1.
UGM-96 Trident I
–
The UGM-96 Trident I, or Trident C4, was an American submarine-launched ballistic missile, built by Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Sunnyvale, California. First deployed in 1979, the Trident I replaced the Poseidon missile and it was retired in 2005, having been replaced by the Trident II. In 1980, the Royal Navy requested Trident I missiles under the Polaris Sales Agreement, in 1982 and it was the first Trident missile to enter service. The Trident I is a three-stage, solid-fuelled missile, the first eight Ohio-class submarines were armed with Trident I missiles. Twelve James Madison- and Benjamin Franklin-class submarines were also retrofitted with Trident I missiles, which replaced older Poseidon missiles
UGM-96 Trident I
–
The first launch of a Trident I with a
drag-reducing aerospike, from Cape Canaveral, on 18 January 1977
2.
Ballistic missile
–
A ballistic missile is a missile that follows a ballistic trajectory with the objective of delivering one or more warheads to a predetermined target. A ballistic missile is only guided during relatively brief periods of flight and this contrasts to a cruise missile, which is aerodynamically guided in powered flight. Long range intercontinental ballistic missiles are launched on a flight trajectory. Shorter range ballistic missiles stay within the Earths atmosphere, the earliest use of rockets as a weapon date to the 13th Century. A pioneer ballistic missile was the A-4, commonly known as the V-2 rocket developed by Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s under the direction of Wernher von Braun. The first successful launch of a V-2 was on October 3,1942, by the end of World War II in May 1945, over 3,000 V-2s had been launched. The R-7 Semyorka was the first intercontinental ballistic missile, a total of 30 nations have deployed operational ballistic missiles. Development continues with around 100 ballistic missile tests in 2007, mostly by China, Iran. In 2010, the U. S. and Russian governments signed a treaty to reduce their inventory of intercontinental ballistic missiles over a period to 1550 units each. Ballistic missiles can be launched from fixed sites or mobile launchers, including vehicles, aircraft, ships, the powered flight portion can last from a few tenths of seconds to several minutes and can consist of multiple rocket stages. When in space and no more thrust is provided, the missile enters free-flight, the re-entry stage begins at an altitude where atmospheric drag plays a significant part in missile trajectory, and lasts until missile impact. The course taken by ballistic missiles has two significant desirable properties, first, ballistic missiles that fly above the atmosphere have a much longer range than would be possible for cruise missiles of the same size. Powered rocket flight through thousands of kilometers of air would require greater amounts of fuel, making the launch vehicles larger and easier to detect. Powered missiles that can cover similar ranges, such as missiles, do not use rocket motors for the majority of their flight. Despite this, cruise missiles have not made ballistic missiles obsolete, due to the major advantage. An ICBM can strike a target within a 10,000 km range in about 30 to 35 minutes, with terminal speeds of over 5,000 m/s, ballistic missiles are much harder to intercept than cruise missiles, due to the much shorter time available to intercept them. This is why ballistic missiles are some of the most feared weapons available, despite the fact that cruise missiles are cheaper, more mobile, Ballistic missiles can vary widely in range and use, and are often divided into categories based on range. A comparable missile would be the decommissioned Chinas JL-1 SLBM with a range of less than 2, tactical, short- and medium-range missiles are often collectively referred to as tactical and theatre ballistic missiles, respectively
Ballistic missile
–
Trident II SLBM launched by
ballistic missile submarine.
Ballistic missile
Ballistic missile
–
Dhanush-missile
3.
Ballistic missile submarine
–
A ballistic missile submarine is a submarine deploying submarine-launched ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. These submarines became a weapon system in the Cold War because of their nuclear deterrence capability. Their deployment has been dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union / Russia, with numbers in service with France, the United Kingdom, China. This submarine launched the worlds first SLBM, an R-11FM on 16 September 1955, five additional Project V611 and AV611 submarines became the worlds first operational SSBs with two R-11FM missiles each, entering service in 1956-57. They were followed by a series of 23 specifically designed Project 629 SSBs completed 1958-62, the Polaris missile and the first US SSBNs were developed by a Special Project office under Rear Admiral W. F. Red Raborn, appointed by Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke, George Washington was redesigned and rebuilt early in construction from a Skipjack-class fast attack submarine, USS Scorpion, with a 130 ft missile compartment welded into the middle. Nuclear power was an advance, allowing a ballistic missile submarine to remain undetected at sea by remaining submerged or occasionally at periscope depth for an entire patrol. With more missiles on one US SSBN than on five Golf-class boats, the Soviets were only a year behind the US with their first SSBN, the ill-fated K-19 of Project 658, commissioned in November 1960. However, this carried the same three-missile armament as the Golfs. The first Soviet SSBN with 16 missiles was the Project 667A, the short range of the early SLBMs dictated basing and deployment locations. By the late 1960s the Polaris A-3 was deployed on all US SSBNs with a range of 4,600 kilometres, the A-3 also had three warheads that landed in a pattern around a single target. The Yankee class was equipped with the R-27 Zyb missile with a range of 2,400 kilometres. The US was much more fortunate in its basing arrangements than the Soviets, with two rotating crews per SSBN, about one-third of the total US force could be in a patrol area at any time. These missiles were the R-29 Vysota series, equipped on Projects 667B, 667BD, 667BDR, the SS-N-8, with a range of 7,700 kilometres, entered service on the first Delta-I boat in 1972, before the Yankee class was even completed. A total of 43 Delta-class boats of all entered service 1972-90, with the SS-N-18 on the Delta III class. The new missiles had increased range and eventually Multiple Independently-targeted Re-entry Vehicles, the Delta-I class had 12 missiles each, the others have 16 missiles each. All Deltas have a superstructure to accommodate their large liquid-fueled missiles. Although the US did not commission any new SSBNs from 1967 through 1981, thirty-one of the 41 original US SSBNs were built with larger diameter launch tubes with future missiles in mind
Ballistic missile submarine
–
USS George Washington (SSBN-598) –the lead ship of
US Navy 's first class of
Fleet Ballistic Missile submarines (SSBN). George Washington was the first operational nuclear-powered multi-missile
strategic deterrence asset fielded by any navy.
Ballistic missile submarine
–
Soviet
Project 667BD (Delta II class) nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine
Ballistic missile submarine
–
USS Alabama (SSBN-731), an
Ohio class (aka Trident) submarine.
Ballistic missile submarine
–
A
Project 941 (Typhoon class) SSBN.
4.
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
–
A multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle is a ballistic missile payload containing several warheads, each capable of being aimed to hit one of a group of targets. By contrast a unitary warhead is a single warhead on a single missile, an intermediate case is the multiple reentry vehicle missile which carries several warheads which are dispersed but not individually aimed. Only the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, France, the military purpose of a MIRV is fourfold, Enhance first-strike proficiency for strategic forces. Providing greater target damage for a given thermonuclear weapon payload, several small warheads cause much more target damage area than a single warhead alone. This in turn reduces the number of missiles and launch facilities required for a destruction level - much the same as the purpose of a cluster munition. With single warhead missiles, one missile must be launched for each target, by contrast with a MIRV warhead, the post-boost stage can dispense the warheads against multiple targets across a broad area. Reduces the effectiveness of a missile system that relies on intercepting individual warheads. While a MIRV attacking missile can have multiple warheads, interceptors may have only one warhead per missile, decoy reentry vehicles can be used alongside actual warheads to minimize the chances of the actual warheads being intercepted before they reach their targets. A system that destroys the missile earlier in its trajectory is not affected by this but is more difficult, MIRV land-based ICBMs were considered destabilizing because they tended to put a premium on striking first. Later on the US feared the Soviets MIRVs because Soviet missiles had a greater throw-weight, for example, the US MIRVs might have increased their warhead per missile count by a factor of 6 while the Soviets increased theirs by a factor of 10. Furthermore, the US had a smaller proportion of its nuclear arsenal in ICBMs than the Soviets. Bombers could not be outfitted with MIRVs so their capacity would not be multiplied, thus the US did not seem to have as much potential for MIRV usage as the Soviets. However, the US had a number of Submarine-launched ballistic missiles, which could be outfitted with MIRVs. It is because of their first-strike capability that land-based MIRVs were banned under the START II agreement, START II was ratified by the Russian Duma on 14 April 2000, but Russia withdrew from the treaty in 2002 after the US withdrew from the ABM treaty. In a MIRV, the rocket motor pushes a bus into a free-flight suborbital ballistic flight path. After the boost phase the bus maneuvers using small on-board rocket motors and it takes up a ballistic trajectory that will deliver a reentry vehicle containing a warhead to a target, and then releases a warhead on that trajectory. It then maneuvers to a different trajectory, releasing another warhead, the precise technical details are closely guarded military secrets, to hinder any development of enemy counter-measures. The bus on-board propellant limits the distances between targets of individual warheads to perhaps a few hundred kilometers, some warheads may use small hypersonic airfoils during the descent to gain additional cross-range distance
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
–
The MIRV U.S.
Peacekeeper missile, with the reentry vehicles highlighted in red.
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
–
Technicians secure a number of Mk21 reentry vehicles on a
Peacekeeper MIRV bus.
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
–
A
Trident II missile, operated exclusively by the
US Navy and
Royal Navy. Each missile can carry up to 14 warheads.
Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle
–
Testing of the
Peacekeeper reentry vehicles, all eight (ten capable) fired from only one missile. Each line represents the path of an individual warhead.
5.
Thermonuclear weapon
–
A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
Thermonuclear weapon
–
Edward Teller in 1958
Thermonuclear weapon
–
Operation Castle thermonuclear test,
Castle Romeo shot.
Thermonuclear weapon
–
Operation Grapple on
Christmas Island was the first British hydrogen bomb test.
Thermonuclear weapon
–
The
detonation of Shakti-1 produced a
nuclear yield of 45 kt.
6.
Warhead
–
The term warhead refers to the explosive or toxic material that is delivered by a missile, rocket, or torpedo. Types of warheads include, Explosive, An explosive charge is used to disintegrate the target, conventional, Chemicals such as gunpowder and high explosives store significant energy within their molecular bonds. This energy can be released quickly by a trigger, such as an electric spark, thermobaric weapons enhance the blast effect by utilizing the surrounding atmosphere in their explosive reactions. Blast, A strong shock wave is provided by the detonation of the explosive, fragmentation, Metal fragments are projected at high velocity to cause damage or injury. Continuous rod, Metal bars welded on their ends form a cylinder of interconnected rods. The rapidly expanding ring produces a planar cutting effect that is devastating against military aircraft, shaped charge, The effect of the explosive charge is focused onto a specially shaped metal liner to project a hypervelocity jet of metal, to perforate heavy armour. Nuclear, A runaway nuclear fission or nuclear fusion reaction causes immense energy release, chemical, A toxic chemical, such as poison gas or nerve gas, is dispersed, which is designed to injure or kill human beings. Biological, An infectious agent, such as spores, is dispersed. Often, a biological or chemical warhead will use a charge for rapid dispersal. Type of detonators include Guidance system List of aircraft weapons List of missiles Nuclear weapon yield Missile The Nuclear Weapon Archive, the B61 Bomb - Intermediate yield strategic and tactical thermonuclear bomb. Atomic Audit - The Costs and Consequences of U. S, ogden Air Logistics Center at Hill AFB, Utah. NNSA Achieves Significant Milestone for B61 Bomb, Nuclear Weapons, The Secret History, pp. 162–164
Warhead
–
A
B61 nuclear bomb in various stages of assembly; the nuclear warhead is the bullet-shaped silver canister in the middle-left of the photograph.
7.
Submarine-launched cruise missile
–
A submarine-launched cruise missile is a cruise missile that is launched from a submarine. Current versions are typically standoff weapons known as cruise missiles. Anti-ship cruise missiles are used, and some submarine-launched cruise missiles have variants for both functions. The US deployed the short-range Harpoon anti-ship missile on submarines beginning in 1981, the Soviet Navy converted 13 Whiskey-class submarines for the land-attack cruise missile role in the late 1950s, armed with the SS-N-3 Shaddock missile. As Soviet SSBNs armed with submarine-launched ballistic missiles became available in the late 1960s, the Shaddock LACM was withdrawn and an anti-ship version replaced it. The Echo- and Juliett-class submarines of the 1960s had a similar armament history, the SS-N-3 ASCM was eventually replaced with the SS-N-12. Later, the Charlie- and Oscar-classes were designed to use long-range ASCMs, only the Oscar-class remains in service. In 1990, it was reported that the Soviet Navy had deployed between 50 and 300 SLCMs, the current Akula- and Severodvinsk-class submarines are armed with the SS-N-21 LACM. The advantage that the submarines have over guided missile destroyers and cruisers is the ability to remain undetected, Tomahawk was deployed on US Navy attack submarines beginning in 1983, originally in LACM and ASCM versions, but the ASCM version was withdrawn in the 1990s. The USSR′s S-10 Granat subsonic cruise missiles designed by the NPO Novator may still be in service in Russia, janes Defence Weekly reports that the Dolphin-class submarines are believed to be nuclear armed, offering Israel a sea based second strike capability. In adherence to Missile Technology Control Regime rules the US Clinton administration refused an Israeli request in 2000 to purchase Tomahawk long range SLCMs, the Federation of American Scientists and GlobalSecurity
Submarine-launched cruise missile
–
USS Tunny launching a
Regulus I in 1958
Submarine-launched cruise missile
–
The fore section of a US attack submarine with the doors of the vertical launch system for Tomahawk missiles in the open position
8.
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
–
An intercontinental ballistic missile is a guided ballistic missile with a minimum range of 5,500 kilometres primarily designed for nuclear weapons delivery. Similarly, conventional, chemical, and biological weapons can also be delivered with varying effectiveness, most modern designs support multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, allowing a single missile to carry several warheads, each of which can strike a different target. Early ICBMs had limited precision that allowed them to be used only against the largest targets such as cities and they were seen as a safe basing option, one that would keep the deterrent force close to home where it would be difficult to attack. Attacks against military targets, if desired, still demanded the use of a more precise manned bomber, the result is that the power of a nuclear explosion to rupture hardened structures is greatly decreased by the distance from the impact point of the nuclear weapon. So a near-direct hit is generally necessary, as only diminishing returns are gained by increasing bomb yield, second- and third-generation designs dramatically improved accuracy to the point where even the smallest point targets can be successfully attacked. Short and medium-range ballistic missiles are known collectively as theatre ballistic missiles, the ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945, the progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants, in the immediate post-war era, the US and USSR both started rocket research programs based on the German wartime designs, especially the V-2. In the US, each branch of the military started its own programs, in the USSR, rocket research was centrally organized, although several teams worked on different designs. Early designs from both countries were short-range missiles, like the V-2, but improvements quickly followed, in the USSR early development was focused on missiles able to attack European targets. This changed in 1953 when Sergei Korolyov was directed to development of a true ICBM able to deliver newly developed hydrogen bombs. Given steady funding throughout, the R-7 developed with some speed, the first launch took place on 15 May 1957 and led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site. The first successful test followed on 21 August 1957, the R-7 flew over 6,000 km, the first strategic-missile unit became operational on 9 February 1959 at Plesetsk in north-west Russia. It was the same R-7 launch vehicle that placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik, the first human spaceflight in history was accomplished on a derivative of R-7, Vostok, on 12 April 1961, by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. The U. S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the RTV-A-2 Hiroc project and this was a three-stage effort with the ICBM development not starting until the third stage. However, funding was cut after only three successful launches in 1948 of the second stage design, used to test variations on the V-2 design. With overwhelming air superiority and truly intercontinental bombers, the newly forming US Air Force did not take the problem of ICBM development seriously. Things changed in 1953 with the Soviet testing of their first thermonuclear weapon, the Atlas A first flew on 11 June 1957, the flight lasted only about 24 seconds before the rocket blew up
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
–
The Atlas missile was the first US ICBM. First launch 1957, successful launch 1958
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
–
The
R-7 Semyorka was the world's first ICBM and satellite launch vehicle
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
–
Test launch of an
LGM-25C Titan II ICBM from an
underground silo at
Vandenberg AFB during the mid-1970s
Intercontinental ballistic missiles
–
A
Minuteman III ICBM test launch from
Vandenberg Air Force Base,
CA, United States
9.
Submarine
–
A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
Submarine
–
A
Russian Navy Typhoon-class submarine underway. Also known as "Project 941".
Submarine
–
Drebbel, the first navigable submarine
Submarine
–
The French submarine Plongeur
Submarine
–
The
Nordenfelt -designed,
Ottoman submarine
Abdül Hamid
10.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
11.
V-2 rocket
–
The V-2, technical name Aggregat 4, was the worlds first long-range guided ballistic missile. The V-2 rocket also became the first artificial object to cross the boundary of space with the launch of MW18014 on 20 June 1944. Research into military use of long range rockets began when the studies of graduate student Wernher von Braun attracted the attention of the German Army, a series of prototypes culminated in the A-4, which went to war as the V-2. Beginning in September 1944, over 3,000 V-2s were launched by the German Wehrmacht against Allied targets during the war, first London and later Antwerp and Liège. As Germany collapsed, teams from the Allied forces—the United States, the United Kingdom, Wernher von Braun and over 100 key V-2 personnel surrendered to the Americans. Eventually, many of the original V-2 team ended up working at the Redstone Arsenal, the US also captured enough V-2 hardware to build approximately 80 of the missiles. The Soviets gained possession of the V-2 manufacturing facilities after the war, re-established V-2 production, in the late 1920s, a young Wernher von Braun bought a copy of Hermann Oberths book, Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen. Starting in 1930, he attended the Technical University of Berlin, von Braun was working on his doctorate when the Nazi Party gained power in Germany. An artillery captain, Walter Dornberger, arranged an Ordnance Department research grant for von Braun, von Brauns thesis, Construction, Theoretical, and Experimental Solution to the Problem of the Liquid Propellant Rocket, was kept classified by the German Army and was not published until 1960. By the end of 1934, his group had launched two rockets that reached heights of 2.2 and 3.5 km. At the time, Germany was highly interested in American physicist Robert H. Goddards research, before 1939, German engineers and scientists occasionally contacted Goddard directly with technical questions. Von Braun used Goddards plans from various journals and incorporated them into the building of the Aggregat series of rockets, during 28–30 September 1939, Der Tag der Weisheit conference met at Peenemünde to initiate the funding of university research to solve rocket problems. By late 1941, the Army Research Center at Peenemünde possessed the essential to the success of the A-4. The four key technologies for the A-4 were large liquid-fuel rocket engines, supersonic aerodynamics, gyroscopic guidance, at the time, Adolf Hitler was not particularly impressed by the V-2, he pointed out that it was merely an artillery shell with a longer range and much higher cost. Hitler was sufficiently impressed by the enthusiasm of its developers, and needed a weapon to maintain German morale. The V-2s were constructed at the Mittelwerk site by prisoners from Mittelbau-Dora, the A-4 used a 74% ethanol/water mixture for fuel and liquid oxygen for oxidizer. The rocket reached a height of 80 km after shutting off the engine, the fuel and oxidizer pumps were driven by a steam turbine, and the steam was produced by concentrated hydrogen peroxide with sodium permanganate catalyst. Both the alcohol and oxygen tanks were an aluminium-magnesium alloy, the combustion burner reached a temperature of 2,500 to 2,700 °C
V-2 rocket
–
Peenemünde Museum
replica of V-2.
V-2 rocket
–
Wind tunnel model of an A4 in the
German Museum of Technology in Berlin
V-2 rocket
–
Layout of a V-2 rocket.
V-2 rocket
–
Captured V2 on public display in Antwerp, 1945. Exhaust vanes and external rudders in tail section shown.
12.
Operation Paperclip
–
The primary purpose for Operation Paperclip was for the U. S. to gain a military advantage in the burgeoning Cold War, and later Space Race, between the U. S. and Soviet Union. The term “Overcast” was the name first given by the German scientists’ family members for the camp where they were held in Bavaria. In September 1945, the JCS established the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency to directly oversee Operation Overcast, president Truman formally approved Operation Paperclip in a secret directive, circulated on September 3,1946. Architecture Heinz Hilten and Hannes Luehrsen, material Science Claus Scheufelen and Rudolf Schlidt. Physics Gunter Guttein, Gerhard Schwesinger, Helmut Weickmann, and Friedwardt Winterberg, Nazi Germany found itself at a logistical disadvantage, having failed to conquer the USSR with Operation Barbarossa, the Siege of Leningrad, Operation Nordlicht, and the Battle of Stalingrad. The failed conquest had depleted German resources, and its complex was unprepared to defend the Großdeutsches Reich against the Red Armys westward counterattack. The recall from frontline combat included 4,000 rocketeers returned to Peenemünde, overnight, Ph. D. s were liberated from KP duty, masters of science were recalled from orderly service, mathematicians were hauled out of bakeries, and precision mechanics ceased to be truck drivers. Werner Osenberg, the engineer-scientist heading the Wehrforschungsgemeinschaft, recorded the names of the cleared men to the Osenberg List. In March 1945, at Bonn University, a Polish laboratory technician found pieces of the Osenberg List stuffed in a toilet, the list subsequently reached MI6, then U. S. Army Major Robert B. In Operation Overcast, Major Stavers original intent was only to interview the scientists, on May 22,1945, he transmitted to U. S. Pentagon headquarters Colonel Joel Holmess telegram urging the evacuation of German scientists and their families, as most important for Pacific war effort. Most of the Osenberg List engineers worked at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde, after capturing them, the Allies initially housed them and their families in Landshut, Bavaria, in southern Germany. Beginning on July 19,1945, the U. S, Joint Chiefs of Staff managed the captured ARC rocketeers under Operation Overcast. However, when the Camp Overcast name of the quarters became locally-known. Despite these attempts at secrecy, later that year the press interviewed several of the scientists, early on, the United States created the Combined Intelligence Objectives Subcommittee. This provided the information on targets for the T-Forces that went in and targeted scientific, military and industrial installations for their know-how. Initial priorities were advanced technology, such as infrared, that could be used in the war against Japan, finding out what technology had passed on to Japan. Much U. S. effort was focused on Saxony and Thuringia, many German research facilities and personnel had been evacuated to these states, particularly from the Berlin area. Fearing that the Soviet takeover would limit U. S, there is no need to bring winter clothing
Operation Paperclip
–
A group of 104
rocket scientists (aerospace engineers) at
Fort Bliss, Texas
Operation Paperclip
–
V-2 rocket launching,
Peenemünde, on the north-east Baltic German coast. (1943)
Operation Paperclip
–
The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of
Nazi Germany, before the present
Länder (federal states) were established.
Operation Paperclip
–
German scientists repatriated from
Sukhumi in February 1958. (see
Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union)
13.
Underwater
–
Underwater refers to the region below the surface of water where the water exists in a natural feature such as an ocean, sea, lake, pond, or river. Three quarters of the planet Earth is covered by water, a majority of the planets solid surface is abyssal plain, at depths between 4,000 and 5,500 metres below the surface of the oceans. The solid surface location on the planet closest to the centre of the orb is the Challenger Deep, but it can be explored by sonar, or more directly via manned or autonomous submersibles. An immediate obstacle to human activity under water is the fact that human lungs cannot naturally function in this environment, unlike the gills of fish, human lungs are adapted to the exchange of gases at atmospheric pressure, not liquids. Air is around 21% O2, water typically is less than 0. 001% dissolved oxygen, the density of water also causes problems that increase dramatically with depth. The atmospheric pressure at the surface is 14.7 pounds per inch or around 100 kPa. A comparable water pressure occurs at a depth of only 10 m, thus, at about 10 m below the surface, the water exerts twice the pressure on the body as air at surface level. For solids and liquids like bone, muscle and blood, this pressure is not much of a problem. This is because the air in those spaces reduces in volume when under pressure and so does not provide those spaces with support against the higher outside pressure. Even at a depth of 8 ft underwater, an inability to equalize air pressure in the ear with outside water pressure can cause pain. The danger of damage is greatest in shallow water because the ratio of pressure change is greatest near the surface of the water. For example, the increase between the surface and 10 m is 100%, but the pressure increase from 30 m to 40 m is only 25%. Any object immersed in water is provided with a buoyant force that counters the force of gravity, if the overall density of the object exceeds the density of water, the object sinks. If the overall density is less than the density of water, with increasing depth underwater, sunlight is absorbed, and the amount of visible light diminishes. Because absorption is greater for long wavelengths than for short wavelengths, white objects at the surface appear bluish underwater, and red objects appear dark, even black. Although light penetration will be less if water is turbid, in the clear water of the open ocean less than 25% of the surface light reaches a depth of 10 m. At 100 m the light present from the sun is normally about 0. 5% of that at the surface, the euphotic depth is the depth at which light intensity falls to 1% of the value at the surface. This depth is dependent upon water clarity, being only a few metres underwater in a turbid estuary, at the euphotic depth, plants have no net energy gain from photosynthesis and thus cannot grow
Underwater
–
Note the bluish cast given to objects in this underwater photo of
pillow lava (
NOAA).
Underwater
–
Underwater life of
Klein Bonaire - composite of 8 photos from
snorkeling on a flat
coral reef off the islet Klein Bonaire
14.
Project 611
–
The Soviet Navys Project 611 were one of the first Soviet post-war attack submarines. They were roughly as capable as the American GUPPY fleet-boat conversions and they were a contemporary of the Whiskey-class submarines and shared a similar sonar arrangement. Like most conventional submarines designed 1946-60, their design was influenced by the German Type XXI U-boat of the World War II era. The first few boats of the class were equipped with twin 57mm and twin 25mm anti-aircraft guns and no snorkels, although the guns were removed and snorkels added soon after the boats entered service. Six were converted in 1956 to become the worlds first ballistic missile submarines, one armed with a single R-11FM Scud missile and they were designated as Project AV611 and received the NATO reporting name of Zulu V. The missiles were too long to be contained in the boats hull, to be fired, the submarine had to surface and raise the missile out of the sail. Soviet submarine B-67 successfully launched a missile on 16 September 1955, the Zulus were the basis for the very successful Foxtrot-class submarine, which lent their hull to the Golf class of ballistic missile submarine. Twenty-six boats were built overall, entering service from 1952 to 1957,8 of them in Leningrad and 18 in Severodvinsk and their names were initially B-61 through B-82 and B-88 through B-91, with most renamed in the 1970s or 1980s. The class received the NATO reporting names Zulu I through Zulu V and it is unclear from references how many of each subclass were built. Most were converted to non-combat uses and eventually scrapped, gardiner, Robert and Chumbley, Stephen, Conways all the worlds fighting ships 1947-1995, Naval Institute Press,1996. Globalsecurity. org article Deep storm article Zulu Class submarines - Complete Ship List
Project 611
Project 611
–
Zulu-class submarine in Amsterdam
15.
Scud
–
Scud is a series of tactical ballistic missiles developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. It was exported widely to both Second and Third World countries, the term comes from the NATO reporting name Scud which was attached to the missile by Western intelligence agencies. The Russian names for the missile are the R-11, and the R-17 Elbrus, the name Scud has been widely used to refer to these missiles and the wide variety of derivative variants developed in other countries based on the Soviet design. The first use of the term Scud was in the NATO name SS-1b Scud-A, the earlier R-1 missile had carried the NATO name SS-1 Scunner, but was of a very different design, almost directly a copy of the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 used technology gained from the V-2 as well, but was a new design, smaller and differently shaped than the V-2, the R-11 was developed by the Korolyev OKB and entered service in 1957. The most revolutionary innovation in the R-11 was the engine, designed by A. M, far simpler than the V-2s multi-chamber design, and employing an anti-oscillation baffle to prevent chugging, it was a forerunner to the larger engines used in Soviet launch vehicles. The SS-1e Scud-D variant developed in the 1980s can deliver a terminally guided warhead capable of greater precision, all models are 11.35 m long and 0.88 m in diameter. They are propelled by a single rocket engine burning kerosene and corrosion inhibited red fuming nitric acid with UDMH. The missile reaches a speed of mach 5. The first of the Scud series, designated R-11 originated in a 1951 requirement for a missile with similar performance to the German V-2 rocket. The R-11 was developed by engineer Viktor Makeev, who was working in the OKB-1. It first flew on 18 April 1953, was fitted with an Isayev engine using kerosene, on 13 December 1953, a production order was passed with SKB-385 in Zlatoust, a factory dedicated to producing long-range rockets. In June 1955, Makeev was appointed chief designer of the SKB-385 to oversee the program and, in July, the definitive R-11M, designed to carry a nuclear warhead, was accepted officially into service on 1 April 1958. The launch system received the GRAU designation 8K11, the R-11M had a maximum range of 270 km, but when carrying a nuclear warhead, this was reduced to 150 km. A naval variant, the R-11FM was first tested in February 1955, while the initial design was done by Korolevs OKB-1, the program was transferred to Makeevs SKB-385 in August 1955. It became operational in 1959 and was deployed onboard Project 611, during its service,77 launches were conducted, of which 59 were successful. The successor to the R-11, the R-17, renamed R-300 in the 1970s, was the most prolific of the series and it served in 32 countries and four countries besides the Soviet Union manufactured copied versions. The first launch was conducted in 1961, and it entered service in 1964, the R-17 was an improved version of the R-11
Scud
Scud
–
MAZ-543 (9P117) Launcher with 8K14 rocket of 9K72 missile complex "Elbrus" (Scud B)
Scud
–
The rear section of an
8K14 missile, showing the fixed fins and the graphite vanes that control the missile's path.
Scud
–
Scud Transporter Erector Launcher (TEL) with missile in upright position
16.
United States Navy
–
The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
United States Navy
United States Navy
–
United States Navy portal
United States Navy
–
USS Constellation vs L'Insurgente during the
Quasi-War
United States Navy
–
USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere during the
War of 1812
17.
US Army
–
The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States Armed Forces and performs land-based military operations. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784, the United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. As a uniformed service, the Army is part of the Department of the Army. As a branch of the forces, the mission of the U. S. The branch participates in conflicts worldwide and is the major ground-based offensive and defensive force of the United States, the United States Army serves as the land-based branch of the U. S. Section 3062 of Title 10, U. S, the army was initially led by men who had served in the British Army or colonial militias and who brought much of British military heritage with them. As the Revolutionary War progressed, French aid, resources, a number of European soldiers came on their own to help, such as Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who taught Prussian Army tactics and organizational skills. The army fought numerous pitched battles and in the South in 1780–81 sometimes used the Fabian strategy and hit-and-run tactics, hitting where the British were weakest, to wear down their forces. Washington led victories against the British at Trenton and Princeton, but lost a series of battles in the New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776, with a decisive victory at Yorktown, and the help of the French, the Continental Army prevailed against the British. After the war, though, the Continental Army was quickly given land certificates, State militias became the new nations sole ground army, with the exception of a regiment to guard the Western Frontier and one battery of artillery guarding West Points arsenal. However, because of continuing conflict with Native Americans, it was realized that it was necessary to field a trained standing army. The War of 1812, the second and last war between the United States and Great Britain, had mixed results. After taking control of Lake Erie in 1813, the U. S. Army seized parts of western Upper Canada, burned York and defeated Tecumseh, which caused his Western Confederacy to collapse. Following U. S. victories in the Canadian province of Upper Canada, British troops, were able to capture and burn Washington, which was defended by militia, in 1814. Two weeks after a treaty was signed, Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans and Siege of Fort St. Philip, U. S. troops and sailors captured HMS Cyane, Levant, and Penguin in the final engagements of the war. Per the treaty, both sides, the United States and Great Britain, returned to the status quo. Both navies kept the warships they had seized during the conflict, the armys major campaign against the Indians was fought in Florida against Seminoles. It took long wars to defeat the Seminoles and move them to Oklahoma
US Army
–
Storming of Redoubt #10 in the
Siege of Yorktown during the
American Revolutionary War prompted the British government to begin negotiations, resulting in the
Treaty of Paris and British recognition of the United States of America.
US Army
–
Emblem of the United States Department of the Army
US Army
–
General
Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking
Highlanders during the
defense of New Orleans, the final major battle of the War of 1812
US Army
–
The
Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War
18.
PGM-19 Jupiter
–
The PGM-19 Jupiter was the first nuclear tipped, medium-range ballistic missile of the United States Air Force. It was a liquid-propellant rocket using RP-1 fuel and LOX oxidizer and it was armed with the 1.1 megaton W49 nuclear warhead. The prime contractor was the Chrysler Corporation, the Navy also expressed an interest in the design as an SLBM, but left the collaboration to work on their Polaris. Jupiter retained the short, squat shape intended to fit in naval submarines, a presidential report suggested this made it the most valuable missile then being developed. This led to continual inter-service fighting between the Army and Air Force, and ultimately to Charles Erwin Wilsons decision to give the Jupiter missiles to the U. S. Air Force. The Air Force was never interested in supporting Jupiter, they saw no need for its accuracy in their battle plans and had their own Thor with longer range. Production went ahead and the nuclear tipped missiles were deployed in both Italy and Turkey in 1961 due to NATOs Cold War deterrence against the Soviet Union. All were then removed by the United States as part of a secret agreement with the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis. They were considered to be outdated and it was also used as the basis for a satellite launcher known as Juno II, but had a short and unsuccessful career in this role. It is unclear as to what happened to the missiles in Italy, in the aftermath of World War II, a number of German rocket scientists and engineers were moved to the United States as part of Operation Paperclip. Rocketry was at that time considered to be a sort of long-range artillery, the group was settled at Fort Bliss, Texas - where they aided General Electrics Project Hermes efforts to build and test a variety of V-2-derived designs at the nearby White Sands Proving Ground. Around the same time, North American Aviation won the contract to build a cruise missile that became the SM-64 Navaho. This used ramjet power and needed to be boosted up to speed by a of rocket. Their Propulsion Division was given two V-2 engines to work with to meet this requirement, along with a wealth of research papers from the original V-2 engine team, attacking this task, NAA successfully solved the problems and began using this new injector. This became the XLR-41 Phase III engine, which provided 75,000 pounds-force of thrust, one greater than the Model 39. The fastest solution was to provide the German team with anything they needed to achieve this goal by adapting the V-2 design, the team, under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, began work on the problem at Fort Bliss. In 1951 they moved to the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, initially known as the Ordnance Guided Missile Center, then the Guided Missile Development Division, in 1956 they finally became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, or ABMA. Taking the XLR-41, renamed as the NA-75-110 in Army use, they wrapped it in the largest airframe it could lift, increasing fuel load, the result was essentially a larger version of the V-2
PGM-19 Jupiter
–
Jupiter missile emplacement showing ground support equipment. The bottom third of the missile is encased in a "flower petal shelter" of wedge-shaped metal panels allowing crews to service the missile in all weather conditions.
PGM-19 Jupiter
–
Army troops prepare a Redstone missile. Like the V-2 it was based on, Redstone was relatively mobile.
PGM-19 Jupiter
–
Navaho's booster engines proved to be the only lasting success of the project.
PGM-19 Jupiter
–
Admiral Arleigh Burke is credited with breaking the Navy out of its moribund ways, and pressing for development of the SLBM.
19.
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
–
An intermediate-range ballistic missile is a ballistic missile with a range of 3, 000–5,500 km, between a medium-range ballistic missile and an intercontinental ballistic missile. Classifying ballistic missiles by range is mostly for convenience, in principle there is very little difference between a low-performance ICBM and a high-performance IRBM. The range definition used here is used within the U. S, some other sources include an additional category, the long-range ballistic missile, to describe missiles with a range between IRBMs and true ICBMs. The more modern term theater ballistic missile encompasses MRBMs and SRBMs, IRBMs are currently operated by the Peoples Republic of China, India, Israel, and possibly North Korea. The United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and France were former operators, the A4b was the prototype for the upper stage of the A9/A10 rocket. The goal of the program was to build a capable of bombarding New York when launched in France or Spain. A4b rockets were tested a few times in December 1944 and January and February 1945, all of these rockets used liquid propellant. The A4b used an inertial system, while the A9 would have been controlled by a pilot. They started from a launch pad
Intermediate-range ballistic missile
–
IRBM and MRBM missiles.
20.
William Raborn
–
Born in Decatur, Texas, he graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1928. During World War II he directed the Gunnery Training Section at the Bureau of Aeronautics and he also served in the Pacific on aircraft carriers, Raborn was the executive officer of the carrier USS Hancock when her deck was damaged by a kamikaze attack. He had the deck repaired in four hours, allowing the aircraft to land safely - for this Raborn was awarded the Silver Star. He later commanded the carriers USS Bairoko and USS Bennington, Raborn was a rear admiral when he was appointed, on November 8,1955, as Director of Special Projects at the Bureau of Weapons. His task was to develop a submarine-launched ballistic missile and he reported directly to Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke and the Secretary of the Navy Charles Thomas. Raborn was told the new system had to achieve interim capability by early 1963, Raborn received the Distinguished Service Medal and was appointed Vice Admiral in 1960. The same year he was awarded the Collier Trophy for his work on Polaris, Raborn had delivered Polaris three years ahead of schedule, due in part to his application of the PERT methodology. He became Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Development in 1962, as DCI, one of his primary responsibilities was to direct the Central Intelligence Agency. Raborn resigned on June 30,1966, having served for fourteen months as DCI. He was replaced by his deputy, Richard Helms and he was involved, during his time at the CIA, in its early activities against Ramparts magazine and its editors. Raborn is buried in the United States Naval Academy Cemetery in Annapolis, Maryland
William Raborn
–
VADM William Francis Raborn, Jr.
21.
Edward Teller
–
Edward Teller was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist who was born in Hungary, and is known colloquially as the father of the hydrogen bomb, although he claimed he did not care for the title. He made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy, Teller also made contributions to Thomas–Fermi theory, the precursor of density functional theory, a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules. Teller emigrated to the United States in the 1930s, and was an member of the Manhattan Project. During this time he made a push to develop the first fusion-based weapons as well. After his controversial testimony in the security clearance hearing of his former Los Alamos Laboratory superior J. Robert Oppenheimer, Teller was ostracized by much of the scientific community. He was a co-founder of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and was both its director and associate director for many years and he was a vigorous advocate of Ronald Reagans Strategic Defense Initiative. Strangelove in the 1964 movie of the same name, ede Teller was born on January 15,1908, in Budapest, Hungary, into a Jewish family. His parents were Ilona, a pianist, and Max Teller, raised in a Jewish family, he later on became an agnostic. Religion was not an issue in my family, he wrote, indeed. My only religious training came because the Minta required that all students take classes in their respective religions and my family celebrated one holiday, the Day of Atonement, when we all fasted. Yet my father said prayers for his parents on Saturdays and on all the Jewish holidays, the idea of God that I absorbed was that it would be wonderful if He existed, We needed Him desperately but had not seen Him in many thousands of years. Like Einstein and Feynman, Teller was a late talker and he developed the ability to speak later than most children but became very interested in numbers, and would calculate large numbers in his head for fun. Teller left Hungary in 1926, partly due to the discriminatory numerus clausus rule under Miklós Horthys regime, the political climate and revolutions in Hungary during his youth instilled a lingering animosity for both Communism and Fascism in Teller. When he was a student, his right foot was severed in a streetcar accident in Munich, requiring him to wear a prosthetic foot. Werner Heisenberg said that it was the hardiness of Tellers spirit, rather than stoicism, Teller graduated in chemical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe, and received his Ph. D. in physics under Werner Heisenberg at the University of Leipzig. Tellers dissertation dealt with one of the first accurate quantum mechanical treatments of the molecular ion. In 1930 he befriended Russian physicists George Gamow and Lev Landau, Tellers lifelong friendship with a Czech physicist, George Placzek, was also very important for his scientific and philosophical development. It was Placzek who arranged a stay in Rome with Enrico Fermi in 1932
Edward Teller
–
Teller in 1958 as Director of the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Edward Teller
–
Teller in his youth
Edward Teller
–
The 10.4
Mt "
Ivy Mike " shot of 1952 appeared to vindicate Teller's long-time advocacy for the
hydrogen bomb.
Edward Teller
–
Teller testified about
J. Robert Oppenheimer in 1954.
22.
Polaris missile
–
The UGM-27 Polaris missile was a two-stage solid-fueled nuclear-armed submarine-launched ballistic missile built during the Cold War by Lockheed Corporation for the United States Navy. It was designed to be used for second strike countervalue as part of the Navys contribution to the United States arsenal of nuclear weapons, replacing the Regulus cruise missile. Known as a Fleet Ballistic Missile, the Polaris was first launched from the Cape Canaveral, Florida, following the Polaris Sales Agreement in 1963, Polaris missiles were also carried on British Royal Navy submarines between 1968 and the mid-1990s. Plans to equip the Italian Navy with the missile ended in the mid-60s, despite the successful launching tests, the plan was abandoned due to the completion of initial SSBN vessels. The Polaris missile was replaced on 31 of the 41 original SSBNs in the US Navy by the MIRV-capable Poseidon missile beginning in 1972. During the 1980s, these missiles were replaced on twelve of these submarines by the Trident I missile, the ten George Washington- and Ethan Allen-class SSBNs retained Polaris A-3 until 1980 because their missile tubes were not large enough to accommodate Poseidon. With USS Ohio commencing sea trials in 1980, these submarines were disarmed and redesignated as attack submarines to avoid exceeding the SALT II strategic arms treaty limits. Many new project management techniques were introduced during the development of the Polaris missile program and this includes the use of the Program Evaluation and Review Technique. This technique replaced the simpler Gantt chart methodology which was largely employed prior to this program, the Polaris missile replaced an earlier plan to create a submarine-based missile force based on a derivative of the U. S. Army Jupiter Intermediate-range ballistic missile. Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Arleigh Burke appointed Rear Admiral W. F, red Raborn as head of a Special Project Office to develop Jupiter for the Navy in late 1955. The Jupiter missiles large diameter was a product of the need to keep the length short enough to fit in a reasonably-sized submarine, Polaris was spearheaded by the Special Project Offices Missile Branch under Rear Admiral Roderick Osgood Middleton, and is still under the Special Project Office. Admiral Burke later was instrumental in determining the size of the Polaris submarine force, eventually, the number of Polaris submarines was fixed at 41. There is a contention that the Navys Jupiter missile program was unrelated to the Army program, a huge surfaced submarine would carry four Jupiter missiles, which would be carried and launched horizontally. This was probably the never-built SSM-N-2 Triton program, however, a history of the Armys Jupiter program states that the Navy was involved in the Army program, but withdrew at an early stage. Submarines were very vulnerable to attack during launch, and a fully or partially fueled missile on deck was a serious hazard, rough weather was another major drawback for these designs, but rough sea conditions did not unduly affect Polaris submerged launches. The prime contractor for all three versions of Polaris was Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, now Lockheed Martin, the Polaris program started development in 1956. USS George Washington, the first US missile submarine, successfully launched the first Polaris missile from a submarine on July 20,1960. The A-2 version of the Polaris missile was essentially an upgraded A-1 and it was fitted on a total of 13 submarines and served until June 1974
Polaris missile
–
Polaris A-3 on launch pad prior to a test firing at
Cape Canaveral
Polaris missile
–
Transfer of a Polaris missile between
USS Proteus and
USS Patrick Henry at
Holy Loch, Scotland, in 1961.
Polaris missile
–
British Polaris,
Imperial War Museum,
London
Polaris missile
–
Inert training round at the National Museum of Scotland, East Fortune
23.
Chief of Naval Operations
–
The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
Chief of Naval Operations
–
Incumbent
Admiral John M. Richardson since 18 September 2015
Chief of Naval Operations
–
Flag of the Chief of Naval Operations
Chief of Naval Operations
–
Mullen (CNO in December 2006) with some of his predecessors:
Clark,
Watkins,
Hayward and
Johnson
Chief of Naval Operations
24.
Arleigh Burke
–
USS Arleigh Burke, the lead ship of her class of Aegis-equipped guided missile destroyers, was commissioned in his honor in 1991, during his lifetime. Burke was born in Boulder, Colorado, on October 19,1901, to Oscar Burke and his grandfather, August Björkgren, was a Swedish immigrant to the US and changed his surname to Burke to sound more American. Due to the 1918 influenza outbreak, schools were closed in Boulder and he won an alternate appointment to the Naval Academy given by his local congressman. He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in June 1923 and he married Miss Roberta Gorsuch of Washington, D. C. Over the next 18 years, Burke served aboard battleships and destroyers, when World War II came, he found himself, to his great disappointment, in a shore billet at the Naval Gun Factory in Washington, D. C. After persistent efforts on his part, he received orders to join the fighting in the South Pacific, Burke would spend the remainder of the war in the South Pacific. He successively commanded Destroyer Division 43, Destroyer Division 44, Destroyer Squadron 12, desRon 23, known as the Little Beavers, covered the initial landings in Bougainville in November 1943, and fought in 22 separate engagements during the next four months. During this time, the Little Beavers were credited with destroying one Japanese cruiser, nine destroyers, one submarine, several smaller ships, Burkes standing orders to his task force were, Destroyers to attack on enemy contact WITHOUT ORDERS from the task force commander. After reviewing the Navys early unsuccessful engagements with the Japanese, he had concluded that uncertainty, the lesson was driven home to him at the Battle of Blackett Strait, when his radar operator made first contact with a ship near the shore but Burke hesitated to fire. A battle soon unfolded which ended in a US victory, a victory which only Burke was unhappy with, reflecting on the events Burke asked a nearby ensign what the difference was between a good officer and a poor one. After listening to the response, Burke offered his own. Thereafter, his nickname was 31-knot Burke, originally a taunt, in March 1944, Burke was promoted to Chief of Staff to the Commander of Task Force 58, the Fifth Fleets Fast Carrier Task Force, which was commanded by Admiral Marc Mitscher. Burke was promoted to the rank of Commodore, and participated in all the forces naval engagements until June 1945. He was aboard both USS Bunker Hill and USS Enterprise when they were hit by Japanese kamikaze aircraft during the Okinawa campaign, Burke then took command of USS Huntington for a cruise down the east coast of Africa. He was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1949 and served as Navy Secretary on the Defense Research and Development Board. At the outbreak of the Korean War, Admiral Forrest Sherman, then Chief of Naval Operations, ordered Burke to duty as Deputy Chief of Staff to Commander Naval Forces, Far East. After six months in the tents, he returned to the Office of Chief of Naval Operations where he served as Director of Strategic Plans Division until 1954. In April 1954, he took command of Cruiser Division Six, in August 1955, Burke succeeded Admiral Robert B. Carney as Chief of Naval Operations
Arleigh Burke
–
Burke in 1951
Arleigh Burke
–
Adm Mitscher and Chief of Staff Arleigh Burke transfer over to Enterprise after the Bunker Hill is hit twice by kamikazes.
Arleigh Burke
–
Arleigh Burke and wife sit behind
Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney, who delivers the keynote address during the commissioning ceremony for the USS Arleigh Burke,
Secretary of the Navy Henry Garrett,
Ross Perot, and
U.S. Senators from
Virginia John Warner and
Chuck Robb also present, July 4, 1991.
Arleigh Burke
–
USS Arleigh Burke (DDG-51)
25.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
26.
RSM-56 Bulava
–
The Bulava is a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed for the Russian Navy and deployed in 2013 on the new Borei class of ballistic missile nuclear submarines. It is intended as the cornerstone of Russias nuclear triad. The weapon takes its name from bulava, a Russian word for mace, Bulava has slightly greater range but a 30%+ lower throw-weight than the 1979 American Trident C4 missile. Designed by Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology, development of the missile was launched in the late 1990s as a replacement for the R-39 Rif solid-fuel SLBM and it is expected that the first three Borei-class submarines will carry 16 missiles, while the following five vessels will carry 20 missiles. Development and deployment of the Bulava missile within the Russian Navy is not affected by the enforcement of the new START treaty, the missiles flight test programme was problematic. Until 2009, there were 6 failures in 13 flight tests and one failure during ground test, after a failure in December 2009, further tests were put on hold and a probe was conducted to find out the reasons for the failures. Seven launches have been conducted since the probe, all successful, on 28 June 2011, the missile was launched for the first time from its standard carrier, Borei-class submarine Yury Dolgorukiy, and on 27 August 2011 the first full-range flight test was conducted. After this successful launch, the start of production of Bulava missiles in the same configuration was announced on 28 June 2011. A successful salvo launch on 23 December 2011 concluded the flight test programme, the missile was officially approved for service on 27 December 2011, and was reported to be commissioned aboard the Yuri Dolgorukiy on 10 January 2013. The missile did however continue to fail in the summer of 2013 and was not operational as of November 2013, the Bulava is finally operational aboard Yury Dolgorukiy as of October 2015. However, recent developments put this in question, in November 2015, the Vladimir Monomakh sub fired two missiles while submerged. One of the missiles self-destructed during the boost phase and the failed to deliver its warheads to the specified target. After being sent back to the manufacturer, it was determined that the missiles failed due to manufacturing defects, the Bulava missile was developed by Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology under the leadership of chief designer Yury Solomonov. Although it utilizes some engineering solutions used for the recent Topol-M ICBM, Bulava is both lighter and more sophisticated than the Topol-M. The two missiles are expected to have comparable ranges, and similar CEP and warhead configurations, Bulava has a declared START throw weight of 1150 kg to 9,500 kilometers. The missile has three stages, the first and second stages use solid propellant, while the third stage uses a liquid fuel to allow high maneuverability during warhead separation. The missile can be launched from a position, allowing a submarine to fire them while moving. It has a low trajectory, and due to this could be classified as a quasi-ballistic missile
RSM-56 Bulava
–
Bulava missile variants
27.
USS George Washington (SSBN-598)
–
USS George Washington was the worlds first operational ballistic missile submarine. George Washingtons keel was laid down at Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics, Groton, the first of her class, she was launched on 9 June 1959 sponsored by Mrs. Robert B. Anderson, and commissioned on 30 December 1959 as SSBN-598 with Commander James B, osborn in command of the Blue crew and Commander John L. From, Jr. in command of the Gold crew. George Washington was originally laid down as the attack submarine USS Scorpion, inside George Washingtons forward escape hatch, a plaque remained bearing her original name. George Washington left Groton on 28 June 1960 for Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 12,39, George Washingtons commanding officer sent President Dwight Eisenhower the message, POLARIS - FROM OUT OF THE DEEP TO TARGET. Less than two hours later a second missile from the submarine struck the impact area 1,100 nmi downrange. George Washington then embarked her Gold crew, and on 30 July 1960 she launched two missiles while submerged. There she was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation, after which her Blue crew took over, the submarine completed her first patrol after 66 days of submerged running on 21 January 1961, and put in at Naval Submarine Base New London at New London, Connecticut. The Gold crew took over and departed on her patrol on 14 February 1961. After the patrol, she entered Holy Loch, Scotland, on 25 April 1961, in 1970 ten years after her initial departure from Groton, George Washington put in to refuel in Charleston SC, having cruised some 100,000 nmi. George Washington shifted to the United States Pacific Fleet and a new port at Pearl Harbor. George Washington immediately surfaced and searched for the other vessel, owing to the heavy fog conditions at the time, they did see the Nissho Maru heading off into the fog, but it appeared undamaged. After calling out for a P-3 Orion to search for the freighter, they headed into port for repairs, unbeknownst to the crew of the George Washington, Nissho Maru sank in about 15 minutes. Two Japanese crewmen were lost,13 were rescued by Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force AkiGumo and Aogumo, the submarine suffered minor damage to her sail. The accident strained U. S. –Japanese relations a month before a meeting between Japanese Prime Minister Zenko Suzuki and President of the United States Ronald Reagan. Japan criticized the U. S. for taking more than 24 hours to notify Japanese authorities, and demanded to know what the boat was doing surfacing only about 20 nmi outside Japans territorial waters. The U. S. Navy initially stated that George Washington executed a crash dive during the collision, and then immediately surfaced, but could not see the Japanese ship due to fog and rain. As is its policy, the U. S. Government refused to reveal what the submarine was doing close to Japan
USS George Washington (SSBN-598)
–
USS George Washington (SSBN-598)
USS George Washington (SSBN-598)
–
George Washington (SSBN-598) sail outside the Submarine Force Library and Museum, Groton, CT.
28.
Soviet submarine K-19
–
K-19 was one of the first two Soviet submarines of the 658 class, the first generation nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear ballistic missiles, specifically the R-13 SLBM. The boat was built by the Soviets, who were anxious to catch up with the United States lead in nuclear submarines. Before it was launched,10 civilian workers and a sailor died due to accidents, after it was commissioned, it was plagued with breakdowns and accidents, several of which threatened to sink the sub. On its initial voyage on 4 July 1961, it suffered a loss of coolant to its reactor. With no backup system, the captain ordered members of the crew to find a solution to avoid a nuclear meltdown. Sacrificing their own lives, the engineering crew jury-rigged a secondary coolant system, twenty-two crew members died from radiation sickness during the following two years. The sub experienced several accidents, including two fires and a collision. The series of accidents inspired crew members to nickname the sub Hiroshima, K-19 was ordered by the Soviet Navy on 16 October 1957. Her keel was laid on 17 October 1958 at the yard in Severodvinsk. Several workers died building the submarine, two workers were killed when a fire out, and later six women gluing rubber lining to a water cistern were killed by fumes. While missiles were being loaded, an electrician was crushed to death by a cover. The ship was launched and christened on 8 April 1959, breaking with tradition, a man—Captain 3rd Rank V. V. Panov of the 5th Urgent Unit—instead of a woman, was chosen to smash the ceremonial champagne bottle across the ships stern. The bottle failed to break, instead sliding along the screws and this is traditionally viewed among sea crews as a sign that the ship is unlucky. Captain 1st Rank Nikolai Vladimirovich Zateyev was the first commander of the submarine, in January 1960, confusion among the crew during a watch change led to improper operation of the reactor and a reactor-control rod was bent. The damage required the reactor to be dismantled for repairs, the officers on duty were removed and Captain Panov was demoted. The submarines ensign was hoisted for the first time on 12 July 1960 and it underwent sea trials from 13 through 17 July 1960 and again from 12 August through 8 November 1960, transiting 17,347 kilometres. The ship was considered completed on 12 November 1960, after surfacing from a full-power run, the crew discovered that most of the hulls rubber coating had detached, and the entire surface of the boat had to be re-coated. It was later determined that construction the workers had failed to replace a gasket
Soviet submarine K-19
–
History
Soviet submarine K-19
–
Nikolai Vladimirovich Zateyev, commander of the submarine at the time of the nuclear accident
29.
Hotel-class submarine
–
The Hotel class is the general NATO classification for a type of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine that was originally put into service by the Soviet Union around 1959. The Soviet designation was Project 658, development of the submarine, designed to carry the D-2 launch system and R-13 missiles, was approved on 26 August 1956. Work on the began in September 1956, the technical project was completed in the first quarter of 1957. The duties of the designer of Project 658 were originally assigned to the chief engineer of OKB-18. In February 1958 project management was transferred to I. V, mikhaylov, who in October 1958 had replaced S. N. From the outset the deputy of the designer was I. D. The Hotel design was based on the Project 627 November-class submarine and they were modified by adding the missile compartment from the Golf-class submarines. The D-2 launch system on the Hotels placed three R-13 missiles in vertical containers directly behind the sail, the submarine had to be surfaced to launch, but all three missiles could be fired within 12 minutes of surfacing. The first Hotel-class submarine, K-19, was laid down on 17 October 1958, the last of the eight Hotel submarines was launched 1 April 1962. All of them were built at Severodvinsk State Shipyard 402 (now known as the Northern Machine-Building Enterprise - SEVMASH - in Molotovsk shipyard Russia. Beginning in 1961 and ending in 1963, all Hotels but one were equipped with the new D-4 launch system, the modified submarines received the NATO reporting name Hotel II. They were armed with R-21 missiles, with a range of 1,200 km, the installation of the D-4 launching system required some structural changes of the submarine, before launch, the launch tube had to be flooded. The chief designer of the modification was S. N, from 1969 to 1970 K-145 was modified by Project 701 to test the R-29 missiles, receiving the NATO reporting name Hotel III. It was lengthened to 130 meters and its displacement increased to 5,500 tons surfaced and 6,400 tons submerged, the maximum speed was reduced to 18 kn on the surface and 22 kn submerged. Six launchers for R-29 missiles were placed in two compartments, each with three launchers, in 1976 K-145 returned to combat service. Page in Russian Language Page in English from FAS Hotel Class Submarines - Complete Ship List The Encyclopedia Of Warships, From World War Two To The Present Day, General Editor Robert Jackson
Hotel-class submarine
30.
R-13 (missile)
–
The R-13 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union starting around 1955. It was assigned the NATO reporting name SS-N-4 Sark and carried the GRAU index 4K50, development of the R-13 was authorised by the Soviet Supreme Council on 25 July 1955 for use on the Project 629 and Project 658 submarines. The design work was started by OKB-1 under Sergei Korolev before being transferred to CB Miasskoe engineering / Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau, final technical specifications was approved by 11 January 1956. Serial production was undertaken at Zlatoust Machinery Plant in 1959, the R-13 was a single-stage liquid-fuel rocket and entered service in 1961. This missile was similar in design to the R-11FM missile. The missiles were phased out from 1965 to 1975, during initial testing before the missiles were deployed,26 of 32 missiles were successfully launched. While the systems were deployed from 1961 to 1975,225 of 311 launches were successful
R-13 (missile)
–
R-13 monument at
Severomorsk naval base
31.
R-21 (missile)
–
The R-21 was a submarine-launched ballistic missile in service with the Soviet Union between 1963 and 1989. It was the first Soviet nuclear missile that could be launched from a submerged submarine and it replaced the R-11FM and R-13 on many Golf and Hotel-class submarines, and was in turn superseded by the R-27 missile carried by Yankee-class submarines. Development of the R-15 and R-21 was initially assigned to Mikhail Yangels Yuzhnoye Design Office on 20 March 1958, the project was transferred to Viktor Makeyevs SKB-385 on 17 March 1959. It was intended for the Golf-class submarines, the missile system was called the D-4 weapon complex. Over the lifetime of the missile,193 out of 228 launches were successful, the R-21 was probably the basis for the design of the North Korean No Dong missile. Unlike Western designs, the R-21 used a cold launch solid rocket to eject the missile from the launch tube before the main motor ignited. This allowed missiles to be launched in a depth of 40-60m. The propulsion system used an IRFNA-amine fuel, AK-27I/TG-02, aK-27I was a mixture of 73% nitric acid, 27% nitrogen tetroxide, and an iodine passivant. The fuel was used in the Wasserfall rocket under the name TONKA-250 and consisted of 50% triethylamine. This gave the R-21 a range of 1,400 km, the Naval Institute Guide suggests that the range was initially 1300 km, and extended to 1650 km later in the life of the missile. There was a warhead of approximately 800 kilotons. The missiles replaced first-generation R-11FM and R-13 missiles on some Golf and Hotel class SSBNs and they were succeeded from 1967 by Yankee-class submarines carrying 2400 km-range R-27 missiles. Seven of the eight Hotel I subs were upgraded to Hotel II standard, which were retired by 1991
R-21 (missile)
–
R-21 (
NATO reporting name: SS-N-5 'Sark'/'Serb')
32.
Golf-class submarine
–
Project 629, also known by the NATO reporting name of Golf class, were diesel electric ballistic missile submarines of the Soviet Navy. They were designed after six Zulu class submarines and were modified to carry. All Golf boats had left Soviet service by 1990, all have been since disposed of. According to some sources at least one Golf-class submarine is operated by China, Project 629 was started in the mid-1950s along with the D-2 missile system which it was to carry, and was based on the Foxtrot. The submarine was designed to carry three R-11FM ballistic missiles with a range of around 150 km. These were carried in three silos fitted in the rear of the sail behind the bridge. They could only be fired with the submarine surfaced and the missile raised above the sail, only the first three boats were equipped with these—the remaining ones were equipped with the longer range R-13 missiles. The first boats were commissioned in 1958 and the last in 1962, the boats were built at two shipyards —16 in Severodvinsk and 7 in Komsomolsk-na-Amure in the Far East. Fourteen were extensively modified in 1966–1972 and became known as 629As by the Soviet Navy, the major change was the upgrade of the missile system to carry R-21 missiles which could be launched from inside their tubes with the submarine submerged and increased speed. In later years a few were converted to test new missiles, all boats had left Soviet service by 1990. In 1993, ten were sold to North Korea for scrap, according to some sources, the North Koreans are attempting to get these boats back into service. In 1959 the project technology was sold to China which built a modified example in 1966. The entire crew of 98 was lost and the vessel sank with three nuclear missiles as well as two nuclear torpedoes. The United States recovered parts of the submarine in July 1974 from a depth of around 5 km, two nuclear submarines that had been facing retirement, USS Halibut and USS Seawolf, were rebuilt and pressed into service as deep sea search vehicles. Project 629, Original design received NATO reporting name, Golf I, dimension are 98.4 m for length,8.2 m for beam and 7.85 m for draft. Surfaced/submerged displacement are 2794 /3553 tons respectively, surfaced/submerged speed are 15 /12.5 kn respectively. Project 629 is crewed by 80 men, and is equipped by either D-1 launching system for SS-N-1 or D-2 launching systems for SS-N-4 SLBMs. Project 629A,14 Project 629/Golf I class submarines were converted to Project 629A between 1966 and 1972, and received NATO reporting name Golf II, crew is increased to 83, and the launching system is D-4 for SS-N-5 SLBMs
Golf-class submarine
–
Golf II class submarine
33.
Novaya Zemlya
–
Administratively, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya District, one of the twenty-one in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as Novaya Zemlya Urban Okrug and its population as of the 2010 Census was 2,429, of which 1,972 resided in Belushya Guba, an urban-type settlement that is the administrative center of Novaya Zemlya District. The population in 2002 was 2, 716 , the indigenous population consisted of about 50–300 Nenetses who subsisted mainly on fishing, trapping, reindeer herding, polar bear hunting and seal hunting. Natural resources include copper, lead, and zinc, Novaya Zemlya was a sensitive military area during the Cold War years and it is still used today. The Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Rogachevo on the part of the island. It was used primarily for aircraft operations but also provided logistical support for the nearby nuclear test area. Novaya Zemlya is an extension of the Northern part of the Ural Mountains, and it is separated from the mainland by the Kara Strait. Novaya Zemlya consists of two islands, separated by the narrow Matochkin Strait, as well as a number of smaller islands. The two main islands are, Severny —which has an ice cap, the Severny Island ice cap. Yuzhny, which is largely unglaciated and has a tundra landscape, the coast of Novaya Zemlya is very indented, and it is the area with the largest number of fjords in the Russian Federation. Novaya Zemlya separates the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea, the total area is about 90,650 square kilometers. The highest mountain is located on the Northern island and is 1,547 meters high, the ecology of Novaya Zemlya is influenced by its severe climate, but the region nevertheless supports a diversity of biota. One of the most notable species present is the polar bear, the Russians knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when hunters from Novgorod visited the area. For western Europeans, the search for the Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration, the first visit from a west European was by Hugh Willoughby in 1553, and he met Russian ships from the already established hunting trade. Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1594, during a later voyage by Fyodor Litke in 1821–1824, the west coast was mapped. Henry Hudson was another explorer who passed through Novaya Zemlya while searching for the Northeast Passage, the island was systematically surveyed by Pyotr Pakhtusov and Avgust Tsivolko in the early 1830s. The first permanent settlement was established in 1870 at Malye Karmakuly, later the administrative center was transferred to Belushya Guba, in 1935 to Lagernoe, but then returned to Belushya Guba. Small numbers of Nenets were resettled to Novaya Zemlya in the 1870s in a bid by Russia to keep out the Norwegians and this population, then numbering 298, was removed to the mainland in 1957 before nuclear testing began
Novaya Zemlya
–
Natural-color satellite image of Roze Glacier, Severny, fringed by sea ice
Novaya Zemlya
–
Map of Novaya Zemlya
Novaya Zemlya
–
Map of Novaya Zemlya from 1720.
Novaya Zemlya
–
Novaya Zemlya's major test site boundaries and facilities
34.
Tsar Bomba
–
Tsar Bomba was the Western nickname for the Soviet RDS-220 hydrogen bomb, the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. Its test on October 30,1961 remains the most powerful human-made explosion in history and it was also referred to as Kuzkina mat, possibly referring to Nikita Khrushchevs promise to show the United States a Kuzkina mat at a 1960 session of United Nations General Assembly. Developed by the Soviet Union, the bomb had a yield of 57 megaton TNT, in theory, the bomb had a maximum yield of 100 megatons if it were to have included a U-238 tamper, but because only one bomb was built, this was never demonstrated. The single bomb was detonated at the Sukhoy Nos cape of Severny Island, the remaining bomb casings are located at the Russian Atomic Weapon Museum in Sarov and the Museum of Nuclear Weapons, All-Russian Research Institute of Technical Physics, at Snezhinsk. Many names are attributed to the Tsar Bomba, Project 7000, product code 202, article designations RDS-220, RDS-202, RN202, AN602, codename Vanya, nicknames Big Ivan, Kuzkina mat. The name Tsar Bomba was coined in an analogy with other massive Russian objects, the CIA designated the test as JOE111. The Tsar Bomba was a bomb with Trutnev-Babaev second and third stage design. There is evidence that the Tsar Bomba had several third stages rather than a very large one. To limit fallout, the stage and possibly the second stage had a lead tamper instead of a uranium-238 fusion tamper. This eliminated fast fission by the neutrons, so that approximately 97% of the total yield resulted from thermonuclear fusion alone. There was an incentive for this modification since most of the fallout from a test of the bomb would likely have ended up on populated Soviet territory. The components were designed by a team of physicists headed by academician Yulii Borisovich Khariton and including Andrei Sakharov, Victor Adamsky, Yuri Babayev, Yuri Smirnov, and Yuri Trutnev. Shortly after the Tsar Bomba was detonated, Sakharov began speaking out against nuclear weapons, the Tsar Bomba was flown to its test site by a specially modified Tu-95V release plane, flown by Major Andrei Durnovtsev. Taking off from an airfield in the Kola Peninsula, the plane was accompanied by a Tu-16 observer plane that took air samples. Both aircraft were painted with a reflective white paint to limit heat damage. Despite this effort, Durnovtsev and his crew were assigned only a 50% chance of surviving the test, the bomb, weighing 27 metric tons, was so large that the Tu-95V had to have its bomb bay doors and fuselage fuel tanks removed. The bomb was attached to an 800 kilogram parachute, which gave the release, when detonation occurred, the Tu-95V dropped one kilometer in the air because of the shock wave, but was able to land safely. The Tsar Bomba detonated at 11,32 Moscow Time on October 30,1961, over the Mityushikha Bay nuclear testing range, north of the Arctic Circle over the Novaya Zemlya archipelago in the Arctic Ocean
Tsar Bomba
–
The Tsar Bomba
mushroom cloud seen from a distance of 161 km (100 miles). The crown of the
cloud is 56 km (35 miles) high at the time of the picture.
Tsar Bomba
–
A Tsar Bomba -type casing on display at
Sarov
Tsar Bomba
–
The Tsar Bomba s fireball, about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) in diameter, was prevented from touching the ground by the shock wave, but nearly reached the 10.5 kilometres (6.5 mi) altitude of the deploying
Tu-95 bomber.
35.
USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608)
–
USS Ethan Allen, lead ship of her class, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for American Revolutionary War hero Ethan Allen. Ethan Allens keel was laid down by the Electric Boat Corporation of Groton and she was launched on 22 November 1960, sponsored by Mrs. Robert H. Hopkins, great-great-great-granddaughter of Ethan Allen. The ship was commissioned on 8 August 1961, with Captain Paul L. Lacy, Jr. commanding Blue Crew and Commander W. W. Behrens, Ethan Allen was the first submarine designed as a ballistic missile launch platform. She was constructed from HY80 steel, and was fitted with the Mark 2 Mod 3 Ships Inertial Navigation System, at launch, she was outfitted with Polaris A-2 submarine-launched ballistic missiles and Mark 16 Mod 6 torpedoes, the torpedo fire control system was the Mark 112 Mod 2. The A-2s would be replaced with Polaris A-3s and their gas/steam ejection launch gear and Mark 80 fire control systems during 1965, in addition, Ethan Allen was updated with Mark 37 and Mark 48 torpedoes during her operational lifetime. On 6 May 1962, Ethan Allen, under Captain Lacy and with Admiral Levering Smith aboard and that test, part of Operation Dominic, was the only complete operational test of an American strategic missile. The warhead was said to hit right in the pickle barrel, USS Carbonero and USS Medregal participated in the test, about 30 miles from the impact point. Ethan Allen was decommissioned on 31 March 1983 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 2 April 1983 and her hulk was tied up in Bremerton, Washington, until entering the Nuclear Powered Ship-Submarine Recycling Program. Recycling was completed on 30 July 1999, the destruction of Ethan Allen was intended to simulate the explosion and sinking of a nuclear missile submarine, although the Ethan Allen–class submarines were considerably smaller than Typhoons. This eventually assists in the theft of the Red October, Ethan Allen also appears in the novel Footfall by Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608)
–
USS Ethan Allen (SSBN-608)
36.
Nuclear test
–
Nuclear weapons tests are experiments carried out to determine the effectiveness, yield, and explosive capability of nuclear weapons. Throughout the twentieth century, most nations that developed nuclear weapons tested them, the first nuclear device was detonated as a test by the United States at the Trinity site on July 16,1945, with a yield approximately equivalent to 20 kilotons of TNT. The first thermonuclear weapon technology test of engineer device, codenamed Mike, was tested at the Enewetak atoll in the Marshall Islands on November 1,1952, also by the United States. The largest nuclear weapon ever tested was the Tsar Bomba of the Soviet Union at Novaya Zemlya on October 30,1961, with the largest yield ever seen, the treaty permitted underground nuclear testing. France continued atmospheric testing until 1974, and China continued until 1980, underground tests in the United States continued until 1991, the Soviet Union until 1990, the United Kingdom until 1991, and both China and France until 1996. Non-signatories India and Pakistan last tested nuclear weapons in 1998, North Korea conducted nuclear tests in 2006,2009,2013, and 2016. The most recent confirmed nuclear test occurred in September 2016 in North Korea, Nuclear weapons tests have historically been divided into four categories reflecting the medium or location of the test. Atmospheric testing designates explosions that take place in the atmosphere, Nuclear explosions close enough to the ground to draw dirt and debris into their mushroom cloud can generate large amounts of nuclear fallout due to irradiation of the debris. This definition of atmospheric is used in the Limited Test Ban Treaty, underground testing refers to nuclear tests conducted under the surface of the earth, at varying depths. True underground tests are intended to be contained and emit a negligible amount of fallout. Unfortunately these nuclear tests do occasionally vent to the surface, producing from nearly none to considerable amounts of debris as a consequence. In 1976, the United States and the USSR agreed to limit the maximum yield of underground tests to 150 kt with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty. Underground testing also falls into two categories, tunnel tests in generally horizontal tunnel drifts, and shaft tests in vertically drilled holes. Exoatmospheric testing refers to tests conducted above the atmosphere. The test devices are lifted on rockets, underwater testing results from nuclear devices being detonated underwater, usually moored to a ship or a barge. Tests of this nature have usually been conducted to evaluate the effects of weapons against naval vessels. Another way to nuclear tests are by the number of explosions that constitute the test.1 second. The USSR has exploded up to eight devices in a single salvo test, Pakistans second, almost all lists in the literature are lists of tests, in the lists in Wikipedia, the lists are of explosions
Nuclear test
–
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear test
–
Sub-critical experiment at the
Nevada Test Site.
Nuclear test
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The
Phoenix of Hiroshima (foreground) in Hong Kong Harbor in 1967, was involved in several famous
anti-nuclear protest voyages against nuclear testing in the Pacific.
Nuclear test
–
The first atomic test, "
Trinity ", took place on July 16, 1945.
37.
Operation Dominic
–
Operation Dominic was a series of 31 nuclear test explosions with a 38.1 Mt total yield conducted in 1962 by the United States in the Pacific. This test series was scheduled quickly, in order to respond in kind to the Soviet resumption of testing after the tacit 1958–1961 test moratorium, most of these shots were conducted with free-fall bombs dropped from B-52 bomber aircraft. Twenty of these shots were to test new designs, six to test weapons effects. The Thor missile was used to lift warheads into near-space to conduct high-altitude nuclear explosion tests. Operation Dominic occurred during a period of high Cold War tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, since the Cuban Bay of Pigs Invasion had occurred not long before, president John F. Kennedy responded by authorizing Operation Dominic. The operation was undertaken by Joint Task Force 8, Operation Dominic at Carey Sublettes NuclearWeaponArchive. org More info on U. S. testing The short film Operation DOMINIC Nuclear Tests 1962 is available for free download at the Internet Archive
Operation Dominic
–
Dominic Chama
38.
Yankee-class submarine
–
The Yankee-class was a class of Soviet nuclear ballistic missile submarines that was constructed from 1967 onward. 34 units were produced under Project 667A Navaga and Project 667AU Nalim,24 were built at Severodvinsk for the Northern Fleet while the remaining 10 built in Komsomolsk-na-Amurye for the Pacific Fleet. Two Northern Fleet units were transferred to the Pacific, the lead unit K-137 Leninets, receiving its honorific name 11 April 1970, two and one half years after being commissioned. The Yankee-class were quieter in the ocean than were their Hotel-class predecessors, the Yankee-class were actually quite similar to the Polaris submarines of the U. S. Navy and the Royal Navy. The Yankee-class SSBN served in the Soviet Navy in three oceans, the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean beginning in the 1960s. During the 1970s about three Yankee-class were continually on patrol in a patrol box in the Atlantic Ocean just east of Bermuda. One Yankee-class submarine, the Soviet Navy K-219, was lost on 6 October 1986 after an explosion and this boat had been at sea near Bermuda, and she sank from loss of buoyancy because of flooding. Four of her sailors died before ships arrived. At least one boat in this class was involved in a collision with a U. S. Navy nuclear submarine. Decommissioned, and sent to the nuclear ship scrapyards, there were eight different versions of the Yankee subs, Yankee I, The baseline configuration, these were ballistic missile submarines that first saw service in 1968,34 were built. The subs carried 16 SS-N-6 missiles, had 6 torpedo tubes and they were the first Soviet SSBNs to carry their ballistic missiles within the hull. Yankee II, A single-ship class, this was a Yankee I submarine converted to carry 12 SS-N-17 missiles, which was the Soviet Navys first solid-fuelled SLBM. The existence of this prototype led to several theories about the Yankee II having a unique role in the Soviet arsenal that justified maintaining a single ship with such a unique weapon. One theory suggested that it was designed to perform an emergency satellite-launching function, subsequently, it was proposed that the SS-N-17 may have had a retargeting capability to allow strikes on aircraft carrier battle groups. Yankee Notch, These converted subs were attack submarines and first appeared in 1983 and they incorporated a notch waisted center section, which replaced the old ballistic missile compartment, featuring eight 533 mm torpedo tubes for up to 40 SS-N-21 missiles or additional torpedoes. The forward torpedo tubes were retained as well, with reports suggesting that the vessels may have also been able to fire 650 mm Type 65 torpedoes. The emphasis on additional SS-N-21 missile carriage suggested a role for these submarines. Their configuration was a combination of SALT treaty limitations and a typical Soviet unwillingness to completely discard any military hardware that might still have some use
Yankee-class submarine
Yankee-class submarine
–
K-219 damaged.
Yankee-class submarine
–
Yankee I class submarine.
Yankee-class submarine
–
Yankee II class submarine.
39.
41 for Freedom
–
41 for Freedom refers to the US Navy Fleet Ballistic Missile submarines from the George Washington, Ethan Allen, Lafayette, James Madison, and Benjamin Franklin classes. All of these submarines were commissioned 1959-1967, as the goal was to create a credible, survivable sea-based deterrent as quickly as possible and these submarines were nicknamed 41 for Freedom once the goal of 41 nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines was established in the early 1960s. The United States had deployed nuclear weapons aboard submarines for the purpose of deterrence since 1959, the US Navy created a new submarine classification for these boats, SSBN. The first of the 41 for Freedom submarines to be completed was George Washington, the last of these submarines to be commissioned was Will Rogers, which was commissioned on 1 April 1967. These 41 were superseded by the submarines of the Ohio class 1980-1992, almost 37 years old, she held the record for the longest service lifetime of any nuclear-powered submarine. As of 2014, two remain in service but decommissioned as nuclear power training vessels attached to Naval Nuclear Power School at Charleston, South Carolina, USS Daniel Webster and USS Sam Rayburn. Nuclear navy Nuclear warfare Nuclear strategy Vertical launching system From the Federation of American Scientists, SSBN-598 George Washington-Class FBM Submarines
41 for Freedom
–
USS Woodrow Wilson, a Lafayette -class submarine that formed part of the "41 for Freedom" force
41 for Freedom
–
Weapons of the FBM submarines (left to right): Polaris A1, Polaris A2, Polaris A3, Poseidon, Trident I and Trident II
40.
M45 SLBM
–
The M45 SLBM is a French Navy submarine-launched ballistic missile Forty-eight M45 are in commission in the Force océanique stratégique, the submarine nuclear deterrent component of the French Navy. The missiles, derived from the M4, were produced by Aérospatiale, initially, an ICBM land-based version was considered, but these plans were discarded in 1996 to favour an all-naval deployment. The M45 differs from its predecessor by its range, its increased accuracy and penetration capabilities. Each missile carries six MIRVs, each armed with a warhead of 110 kt. The M45 has an accuracy of 350 m CEP using an inertial missile guidance system coupled with computer payload control. It will be succeeded by the M51 SLBM, in March 1986, a M-4 missile was launched and covered 6,000 km to its target, this flight is rumoured to have been the first test flight for the M-45. On the night of the 1–2 June 2004, the Triomphant-class submarine Vigilant fired a version of the M45 from the part of Brittany
M45 SLBM
–
M45 SLBM
41.
M51 SLBM
–
The M51 SLBM is a submarine-launched ballistic missile, built by Airbus Defence & Space, and deployed with the French Navy. Designed to replace the M45 SLBM, it was first deployed in 2010, each missile carries six to ten independently targetable TN75 thermonuclear warheads. The three-stage engine of the M51 is directly derived from the solid propellant boosters of Ariane 5, like other blunt-nosed SLBM, such as the Trident D5, the M51 uses an extensible aerospike in the nose. The missiles are a compromise over the M5 SLBM design, which was to have a range of 11,000 km, design work on the M5 started in 1992, before the programme was renamed the M51 in 1996, when development costs decreased by 20 percent. The M51 entered service in 2010, after having spent €5 billion developing the missile, the French government placed a €3 billion order with EADS SPACE Transportation for the M51 in December 2004. The contract covered serial production of the M51 for 10 years, the M51 performed its first flight test on 9 November 2006 from the French missile flight test centre in Biscarrosse. The target was reached twenty minutes later, in the north-west of the Atlantic Ocean, a second and third successful test were carried out on 21 June 2007 and 13 November 2008. On 27 January 2010, at 9h25, a missile was launched underwater by Le Terrible, the missile reached its target 2,000 kilometres off South Carolina, the 4,500 kilometre flight took less than 20 minutes. The 10 July 2010 test validated the Triomphant class submarines capacity to launch the M51 in operational conditions, on 5 May 2013, an M51 flight test missile failed after being fired by a submerged SSBN off the coast of Brittany. This was the first failed launch of the M51 after 5 successful launches since 2006, in 2014 Airbus signed a deal with the French government for development work on an upgrade designated M51.3 to equip the successor to the Triomphant class. On 30 September 2015, a M51 was successfully test-flown from a missile site near Biscarrosse to a desolate target in the North Atlantic. On 10 May 2016 Airbus and Safran signed a joint 50-50 partnership to develop the M51.3 upgrade intended to service around 2025. France French Navy is the operator of the missile. Nrdc. org, Table of French Nuclear Forces,2002 globalsecurity. org M-5 / M-51 M51 Gives France More Flexible Deterrent To Meet Changing Threats, Aviation Week
M51 SLBM
–
M51 SLBM
42.
R-27 Zyb
–
The R-27 Zyb was a submarine-launched ballistic missile developed by the Soviet Union and employed by the Soviet Navy from 1968 through 1988. NATO assigned the missile the reporting name SS-N-6 Serb, in the USSR, it was given the GRAU index 4K10. It was a fuel rocket using a hypergolic combination of unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine as fuel. Between 1974 and 1990,161 missile launches were conducted, with a success rate of 93%. The R-27 missiles were deployed on the Yankee I submarines, including the K-219, the missile was a two-stage development of the single-stage R-27, the second stage containing the warhead as well as propulsion and terminal guidance. Initial trials ended on 18 December 1972 because the Rekord-2 fire control system hadn´t been delivered yet, after a number of delays caused by several malfunctions, test firings were finally carried out between 11 September and 4 December 1973. Following the initial trials, the K-102 continued making trial launches with both the R-27 and the R-27K, until it was accepted for service on 15 August 1975. Using external targeting data, the R-27K/SS-NX-13 would have been launched underwater to a range of between 350-400 nm, covering a footprint of 27 nm, the Maneuvering Re-Entry vehicle would then home in on the target with a CEP of 400 yards. Warhead yield was between 0. 5-1 Mt, the missile system never became operational, since every launch tube used for the R-27K counted as a strategic missile in the SALT agreement, and they were considered more important. Although the R-27K could fit in the tubes of the Project 667A. Soviet Union The Soviet Navy was the operator of the R-27
R-27 Zyb
–
Simple scheme of an R-27 missile
43.
NATO
–
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party, three NATO members are permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and are officially nuclear-weapon states. NATOs headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons. NATO is an Alliance that consists of 28 independent member countries across North America and Europe, an additional 22 countries participate in NATOs Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programmes. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total, Members defence spending is supposed to amount to 2% of GDP. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004. N. The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the treaty and the Soviet Berlin Blockade led to the creation of the Western European Unions Defence Organization in September 1948. However, participation of the United States was thought necessary both to counter the power of the USSR and to prevent the revival of nationalist militarism. He got a hearing, especially considering American anxiety over Italy. In 1948 European leaders met with U. S. defense, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, marshalls orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty and it included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the goal was to keep the Russians out, the Americans in. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, the creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans-Atlantic cooperation. The members agreed that an attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor, although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily, the treaty was later clarified to include both the members territory and their vessels, forces or aircraft above the Tropic of Cancer, including some Overseas departments of France. The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, the roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved
NATO
–
The
North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 and was ratified by the United States that August.
NATO
–
Flag
NATO
–
The German Bundeswehr provided the largest element of the allied land forces guarding the frontier in Central Europe.
NATO
–
Reforms made under
Mikhail Gorbachev led to the end of the
Warsaw Pact.
44.
Guam
–
Guam is an unincorporated and organized territory of the United States. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, Guam is one of five American territories with a civilian government. The capital city is Hagåtña and the most populous city is Dededo, in 2015,161,785 people resided on Guam. Guamanians are American citizens by birth, Guam has an area of 210 sq mi and a population density of 770/sq mi. It is the largest and southernmost of the Mariana Islands and the largest island in Micronesia, among its municipalities, Mongmong-Toto-Maite has the highest density at 3, 691/sq mi, whereas Inarajan and Umatac have the lowest density at 119/sq mi. The highest point is Mount Lamlam at 406 meters above sea level, the Chamorros, Guams indigenous people, settled the island approximately 4,000 years ago. Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first European to visit the island on March 6,1521, Guam was colonized in 1668 with settlers, like Diego Luis de San Vitores, a Catholic missionary. Between the 16th century and the 18th century, Guam was an important stopover for the Spanish Manila Galleons, during the Spanish–American War, the United States captured Guam on June 21,1898. Under the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded Guam to the United States on December 10,1898, Guam is among the seventeen Non-Self-Governing Territories of the United Nations. Before World War II, Guam and three other territories – American Samoa, Hawaii, and the Philippines – were the only American jurisdictions in the Pacific Ocean. On December 7,1941, hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Guam was captured by the Japanese, during the occupation, Guamanians were subjected to beheadings, forced labor, rape, and torture. Guam endured hostilities when American forces recaptured the island on July 21,1944, since the 1960s, the economy has been supported by two industries, tourism and the United States Armed Forces. The original inhabitants of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands are believed to be descendants of Austronesian people originating from Southeast Asia as early as 2000 BC and they evolved into the Chamorro people. The ancient-Chamorro society had four classes, chamorri, matua, achaot, the matua were located in the coastal villages, which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, whereas the manachang were located in the interior of the island. Matua and manachang rarely communicated with other, and matua often used achaot as intermediaries. There were also makåhna, skilled in healing and medicine, belief in spirits of ancient Chamorros called Taotao mona still persists as a remnant of pre-European culture. Their society was organized along matrilineal clans, Latte stones are stone pillars that are found only in the Mariana Islands, they are a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society. The latte-stone was used as a foundation on which thatched huts were built, Latte stones consist of a base shaped from limestone called the haligi and with a capstone, or tåsa, made either from a large brain coral or limestone, placed on top
Guam
–
Marines laying fire on a
Japanese sniper nest (July 28, 1944).
Guam
–
Flag
Guam
–
Guam from satellite
Guam
–
Aerial view of
Apra Harbor
45.
Holy Loch
–
The Holy Loch, is a Sea Loch, a part of the Cowal peninsula coast of the Firth of Clyde, in Argyll and Bute, Scotland. The Holy Loch name is believed to date from the 6th century, Kilmun Parish Church and Argyll Mausoleum is said to stand where Saint Munns church was once located. Robertsons Yard at Sandbank, a village on the loch, was a wooden boat building company in the late 19th. During World War II, the loch was used as a British Royal Navy submarine base, from 1961–1992, it was used as a United States Navy Polaris and Poseidon nuclear submarine base. In 1992, the Holy Loch base was deemed unnecessary following the demise of the Soviet Union, open on the Firth of Clyde at its eastern end, the Sea Loch is approximately 1 mile wide and between 2 and 3 miles long, varying with the tide. At the end of the loch a road runs past the Benmore Botanic Garden and Arboretum to Loch Eck, on the shore of the Holy Loch at Kilmun stands a nineteenth-century church. It stands on the site of a sequence of earlier churches, the dedication to St Munnu, otherwise known as Fintan, St Munn, reflects devotion to an Irish saint who founded a church at Taghmon in Leinster. The remains of a 12th-century church are visible at Kilmun. At the present site of Kilmun Church, a building is recorded in the 13th century. Alexander Robertson started repairing boats in a workshop at Sandbank in 1876. Their golden years were in the early 20th century when they started building classic 12 &15 metre racing yachts, Robertsons was chosen to build the first 15-metre yacht designed by William Fife. During World War II the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, after the war the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two 12-metre challengers for the Americas Cup, Sceptre and Sovereign. The Robertson family sold the yard in 1965, and it was turned over to GRP production work, during its 104-year history, Robertsons Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing. The yard ceased trading in the early 1980s and the site was levelled soon after, the site has since been consumed by residential building and the new Holy Loch Marina development. During World War II the loch was used by the Royal Navy as a submarine base, near the Holy Loch an anti-submarine boom was constructed between Dunoon and the Cloch Point Lighthouse to defend waters from German U-boats. Between 1961 and 1992, Holy Loch was the site of the United States Navys FBM Refit Site One and it was the home base of Submarine Squadron 14, part of Submarine Force, U. S. To make maximum usage of its ballistic missile deterrent force, American military had determined that it required an overseas base for refit. Negotiations with the British Government began as early as March 1959 when President Dwight D. Eisenhower mentioned the need to British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan at a meeting at Camp David
Holy Loch
–
The Holy Loch seen across the
Firth of Clyde from Tower Hill,
Gourock, with
Hunters Quay on the left, and Strone to the right
46.
Naval Station Rota
–
Naval Station Rota, also known as NAVSTA Rota, is a Spanish naval base commanded by a Spanish Rear Admiral and fully funded by the United States of America. Located in Rota in the Province of Cádiz, near the town of El Puerto de Santa María, NAVSTA Rota is the largest American military community in Spain and houses US Navy, there are also small US Army and US Air Force contingents on the base. NAVSTA Rota has been in use since 1953 when Spanish dictator Francisco Franco strengthened relations with the United States in order to local economies. The installation now covers more than 6,000 acres on the shore of Cadiz. The Chief of Naval Operations deployed Submarine Squadron 16 to Rota on 28 January 1964, USS Lafayette completed its first Fleet Ballistic Missile deterrent patrol with the Polaris missile and commenced the first refit and replenishment at Rota. During the early 1970s, the assigned to SUBRON16 were completing conversion to the Poseidon missile. That transition was completed when USS Francis Scott Key returned to Rota on 14 January 1974, the U. S. Senate ratified the treaty in June 1976, it called for the squadrons withdrawal from Spain by July 1979. In November 1976 the Secretary of the Navy announced Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, vQ-2 was based at Rota from 1959 until 2005, when it relocated to NAS Whidbey Island, Washington. During VQ-2s tenure at Rota, it flew the P4M Mercator, EC-121 Super Constellation, EA-3 Skywarrior, vR-22 flew the C-130F and was based at Rota from 1982 until its inactivation in 1992. The patrol squadrons would rotate assignment to Rota and Lajes every six months and were augmented by Naval Air Reserve patrol squadrons for shorter durations on a periodic basis. With the downsizing of the US Navy during the late 1980s and early 1990s, especially after the end of the Cold War, the US Navy maintains approximately 5,200 acres of the 6, 000-acre complex. There are about 4,000 Americans in Rota, including military, civilians, Rear Admiral Tony Gaiani relieved Mosk for lost confidence in his ability to command, specifically, to handle issues related to the investigation. As of 2015, four US destroyers, including USS Carney, USS Ross, USS Donald Cook, Naval Station Rota is home to an airfield and a seaport, the airfield has often caused the base to be misidentified as Naval Air Station Rota. The base is the headquarters for Commander, U. S. Naval Activities Spain, Naval Station Rota is strategically located near the Strait of Gibraltar and at the halfway point between the United States and Southwest Asia. The Base and its tenant commands are located within the boundaries of the 6, under the guidance of the Agreement for Defense Cooperation, the US and Spanish navies work together and share many facilities. The US Navy has the responsibility for maintaining the infrastructure, including a 670-acre airfield. From Naval Station Rota Spain, the VLF-transmitter Guardamar, which uses Torreta de Guardamar, the Naval Station is the only base in the Mediterranean capable of supporting Amphibious Readiness Group post-deployment wash-downs. The base port also offers secure, pier-side maintenance and back-load facilities, Rota supports Amphibious Readiness Group turnovers and hosts Sailors and Marines from visiting afloat units
Naval Station Rota
–
U.S. Naval Station Rota logo
Naval Station Rota
–
The joint U.S.-Spanish Color Guard aboard Naval Station, Rota, parades the colors during the Change of Command and Marine Corps Security Force Europe.
Naval Station Rota
–
Amphibious assault ship USS Bataan pulls out of the Naval Station Rota.
Naval Station Rota
–
Anti-
NATO /Naval Base protest march.
47.
Submarine tender
–
A submarine tender is a type of ship that supplies and supports submarines. The tender carries all these, and either meets up with the submarines at sea to replenish them or provides these services while docked at a port near the area where the submarines are operating. In some navies, the tenders were equipped with workshops for maintenance, unable to operate conventional surface tenders during World War II, Nazi Germanys Kriegsmarine used Type XIV submarines for replenishment at sea. With the increased size and automation of modern submarines, plus in some navies the introduction of nuclear power, in the United States Navy, submarine tenders are considered auxiliaries, with hull classification symbol AS. As of 2015, the Navy only maintains two such tenders, USS Emory S, the Russian Navy decommissioned all its Don and Ugra class tenders inherited from the Soviet Navy by 2001. The last remaining ship of class was the INS Amba. She was reportedly decommissioned from service in July 2006, destroyer tender Jonas Pleškys, a Soviet Navy captain who defected with his submarine tender
Submarine tender
–
USS Frank Cable, one of two submarine tenders maintained by the
United States Navy (in front is the
USS Salt Lake City (SSN-716) fast attack submarine).
Submarine tender
–
Transfer of a Polaris Missile between
USS Proteus (AS-19) and
USS Patrick Henry (SSBN-599), at Holy Loch, Dunoon, UK in 1961.
48.
Floating dry dock
–
A dry dock is a narrow basin or vessel that can be flooded to allow a load to be floated in, then drained to allow that load to come to rest on a dry platform. Dry docks are used for the construction, maintenance, and repair of ships, boats, the use of dry docks in China goes at least as far back the 10th century A. D. The upper works included several decks with cabins and saloons. After many years, their hulls decayed and needed repairs, so in the Hsi-Ning reign period a palace official Huang Huai-Hsin suggested a plan. A large basin was excavated at the end of the Chin-ming Lake capable of containing the dragon ships. Then so that the quickly filled with water, after which the ships were towed in above the beams. The the water was pumped out by wheels so that the ships rested quite in the air, when the repairs were complete, the water was let in again, so that the ships were afloat once more. The first English and oldest surviving dry dock still in use was commissioned by Henry VII of England at HMNB Portsmouth in 1495 and this dry dock currently holds the worlds oldest commissioned warship, HMS Victory. Possibly the earliest description of a floating dock comes from a small Italian book printed in Venice in 1560, called Descrittione dellartifitiosa machina. In the booklet, an unknown author asks for the privilege of using a new method for the salvaging of a ship and then proceeds to describe. The included woodcut shows a ship flanked by two large floating trestles, forming a roof above the vessel, the ship is pulled in an upright position by a number of ropes attached to the superstructure. The Alfredo da Silva Dry Dock, of the Lisnave Dockyards in Almada, Portugal, was the largest in the world until 2000, harland and Wolff Heavy Industries in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is the site of a large dry dock 556 by 93 metres. The massive cranes are named after the Biblical figures Samson and Goliath, Goliath stands 96 m tall, while Samson is taller at 106 m. The Saint-Nazaires Chantiers de lAtlantique owns one of the biggest in the world,1,200 by 60 metres, the largest graving dock of the Mediterranean as of 2009 is at the Hellenic Shipyards S. A. The largest roofed dry dock is at the German Meyer Werft Shipyard in Papenburg, Germany, it is 504 m long,125 m wide, Dry Dock 12 at Newport News Shipbuilding is 662 by 76 metres the largest dry dock in the USA. The largest floating-dock in North America named The Vigorous and it is operated Vigor Industries in Portland, OR, in the Swan Island industrial area along the Willamette River. The keel blocks as well as the block are placed on the floor of the dock in accordance with the docking plan of the ship. Routine use of dry docks is for the graving i. e. the cleaning, removal of barnacles and rust, some fine-tuning of the ships position can be done by divers while there is still some water left to manoeuvre it about
Floating dry dock
–
U.S. Navy submarine
USS Greeneville in dry dock following collision with the
Ehime Maru.
Floating dry dock
–
A US Navy
Littoral Combat Ship in drydock,
NASSCO 2012
Floating dry dock
–
Floating Dock. Woodcut from
Venice (1560).
Floating dry dock
–
The Stockholm
brig "Tre Kronor" in one of the historical dry docks on the island
Beckholmen in central
Stockholm.
49.
Military Sealift Command
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The Military Sealift Command is a United States Navy organization that controls the replenishment and military transport ships of the Navy. The United States Military Sealift Command has the responsibility for providing sealift and it first came into existence on 9 July 1949 when the Military Sea Transportation Service became solely responsible for the Department of Defenses ocean transport needs. The MSTS was renamed the Military Sealift Command in 1970, Military Sealift Command ships are made up of a core fleet of ships owned by the United States Navy and others under long-term-charter augmented by short-term or voyage-chartered ships. Some ships may have Navy or Marine Corps personnel on board to carry out communication and special mission functions, ships on charter or equivalent, retain commercial colors and bear the standard merchant prefix MV, SS, or GTS, without hull numbers. Five programs comprise Military Sealift Command, Combat Logistics Force, Special Mission, Prepositioning, Service Support, the Combat Logistics Force’s role is to directly replenish ships that are underway at sea, enabling them to deploy for long periods of time without having to come to port. The Special Mission program operates vessels for military and federal government tasks, such as submarine support and missile flight data collection. The Prepositioning program sustains the US militarys forward presence strategy by deploying supply ships in key areas prior to actual need, also, MSC realigned two of its four mission-driven programs and adding a fifth program. The Prepositioning and Sealift programs are unchanged by the 2012 reorganization, as of June 2013, Military Sealift Command operated around 110 ships, and employed 9,800 people. The Combat Logistics Force is the part of the MSC most associated with supporting the Navy. In 1972, a study concluded that it would be cheaper for civilians to man USN support vessels such as tankers, the CLF is the American equivalent of the British Royal Fleet Auxiliary. These MSC ships are painted gray and can be easily identified by the blue. The Combat Logistics Force was formerly called the Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force, some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program. Special mission ships work for several different US Navy customers, including the Naval Sea Systems Command and these ships like those of the NFAF are painted haze gray with blue and gold stack bands. Some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program, as a key element of sea basing, afloat prepositioning provides the military equipment and supplies for a contingency forward deployed in key ocean areas before need. The MSC Prepositioning Program supports the US Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps, Prepositioning ships remain at sea, ready to deploy on short-notice the vital equipment, fuel and supplies to initially support military forces in the event of a contingency. The Prepositioning Program consists of 34 at-sea ships plus 2 aviation support ships kept in reduced operating status and these ships wear civilian livery, and are only designated USNS if government-owned, those chartered from civilian owners are either SS or MV. It consists of four government-operated ships formerly in the Special Mission program, Sealift is divided into three separate project offices, Tanker Project Office, Dry Cargo Project Office and the Surge Project Office. As a result of a 2012 organization, MSCs 12 worldwide MSC ship support units will now report to the MSC operational area commands in their areas of responsibility
Military Sealift Command
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The logo of Military Sealift Command shows an outline of a grey ship on a stylized ocean displaying blue and gold stripes.
Military Sealift Command
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A Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force ship,
USNS Kanawha, bearing the blue-and-gold stripes on its stack
50.
Murmansk
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The city is named for the Murman Coast, Murman is itself an older Russian term for Norwegians. Although Murmansks population is in decline—299,148,307, 257 ,336, 137 ,468, Murmansk was the last city founded in the Russian Empire. On June 29,1916, Russian Transport Minister Alexander Trepov petitioned to grant urban status to the railway settlement, on July 6,1916, the petition was approved and the town was named Romanov-on-Murman, after the imperial Russian dynasty of Romanovs. On September 21,1916, the ceremony was performed. After the February Revolution of 1917, on April 3,1917, in the winter of 1917 the British North Russia Squadron under Rear Admiral Thomas Kemp was established at Murmansk. From 1918 to 1920, during the Russian Civil War, the town was occupied by the Western powers, who had allied in World War I. On February 13,1926, local self-government was organized in Murmansk for the first time, during a session of the Murmansk City Soviet. Prior to this, the city was governed by the authorities of Alexandrovsky Uyezd, while this plan was not confirmed by the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee, in 1935–1937 several rural localities of Kolsky and Polyarny Districts were merged into Murmansk anyway. According to the Presidium of the Leningrad Oblast Executive Committee resolution of February 26,1935, however, the provisions of the resolution were not fully implemented, and due to military construction in Polyarnoye, the administrative center was instead moved to Murmansk in the beginning of 1935. In addition to being the center of Murmansk Okrug, Murmansk also continued to serve as the administrative center of Polyarny District until September 11,1938. This status was retained when Murmansk Okrug was transformed into Murmansk Oblast on May 28,1938, the supplies were brought to the city in the Arctic convoys. For the rest of the war, Murmansk served as a point for weapons. This unyielding, stoic resistance was commemorated at the 40th anniversary of the victory over the Germans in the designation of Murmansk as a Hero City on May 6,1985. During the Cold War Murmansk was a center of Soviet submarine, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the nearby city and naval base of Severomorsk remains the headquarters of the Russian Northern Fleet. In 1974, a massive 35. 5-meter tall statue Alyosha, in 1984, the Hotel Arctic, now known as Azimut Hotel Murmansk, opened and became the tallest building above the Arctic Circle. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the City of Murmansk—an administrative unit with the equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Murmansk is incorporated as Murmansk Urban Okrug and they were abolished on June 2,1948. The same city districts were created for the time on June 23,1951
Murmansk
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Murmansk Port
Murmansk
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Central part of Murmansk
Murmansk
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Aerial view of Murmansk, 1936
Murmansk
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HMS Glory, flagship of the
British North Russia Squadron in Murmansk
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