three municipalities are completely bilingual, while two are only partially, two municipalities, Hodoš and Dobrovnik, have a Hungarian majority. Prekmurje has traditionally been the most heterogeneous Slovene region regarding religious affiliation, besides a Roman Catholic majority, there is a significant Protestant minority, concentrated in the Goričko hills, which represents between one fourth and one fifth of the population of Prekmurje. Three municipalities have a Lutheran majority, while in Moravske Toplice, before World War II, there used to be a significant Jewish community, as well, mostly concentrated in the towns of Murska Sobota and Lendava. In the 1930s, two thirds of all Slovenian Jews lived in Prekmurje, most of them perished in the holocaust
Prekmurje
–
The Lendava Hills (
Lendavske Gorice) in winter
Prekmurje
Prekmurje
–
A traditional house in Prekmurje.
Prekmurje
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Mikloš Küzmič ′s Catechism in the Prekmurje dialect from 1804
10.
Slovene language
–
Slovene or Slovenian belongs to the group of South Slavic languages. It is spoken by approximately 2.5 million speakers worldwide and it is the first language of about 2.1 million Slovenian people and is one of the 24 official and working languages of the European Union. Standard Slovene is the standard language that was formed in the 18th century, mostly based on Upper and Lower Carniolan dialect groups. For example, the Resian and Torre dialects in the Italian Province of Udine differ most from other Slovene dialects, the distinctive characteristics of Slovene are dual grammatical number, two accentual norms, and abundant inflection. Although Slovene is basically an SVO language, word order is very flexible, Slovene has a T-V distinction, second-person plural forms are used for individuals as a sign of respect. Slovene and Slovak are the two modern Slavic languages whose names for themselves literally mean Slavic. Slovene is an Indo-European language belonging to the Western subgroup of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic languages, furthermore, Slovene shares certain linguistic characteristics with all South Slavic languages, including those of the Eastern subgroup, such as Bulgarian. The Slovene language also has commonalities with the West Slavic languages. Like all Slavic languages, Slovene traces its roots to the same group of languages that produced Old Church Slavonic. The earliest known examples of a distinct, written Slovene dialect are from the Freising Manuscripts, the consensus estimate of their date of origin is between 972 and 1093. These religious writings are among the oldest surviving manuscripts in any Slavic language and this linguistic border remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century, when a second process of Germanization took place, mostly in Carinthia. Between the 9th and 12th century, proto-Slovene spread into northern Istria, during most of the Middle Ages, Slovene was a vernacular language of the peasantry, although it was also spoken in most of the towns on Slovene territory, together with German or Italian. Although during this time, German emerged as the language of the nobility, Slovene had some role in the courtly life of the Carinthian, Carniolan and Styrian nobility. This is proved by the survival of certain ritual formulas in Slovene, the words Buge waz primi, gralva Venus. The first printed Slovene words, stara pravda, appeared in 1515 in Vienna in a poem of the German mercenaries who suppressed the Slovene peasant revolt. Standard Slovene emerged in the half of the 16th century, thanks to the works of Slovene Lutheran authors. During this period, German had a influence on Slovene. Many Slovene scientists before the 1920s also wrote in languages, mostly German
Slovene language
–
Tombstone of Jožef Nahtigal in
Dobrova with archaic Slovene onikanje in indirect reference. Literal translation "Here lie [počivajo] the honorable Jožef Nahtigal... they were born [rojeni]... they died [umerli]... God grant them [jim] eternal peace and rest."
Slovene language
–
Slovene-speaking areas
11.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
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German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
12.
Duchy of Styria
–
The Duchy of Styria was a duchy located in modern-day southern Austria and northern Slovenia. It was a part of the Holy Roman Empire until its dissolution in 1806, margrave Ottokar IV thereby became the first Duke of Styria and also the last of the ancient Otakar dynasty. Upon his death in 1192, Styria as stipulated fell to the Babenberg duke Leopold V of Austria, the Austrian Babenbergs became extinct in 1246, when Duke Frederick II the Quarrelsome was killed in battle against King Béla IV of Hungary. It passed quickly through the hands of Hungary in 1254, until the Bohemian king Ottokar II Přemysl conquered it, rudolph finally defeated Ottokar at the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, seized Austria and Styria and granted them to his sons Albert I and Rudolf II. The House of Habsburg provided Styria with dukes of their lineage ever since, in 1456 they could significantly enlarge the Styrian territory by acquisition of the comital Celje estates in Lower Styria. Both duchies were ruled in personal union, when Leopolds grandson Frederick V inherited Austria in 1457. In 1496 Fredericks son Maximilian I signed an order expelling all Jews from Styria, in 1512 the duchy joined the Empires Austrian Circle. A second Inner Austrian cadet branch of the Habsburgs ruled over Styria from 1564, the Protestant population was expelled, including the astronomer Johannes Kepler in 1600. Meanwhile, at the time of the Ottoman invasions in the 16th and 17th centuries after the 1526 Battle of Mohács, Styria remained a part of the Habsburg Monarchy and from 1804 belonged to the Austrian Empire. He also forwarded the construction of the Semmering railway to Mürzzuschlag and the Austrian Southern Railway line from Vienna to Trieste completed in 1857, history of Styria Map of the Balkans, 1815–59, showing the Duchy of Styria
Duchy of Styria
–
Grazer Schlossberg
Duchy of Styria
–
Flag
13.
Maribor
–
Maribor is the second-largest city in Slovenia with about 96,000 inhabitants in 2015. It is also the largest city of the region of Lower Styria. Maribor was attested in sources as Marpurch circa 1145, and is a compound of Middle High German march march + burc fortress. In modern times, the towns German name was Marburg an der Drau, the Slovene name Maribor is an artificial Slovenized creation, coined by Stanko Vraz in 1836. Vraz created the name in the spirit of Illyrianism by analogy with the name Brandenburg, locally, the town is known in Slovene as Marprk or Marprog. In addition to its Slovene and German names, the city is known as Marburgum in Latin. In 1164, a known as Castrum Marchburch was documented in the March of Drava. The castle was built on Piramida Hill, which is located just above the city. Maribor was first mentioned as a market near the castle in 1204 and it began to grow rapidly after the victory of Rudolf I of the Habsburg dynasty over King Otakar II of Bohemia in 1278. Maribor withstood sieges by Matthias Corvinus in 1480/1481 and by the Ottoman Empire in 1532 and 1683, in 1900 the city had a population that was 82. 3% Austrian Germans and 17. 3% Slovenes, most of the citys capital and public life was in Austrian German hands. Thus, it was known by its Austrian name Marburg an der Drau. The surrounding area however was populated almost entirely by Slovenes, although many Austrian Germans lived in towns like Ptuj. During World War I many Slovenes in the Carinthia and Styria were detained on suspicion of being enemies of the Austrian Empire and this led to distrust between Austrian Germans and Slovenes. After the collapse of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire in 1918, Maribor was claimed by both the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and German Austria. On 1 November 1918, a meeting was held by Colonel Anton Holik in the Melje barracks, ethnic Slovene Major Rudolf Maister, who was present at the meeting, denounced the decision and organised Slovenian military units that were able to seize control of the city. All Austrian officers and soldiers were disarmed and demobilised to the new German Austria state, the city council then held a secret meeting, where it was decided to do whatever possible to regain Maribor for German Austria. They organised a military unit called the Green Guard, and approximately 400 well-armed soldiers of this unit opposed the pro-Slovenian, Slovenian troops surprised and disarmed the Green Guard early in the morning of 23 November. Thereafter, there was no threat to the authority of Rudolf Maister in the city, nine citizens were killed and some eighteen were seriously wounded, who had actually ordered the shooting has never been unequivocally established
Maribor
–
Maribor's Old Town along the
Drava River
Maribor
–
Maribor in the 17th century. A copper engraving by
Georg Matthäus Vischer, 1678.
Maribor
–
Adolf Hitler on the
Old Bridge in Maribor, Yugoslavia in 1941.
Maribor
–
Maribor Town Hall
14.
Upper Styria
–
Upper Styria, in the Austrian usage of the term, refers exclusively to the northwestern, generally mountainous and well wooded half of the federal state of Styria. The southwestern half of the state around the capital of Graz is known as Central Styria, upper Styria is separated from Central Styria by the Stubalpe and Gleinalpe ranges of the Lavanttal Alps, and the Prealps East of the Mur. The area around Altaussee in the far northwest ist part of the Austrian Salzkammergut cultural landscape, the Obersteiermark region consists of five districts, Murau Liezen Murtal Leoben Bruck–Mürzzuschlag
Upper Styria
–
Obersteiermark districts within the state of Styria
15.
Mur (river)
–
The Mur or Mura is a river in Central Europe rising in the Hohe Tauern national park of the Central Eastern Alps in Austria with its source being 1,898 m above sea level. It is a tributary of the Drava and subsequently the Danube, the Murs total length is around 480 kilometres. About 330 km are within the interior of Austria,95 km flow in and around Slovenia, the largest city on the river is Graz, Austria. Its basin covers an area of 13,800 km2, tributaries of the Mur include the Mürz, the Sulm, the Ščavnica, the Ledava and the Trnava. The river rises in a valley within the Lungau region of Austrian state of Salzburg. The river flows eastwards through Tamsweg before crossing the border into the state of Styria, between Tamsweg and Unzmarkt-Frauenburg the river flows through a rural mountain valley and is closely paralleled by the 65 km long narrow gauge Murtalbahn railway. From Unzmarkt the river continues in a direction through the industrial towns of Leoben. At Bruck an der Mur the Mürz joins the Mur, which turns south to flow through the city of Graz. The river flows through the centre of Graz, passing underneath the Schloßberg, as a result of being the European Capital of Culture for 2003, an artificial island known as the Murinsel was constructed in the middle of the river. Once heavily polluted by several mills on the shore and by the ironworks around Leoben, the water quality has improved since the 1980s. From Graz the river continues to south, past the town of Leibnitz to its nearby confluence with the Sulm. Near Spielfeld, the forms the border between Austria and Slovenia, a role it retains until just after the twin towns of Bad Radkersburg and Gornja Radgona. In Slovenia it passes the towns of Radenci, and Veržej, the river gives its name to the Slovenian region of Prekmurje and the Croatian region of Međimurje. Cable ferries and ship mills are found in this area. In the upper Međimurje area, in the part of the region. Here, the biggest forest along the river, the Murščak, is located between Domašinec and Donji Hrašćan, after receiving its last significant tributary Trnava, the river ends near Legrad in Koprivnica-Križevci county, Croatia, where it flows into the Drava River. Since the 4th century BC, there have reports of floating mills powered by the streams of the river. The ancient technology was adopted later by arriving Slavs and then by Magyars, several decades ago, in the 1920s and 1930s, many of these mills were still operating along the river
Mur (river)
–
The Mur valley near Tamsweg in Austria
Mur (river)
–
Mur source (Murursprung)
Mur (river)
–
The Mur in Graz
Mur (river)
–
The Mur river in Slovenia
16.
Slovene Hills
–
The Slovene Hills or the Slovenian Hills is the largest hilly region of Slovenia, a smaller part is located in the Austrian province of Styria. It is situated in the northeast of the country and has an area of 1,017 square kilometres and it comprises the Western Slovene Hills and the Eastern Slovene Hills. The region is known for its vineyards and wines, the central town and municipality is Lenart. The Slovene Hills area consists of Cenozoic hills, for the most part lower than 400 metres in elevation, there are a multitude of low ridges and hills traversed by numerous river valleys, which extend from the northwest towards southeast almost linearly. They border the Mura River to the east, the Drava River to the west, Croatia to the south, the climate is a moderate continental climate with the amount of precipitation decreasing and average temperatures increasing from the west towards the east. There are also pronounced vertical differences due to the temperature inversion, the average annual precipitation ranges from 900 to 1,000 millimetres, with the largest part falling in the growth period. In 1991, the Slovene Hills had 92,320 inhabitants, larger serried settlements have formed only along Velka Creek, Globovnica Creek, and James Creek. Elsewhere, farms are densely disposed in long strips along the hill ridges, the region has been included in the European Natura 2000 network. It is the only nesting region for the European roller in Slovenia, the green woodpecker, the hoopoe, the common redstart, the turtle dove, the red-backed shrike, and the yellowhammer nest there as well. Media related to Slovene Hills at Wikimedia Commons Map of the Slovene Hills
Slovene Hills
–
Vineyards in
Jeruzalem
17.
Sava
–
The Sava is a river in Central and Southeastern Europe, a right tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia, along the border of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its central part is a border of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia. The Sava forms the border of the Balkan Peninsula. The Sava is 990 kilometres long, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka headwater rising in Zelenci and it is the greatest tributary of the Danube by volume of water, and second-largest after Tisza in terms of catchment area and length. It drains a significant portion of the Dinaric Alps region, through the tributaries of Drina, Bosna, Kupa, Una, Vrbas, Lonja, Kolubara, Bosut. The Sava is one of the longest rivers in Europe and among a handful of European rivers of that length that do not drain directly into a sea. The population in the Sava River basin is estimated at 8,176,000, the Sava is navigable for larger vessels from the confluence of the Kupa River in Sisak, Croatia, approximately two-thirds of its length. The Sava River is formed from the Sava Dolinka and the Sava Bohinjka headwaters in northwest Slovenia, the Sava Dolinka rises at the Zelenci Pools near Kranjska Gora, Slovenia, in a valley separating the Julian Alps from the Karavanke mountain range. The spring is located near the Slovene-Italian border at 833 metres above sea level, the Sava Dolinka spring is fed by groundwater possibly exhibiting bifurcation of source karst aquifer to the Sava and Soča basins. Nadiža creek, a losing stream flowing nearby, is the source of Zelenci Pools water. The Sava Dolinka is considered the Savas initial, 45-kilometre segment, the Sava Bohinjka originates in Ribčev Laz, at the confluence of the Jezernica, a short watercourse flowing out from Lake Bohinj and the Mostnica River. The watercourse flows 41 kilometres —including the length of the Savica—east to Radovljica, downstream from the confluence, the river is referred to as the Sava. The Sava is located in Southeast Europe, flowing through Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and its total length is 990 kilometres, including the 45-kilometre Sava Dolinka and the 945-kilometre Sava proper. As a right tributary of the Danube, the river belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin and it is also the largest tributary of the Danube by discharge. The river course is used to describe the northern boundary of the Balkans. Before the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1991, the river was located completely inside Yugoslav borders, downstream of Radovljica, the Sava proceeds southeast towards Kranj. Between Kranj and Medvode, its course comprises the Lake Trboje and the Lake Zbilje reservoirs, built for the Mavčiče, the Sava then flows through the capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, where another reservoir is located on the river, adjacent to the Tacen Whitewater Course
Sava
–
Sava River in
Belgrade,
Serbia
Sava
–
Zelenci —spring of
Sava Dolinka
Sava
–
Sava at
Litija
Sava
–
Save gorge between Ljubljana and Trbovlje
18.
Austria
–
Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
Austria
–
First appearance of the word "ostarrichi", circled in red. Modern Austria honours this document, dated 996, as the founding of the nation.
Austria
–
Flag
Austria
–
Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC.
Museum of Natural History Vienna
Austria
–
"Heidentor" – Remains of the
Roman military city of
Carnuntum
19.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Middle Ages
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Middle Ages
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Middle Ages
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Middle Ages
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
20.
Imperial immediacy
–
As confirmed by the Peace of Westphalia, the possession of imperial immediacy came with a particular form of territorial authority known as territorial superiority. In todays terms, it would be understood as a form of sovereignty. They formed the Imperial Estates, together with roughly 100 immediate counts,40 Imperial prelates and 50 Imperial Cities who only enjoyed a collective vote. Additional advantages might include the rights to collect taxes and tolls, to hold a market, to mint coins, to bear arms, the last of these might include the so-called Blutgericht through which capital punishment could be administered. These rights varied according to the patents granted by the emperor. Immediate rights might be lost if the Emperor and/or the Imperial Diet could not defend them against external aggression, as occurred in the French Revolutionary wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The Treaty of Lunéville in 1801 required the emperor to renounce all claims to the portions of the Holy Roman Empire west of the Rhine. The practical application of the rights of immediacy was complex, this makes the history of the Holy Roman Empire particularly difficult to understand, even such contemporaries as Goethe and Fichte called the Empire a monstrosity. Prussian historian Heinrich von Treitschke described it in the 19th century as having become a mess of rotted imperial forms. Pointing out that people like Goethe meant monster as a compliment in modern understanding, free Imperial City German mediatization Imperial Abbey Imperial Estate Imperial Village List of states of the Holy Roman Empire Braun, B. Reichsunmittelbarkeit in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland, 2005-05-03
Imperial immediacy
–
Document signed by the Abbot of Marchtal, immediate and exempt
Imperial immediacy
–
The Prince-Bishop of Liège, member of the Imperial estates, enjoyed Imperial immediacy and therefore could negotiate and sign international treaties on his own, as long as they were not directed against the Emperor and the Empire.
21.
Counts of Celje
–
The Counts of Celje or the Counts of Cilli were the most influential late medieval noble dynasty on the territory of present-day Slovenia. Risen as vassals of the Habsburg dukes of Styria, they ruled the County of Cilli as immediate counts from 1341, however, the line became extinct when the last count Ulrich II of Celje was killed in 1456. The Lords of Sanneck Castle on the Sann river in Lower Styria were first mentioned around 1123/30 and their ancestors may have been relatives of Saint Hemma of Gurk, who held large estates in the area. The fortress was already built under the rule of Charlemagne as a stronghold against the Avars. One Leopold of Sanneck appeared as a supporter of the Habsburg king Rudolf I of Germany in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld, frederick finally prevailed with the support of Otto the Merry, the Habsburg duke of Styria. He became governor of Carniola and the Windic March in 1332 and was elevated to comital status by Emperor Louis IV in 1341 at Munich, receiving the title Cylie or Cilli derived from Celje Castle. In a short period of time the Counts of Celje owned more than 20 castles all over the territory of modern Slovenia and his son William married Anna of Poland, daughter of the Polish king Casimir III the Great. The Counts of Cilli were related by marriage with rulers of Bosnia and Polish, also through the Barbara of Cilli the Counts were in kinship with kings of Bohemia. As a reward the king donated the city of Varaždin, the county of Zagorje, in 1401 the Counts of Cilli were among Sigismunds supporters against the relucting Hungarian magnates. Their alliance with the Imperial House of Luxembourg became even closer through the marriage of Hermanns daughter Barbara of Cilli to the king in 1405, in 1418 Count Hermann II inherited the Carinthian and Carniolan estates of the extinct Counts of Ortenburg. In 1410 Sigismund had been elected King of the Romans and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433, in 1436 he elevated the Counts of Cilli to the rank of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The Habsburgs, whose strongest rivals they had become, reacted with a war that lasted until 1443, Count Ulrich II of Cilli was the most powerful member of the Cilli family. In 1432 he married Catherine, daughter of the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković, Ulrich held a large influence in many courts, which originated from the relationships the Cilli family had made in the past. Upon the death of the Habsburg king Albert II in 1439, he tried to get regency of Hungary, with such ambitions he got many opponents and rivals, such as the Hungarian Hunyadi family. Thus, Ulrich II became de facto regent of Hungary, in 1456 after the death of his rival John Hunyadi, Ulrich II succeeded him as Captain General of Hungary. That initiated a plot by the Hunyadi family against Ulrich II and it is also the current coat of arms of Celje. Wife Veronika of Desenice Ulrich II, son, married Catherine of Branković Kantakuzina Katarina Branković, widow of Ulrich, Castle view Video showing the Celje Castle today
Counts of Celje
–
Celje Upper Castle
Counts of Celje
–
The coat of arms of Ulric II of Celje
Counts of Celje
–
Counts of Cilli in the structure of the Holy Roman Empire
22.
House of Habsburg
–
The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
House of Habsburg
–
House of Habsburg
House of Habsburg
–
Growth of the Habsburg Empire in Central Europe.
House of Habsburg
–
A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the
Battle of Mühlberg (1547) as depicted in The Cambridge Modern History Atlas (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green, but do not include the lands of the
Holy Roman Empire over which they presided, nor the vast Castilian holdings outside of Europe, particularly in the
New World.
House of Habsburg
–
Spanish branch's family tree with connections to Emperors' branch
23.
Austria-Hungary
–
The union was a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and came into existence on 30 March 1867. Austria-Hungary consisted of two monarchies, and one region, the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia under the Hungarian crown. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg, and constituted the last phase in the evolution of the Habsburg Monarchy. Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and the Hungarian states were co-equal, Foreign affairs and the military came under joint oversight, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a state and one of the worlds great powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire, at 621,538 km2, the Empire built up the fourth-largest machine building industry of the world, after the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was annexed in 1908. The annexation of Bosnia also led to Islam being recognized as a state religion due to Bosnias Muslim population. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I and it was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The realms full, official name was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, each enjoyed considerable sovereignty with only a few joint affairs. Certain regions, such as Polish Galicia within Cisleithania and Croatia within Transleithania, enjoyed autonomous status, the division between Austria and Hungary was so marked that there was no common citizenship, one was either an Austrian citizen or a Hungarian citizen, never both. This also meant that there were always separate Austrian and Hungarian passports, however, neither Austrian nor Hungarian passports were used in the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia-Dalmatia. Instead, the Kingdom issued its own passports which were written in Croatian and French and it is not known what kind of passports were used in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was under the control of both Austria and Hungary. The Kingdom of Hungary had always maintained a separate parliament, the Diet of Hungary, the administration and government of the Kingdom of Hungary remained largely untouched by the government structure of the overarching Austrian Empire. Hungarys central government structures remained well separated from the Austrian imperial government, the country was governed by the Council of Lieutenancy of Hungary – located in Pressburg and later in Pest – and by the Hungarian Royal Court Chancellery in Vienna. The Hungarian government and Hungarian parliament were suspended after the Hungarian revolution of 1848, despite Austria and Hungary sharing a common currency, they were fiscally sovereign and independent entities. Since the beginnings of the union, the government of the Kingdom of Hungary could preserve its separated. After the revolution of 1848–1849, the Hungarian budget was amalgamated with the Austrian, from 1527 to 1851, the Kingdom of Hungary maintained its own customs controls, which separated her from the other parts of the Habsburg-ruled territories
Austria-Hungary
–
Franz Joseph I. (1885)
Austria-Hungary
–
Civil Ensign
Austria-Hungary
–
Austrian Parliament Building
Austria-Hungary
–
Hungarian Parliament Building
24.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
25.
German Austria
–
The Republic of German-Austria was created following World War I as the initial rump state for areas with a predominantly German-speaking population within what had been the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In Habsburg Austria-Hungary, German-Austria was a term for the areas of the empire inhabited by Austrian Germans. On October 12,1918 Emperor Charles I met with the leaders of the largest German parties, on October 16,1918 Emperor Charles I published a manifesto which offered to change Austria-Hungary into a federation of nationalities. This came too late as Czechs and Southern Slavs were well on their way to creating independent states, however, this gave an impulse to the Reichsrat of German inhabited areas to meet. It elected Franz Dinghofer of the German National Movement, Jodok Fink of the Christian Social Party, the assembly included representatives from Bohemia, Moravia, and Austrian Silesia who refused to submit to the new state of Czechoslovakia which had been declared on October 28,1918. On October 25 Provisional Assembly called on all German inhabited Lands to form their own provisional assemblies, during its second meeting on October 30 the Provisional National Assembly created the basic institutions of the new state. The legislative power was assumed by the Provisional National Assembly while the power was entrusted to the newly created German-Austrian State Council. On November 11,1918, Emperor Charles I in all but name abdicated, the next day, November 12, the National Assembly officially declared German-Austria a republic, and named Social Democrat Karl Renner as provisional chancellor. On the same day it drafted a constitution that stated that German-Austria is a democratic republic. This was enforced by the refusal of Hungary to sell grain, Social Democrat Karl Renner became Chancellor, Victor Adler Foreign Minister. Social Democrats co-opted newly created soldier and worker councils and used their control over labour unions to implement social policies that reduced risks of Bolshevik revolution, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on February 16,1919 and for the first time women were allowed to vote. Out of the 38 German inhabited constituencies only 25 participated and 159 deputies were elected to the 170 seats with Social Democrats as the largest party, Social Democrats won 72 seats, Christians Socials 69 and German Nationalists 26. The Constituent National Assembly first met on March 4,1919 and on March 15 a new government was formed, Austrian Social Democrats, despite being one of the leading Marxist parties with its Austromarxism current, did not attempt to seize power or to institute socialism. However, the majority of conservative, Catholic politicians still distrusted them, Social Democrat leader Otto Bauer wrote, “German-Austria is not an organism which has followed the laws of historical growth. It is nothing but the remnant of what remained of the old Empire after other nations had broken away from it. It remained as a bundle of divergent Lands. ”On November 13,1918 Germany-Austria asked Germany to start negotiations of union and on November 15 sent a telegram to President Wilson to support union of Germany. This was grounded in the view that Austria had never been a nation in the true sense. While the Austrian territory had existed in one form or another for over 700 years within the Holy Roman Empire and later the German Confederation, apart from being German inhabited, these Lands had no common ‘Austrian’ identity and there had never been an Austrian state before
German Austria
–
Ten-
heller German Austrian
postage stamps from 1920.
German Austria
–
Flag
German Austria
–
Twenty-
heller German Austrian
newspaper stamps from 1920.
German Austria
–
One-krone banknote, overprinted with the name Deutschösterreich ("German-Austria").
26.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
–
Although internationally unrecognized, this was the first incarnation of a Yugoslav state and had been founded on the Pan-Slavic ideology behind the incentive. A month after it was proclaimed, the State joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, in 1918, the final year of World War I, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was suffering from an internal crisis caused by unrest amongst its numerous Slavic populations. The neighbouring duchies of Styria and the Carinthia also included a significant South Slavic population, transleithania, The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Fiume were under Hungarian jurisdiction. The Kingdom of Hungary itself included a significant South Slavic populations in Prekmurje, Međimurje, Baranja and territories that had part of the Voivodeship of Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, activities to strengthen pro-Yugoslav forces in the Transleithanian Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia were initiated by the Yugoslav parliamentary club, a group of South Slavic deputies in the Reichsrat. Significantly, however, the ruling Croat-Serb Coalition and its opposition the Croatian Peoples Peasant Party were excluded, in July and August 1918, the so-called Peoples organizations of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs were formed in Split, Sušak and Ljubljana to advance these policies. In late August, the Croatia-Slavonia parties met again in Zagreb to discuss how to proceed and, in particular, how to gain the support of the Croat-Serb Coalition. On September 14,1918, Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Burián issued a statement advocating a settlement of World War I by peace treaty, by early October, the Slovene-Croat-Serb movement were planning to set up a National Assembly. At the same time, the organizers obtained support from the Croatian Peoples Peasant Party, on October 5 and 6, a provisional assembly was convened and the formation of executive committees begun. Seats were apportioned to members of all parties, but not without acrimony over the ad hoc nature of the proceedings, the National Council or the Peoples Council was established on 5–8 October 1918 in Zagreb, as an extension of the decisions reached in March 1918. The Council established its own Central Committee and Presidency, while one member of the Council was to be representative of a 100,000 people, in addition, it comprised five representatives of Croatian Sabor, the Diet of Bosnia and Reichsrat for a total of 95 representatives. 32 voting members were required to form the quorum, and two-thirds majority was needed for any decisions, members of regional parliaments were allowed to attend as non-voting observers. The Council elected up to 30 Central Committee members, who could appoint further 10 to the committee by a two-thirds vote, numerous meetings were held during October, and on October 16 Emperor Karl made a declaration on the federalization of Cisleithania. The Ministry of War had also decided to allow the military commands to approach the peoples councils in order to help maintain law. All this was taken as a sign that the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was disintegrating, the state was proclaimed officially on 29 October 1918. Its first president was a Slovene, Anton Korošec, the two vice presidents were a Serb, Svetozar Pribićević, and a Croat, Ante Pavelić. The new state aspired to include all territories of the former Austria-Hungary that were inhabited by Slovenes, Croats. Vojvodina then joined the Kingdom of Serbia on 25 November 1918, one day earlier, on 24 November 1918, the region of Syrmia, which had become part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, seceded and also joined the Kingdom of Serbia
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
–
"Distribution of Races in Austria–Hungary" from the Historical Atlas by
William R. Shepherd, 1911, indicating those areas inhabited by Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Most of those territories were included in the State.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
–
Flag
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
–
Session of the Croatian parliament, the
Sabor, on 29 October 1918.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
–
Proclamation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs in
Congress Square,
Ljubljana, 29 October 1918.
27.
Rudolf Maister
–
Rudolf Maister was a Slovene military officer, poet and political activist. The soldiers who fought under Maisters command in northern Slovenia became known as Maisters fighters, Maister was also an accomplished poet and self-taught painter. Maister was born in the Upper Carniolan commercial town of Kamnik, a career soldier, during World War I, he served in the Austro-Hungarian Army. In 1917, he was sent to Graz promoted to the rank of a major, in 1918, near the end of the war when it was obvious that Austria-Hungary was losing, the city council of Maribor proclaimed the annexation of Maribor to Austria. Maister organized Slovene volunteer forces of 4000 soldiers and 200 officers and in the night of 23 November 1918 seized control of the city of Maribor and this date has been recognized as a state holiday in Slovenia since 2005. The Slovene National Council for Lower Styria awarded him the rank of general on November 1, on 27 January 1919, Germans awaiting the American peace delegation at the citys marketplace were fired on by Slovenian troops under the command of Maister. Nine Germans were killed and more than eighteen were seriously wounded, the responsibility for the shooting has not been conclusively established. German sources accused Maisters troops of shooting without cause, while Slovenian witnesses, such as Maks Pohar, the Austrian Germans allegedly attacked the police inspector, Ivan Senekovič, and then pressed towards the Slovenian soldiers in front of the city hall. A Slovenian version of this event involves a German firing a revolver in the direction of the Slovenian soldiers, the event became known as Marburgs Bloody Sunday. In November 1919, Maisters forces joined the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Maister joined them later and took part of the capture of Klagenfurt. After the Carinthian Plebiscite, in majority of the local Slovenian population decided to remain part of Austria. He spent most of his life in an estate near Planina in Inner Carniola. Maister also wrote poetry, which he published in two collected volumes, in 1904 and in 1929, most of his poetry follows the Post-Romantic aesthetics, and is influenced by 19th century Slovene lyrical and patriotic poetry of Simon Jenko, Simon Gregorčič and Anton Aškerc. Bruno Hartman, Rudolf Maister, general in pesnik Media related to Rudolf Maister at Wikimedia Commons
Rudolf Maister
–
Rudolf Maister in 1919
Rudolf Maister
–
Rudolf Maister's funeral.
28.
Austro-Hungarian Army
–
The Austro-Hungarian Army was the ground force of the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy from 1867 to 1918. It was composed of three parts, the joint army, the Imperial Austrian Landwehr, and the Royal Hungarian Honved, with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the new tripartite army was brought into being. It existed until the disestablishment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I in 1918, all of the Honvédség and the Landwehr regiments were composed of three battalions, while the joint army k. u. k. In September 1915, field gray was adopted as the new uniform color. The last known surviving member of the Austro-Hungarian Army was World War I veteran Franz Künstler, Austria-Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902. The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia, despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders. In 1868, the number of active-duty troops in the army was 255,000, however, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0. 29% of its population, the 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions. From a religious standpoint, the Austro-Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics, in 1896, out of 1000 officers,791 were Roman Catholics,86 Protestants,84 Jews,39 Greek-Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre–World War military forces of the major European powers, while the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. Franz Ferdinand was also accused of discriminating against Protestant officers, following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the half of the century Austria-Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. Attempts to increase the intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912. In the emerging field of aviation, Austria-Hungary lagged behind other European states
Austro-Hungarian Army
–
Commander in Chief,
Emperor Franz Joseph I
Austro-Hungarian Army
Austro-Hungarian Army
–
Austro-Hungarian
POWs in
Russia; a 1915 photo by
Prokudin-Gorskii
Austro-Hungarian Army
–
Corps areas in the Austro-Hungarian Army
29.
Graz
–
Graz is the capital of Styria and second-largest city in Austria after Vienna. On 1 January 2017, it had a population of 320,587, in 2014, the population of the Graz Larger Urban Zone who had principal residence status stood at 605,143. Graz has a tradition as a university town, its six universities have more than 44,000 students. Its Old Town is one of the city centres in Central Europe. Politically and culturally, Graz was for more important for Slovenes than Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. In 1999, Graz was added to the UNESCO list of World Cultural Heritage Sites, Graz was sole Cultural Capital of Europe for 2003 and got the title of a City of Culinary Delights in 2008. The name of the city, Graz, formerly spelled Gratz, stems most likely from the Slavic gradec, some archaeological finds point to the erection of a small castle by Alpine Slavic people, which in time became a heavily defended fortification. The name thus follows the common South Slavic pattern for naming settlements as grad, the German name Graz first appears in records in 1128. Graz is situated on the Mur River in the southeast of Austria and it is about 200 km southwest of Vienna. The nearest larger urban center is Maribor in Slovenia which is about 50 km away, Graz is the capital and largest city in Styria, a green and heavily forested area. These towns and villages border Graz, The city of Graz is divided into 17 districts, however, no historical continuity exists of a settlement before the Middle Ages. During the 12th century, dukes under Babenberg rule made the town into an important commercial center, later, Graz came under the rule of the Habsburgs, and in 1281, gained special privileges from King Rudolph I. In the 14th century, Graz became the city of residence of the Inner Austrian line of the Habsburgs, the royalty lived in the Schloßberg castle and from there ruled Styria, Carinthia, most of todays Slovenia, and parts of Italy. In the 16th century, the design and planning were primarily controlled by Italian Renaissance architects and artists. One of the most famous buildings built in style is the Landhaus, designed by Domenico dellAllio. Karl-Franzens-Universität, also called the University of Graz, is the citys oldest university, for most of its existence, it was controlled by the Catholic church, and was closed in 1782 by Joseph II in an attempt to gain state control over educational institutions. Joseph II transformed it into a lyceum where civil servants and medical personnel were trained, in 1827 it was re-instituted as a university by Emperor Franz I, thus gaining the name Karl-Franzens Universität, meaning Charles-Francis University. Over 30,000 students currently study at this university, the astronomer Johannes Kepler lived in Graz for a short period
Graz
–
Rathaus (Town Hall) at dusk
Graz
Graz
–
Aerial photography showing the historic city center of Graz
Graz
–
Graz, Georg Matthäus Vischer (1670)
30.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a state in Southeast Europe and Central Europe, that existed during the interwar period and first half of World War II. It was formed in 1918 by the merger of the provisional State of Slovenes, Croats, the Kingdom of Montenegro had united with Serbia five days previously, while the regions of Kosovo, Vojvodina and Vardar Macedonia were parts of Serbia prior to the unification. For its first eleven years of existence, the Kingdom was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the official name of the state was changed to Kingdom of Yugoslavia by King Alexander I on 3 October 1929. The state was ruled by the Serbian dynasty of Karađorđević, which ruled the Kingdom of Serbia under Peter I from 1903 onwards. Peter I became the first king of Yugoslavia until his death in 1921 and he was succeeded by his son Alexander I, who had been regent for his father. He was known as Alexander the Unifier and he renamed the kingdom Yugoslavia in 1929 and he was assassinated in Marseille by Vlado Chernozemski, a member of the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, during his visit to France in 1934. The crown passed to his then-still under-aged son Peter and his cousin Paul ruled as Prince regent until 1941, when Peter II would come of age. The royal family flew to London the same year, prior to the country being invaded by the Axis powers, in April 1941, the country was occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. A royal government-in-exile, recognized by the United Kingdom and, later, in 1944, after pressure from the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the King recognized the government of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as the legitimate government. This was established on 2 November following the signing of the Treaty of Vis by Ivan Šubašić, Trumbić faced initial hostility from Serbian Prime Minister Nikola Pašić, who preferred an enlarged Serbia over a unified Yugoslav state. In 1916, the Serbian Parliament in exile decided on the creation of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia at a meeting inside the Municipal Theatre of Corfu. The Kingdom was formed on 1 December 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, on 1 December 1918, the new kingdom was proclaimed by Alexander Karađorđević, Prince-Regent for his father, Peter I of Serbia. The creation of the state was supported by pan-Slavists and Serbian nationalists, for the pan-Slavic movement, all of the South Slav people had united into a single state. For Serbian nationalists, the goal of uniting the majority of the Serb population across south-eastern Europe into one state was also achieved. Furthermore, as Serbia already had a government, military, and police force, the newly established Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes participated in the Paris Peace Conference with Trumbić as the countrys representative. Almost immediately, it ran into disputes with most of its neighbours, Slovenia was difficult to determine, since it had been an integral part of Austria for 400 years. The Vojvodina region was disputed with Hungary, Macedonia with Bulgaria, a plebiscite was also held in the Province of Carinthia, which opted to remain in Austria. Austrians had formed a majority in this region although numbers reflected that some Slovenes did vote for Carinthia to become part of Austria, the Dalmatian port city of Zadar and a few of the Dalmatian islands were given to Italy
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
Serbian army units enter
Zagreb 's
Ban Jelačić Square in 1918.
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
Flag
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
Slovene labourers working in agriculture in the 1930s
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
–
Between 1918 and 1926,
Nikola Pašić held the position of
Prime Minister of Yugoslavia three times.
_-_colored.svg)
