1.
Princely state
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A princely state, also called native state or Indian state, was a nominally sovereign monarchy under a local or regional ruler in a subsidiary alliance with a greater power. At the time of the British withdrawal,565 princely states were recognised in the Indian subcontinent, apart from thousands of zamindaris. Rulers of salute states entitled to a gun salute of eleven guns and above received from the British the style of Highness, while the Nizam of Hyderabad had the unique style of Exalted Highness. At the other end of the scale, the principality of Lawa covered an area of 49 km2, or smaller than Bermuda. Some two hundred of the states had an area of less than 25 km2. The era of the princely states effectively ended with Indian independence in 1947, by 1950, almost all of the principalities had acceded to either India or Pakistan – thirteen to Pakistan and the rest to India. During this time, the princely states were merged into unions, each of which was headed by a former ruling prince with the title of Rajpramukh. In 1956, the position of Rajpramukh was abolished and the federations dissolved, the Indian Government formally derecognised the princely families in 1971, followed by the Government of Pakistan in 1972. The widespread expansion of Islam during this time brought many principalities into tributary relations with Islamic sultanates, notably the Delhi Sultanate, in the south, however, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire remained dominant until the mid-17th century, among its tributaries was the future Mysore Kingdom. The Turco-Mongol Mughal Empire brought a majority of the existing Indian kingdoms and principalities under its suzerainty by the 17th century, beginning with its foundation in the early 16th century. The advent of Sikhism resulted in the creation of the Sikh Empire in the north by the early 18th century, at the same time, the Marathas carved out their own states to form the Maratha Empire. Through the 18th century, former Mughal governors formed their own independent states, India under the British Raj consisted of two types of territory, British India and the Native states or Princely states. In general the term British India had been used also to refer to the regions under the rule of the East India Company in India from 1774 to 1858, the term has also been used to refer to the British in India. More prestigious Hindu rulers often used the title Raja, Raje or a variant such as Rana, Rao, also in this class were several Thakurs or Thakores and a few particular titles, such as Sardar, Mankari, Deshmukh, Sar Desai, Raja Inamdar, Saranjamdar. The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix maha in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc. The states of Travancore and Cochin had queens regnant styled Maharani, generally the female forms applied only to sisters, spouses and widows, there were also compound titles, such as rajadhiraj, Raj-i-rajgan, often relics from an elaborate system of hierarchical titles under the Mughal emperors. For example, the addition of the adjective Bahadur raised the status of the one level. Furthermore, most dynasties used a variety of titles, such as Varma in South India
2.
French India
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French India, formally the Établissements français dans lInde, was a French colony comprising geographically separate enclaves on the Indian subcontinent. The possessions were acquired by the French East India Company beginning in the second half of the 17th century. The French establishments included Pondichéry, Karikal and Yanaon on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast and Chandernagor in Bengal. French India also included several loges in other towns, but after 1816, the loges had little commercial importance, by 1950, the total area measured 510 km2, of which 293 km2 belonged to the territory of Pondichéry. In 1936, the population of the colony totalled 298,851 inhabitants, France was the last of the major European maritime powers of the 17th century to enter the East India trade. Historians have sought to explain Frances late entrance in the East India trade, in 1604 a company was granted letters patent by King Henry IV, but the project failed. Fresh letters patent were issued in 1615, and two went to India, only one returning. From 1658, François Bernier, a French physician and traveller, was for years the personal physician at the court of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. La Compagnie française des Indes orientales was formed under the auspices of Cardinal Richelieu and reconstructed under Jean-Baptiste Colbert, in 1667 the French India Company sent out another expedition, under the command of François Caron, which reached Surat in 1668 and established the first French factory in India. In 1669, Marcara succeeded in establishing another French factory at Masulipatam, in 1672, Saint Thomas was taken but the French were driven out by the Dutch. Chandernagore was established in 1692, with the permission of Nawab Shaista Khan, in 1673, the French acquired the area of Pondicherry from the qiladar of Valikondapuram under the Sultan of Bijapur, and thus the foundation of Pondichéry was laid. By 1720, the French had lost their factories at Surat, on 4 February 1673, Bellanger, a French officer, took up residence in the Danish Lodge in Pondichéry, thereby commencing the French administration of Pondichéry. In 1674 François Martin, the first Governor, initiated ambitious projects to transform Pondichéry from a fishing village into a flourishing port-town. The French, though, found themselves in conflict with the Dutch. In 1693 the Dutch captured Pondichéry and augmented the fortifications, the French regained the town in 1699 through the Treaty of Ryswick, signed on 20 September 1697. From their arrival until 1741, the objectives of the French, during this period, the French East India Company peacefully acquired Yanam in 1723, Mahe on Malabar Coast in 1725 and Karaikal in 1739. In the early 18th century, the town of Pondichéry was laid out on a grid pattern, able governors like Pierre Christophe Le Noir and Pierre Benoît Dumas expanded the Pondichéry area and made it a large and rich town. Under the command of the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, Dupleixs army successfully controlled the area between Hyderabad and Cape Comorin, but then Robert Clive arrived in India in 1744, a British officer who dashed the hopes of Dupleix to create a French empire India
3.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
4.
Nizam of Hyderabad
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The Asaf Jah Dynasty was founded by Mir Qamar-ud-Din Siddiqi, a viceroy of the Deccan under the Mughal Empire from 1713 to 1721. He intermittently ruled after Aurangzebs death in 1707, in 1724, Mughal control lapsed, and Asaf Jah declared himself independent in Hyderabad. Following the decline of the Mughal power, the region of Deccan saw the rise of Maratha Empire, the Nizam himself saw many invasions by the Marathas in the 1720s, which resulted in the Nizam paying a regular tax to the Marathas. The major battles fought between the Marathas and the Nizam include Palkhed, Bhopal, Rakshasbhuvan, and Kharda, in all of which the Nizam lost. Following the conquest of Deccan by Bajirao I and the imposition of chauth by him, Nizam remained a tributary of the Marathas for all intent and purposes. In 1805, after the British victory in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1903 the Berar region of the state was separated and merged into the Central Provinces of British India, to form the Central Provinces and Berar. In 1947, at the time of the partition of India, Britain offered the 566 princely states in the sub-continent the option of acceding to either India or Pakistan, Hyderabad was the largest and most prosperous state of all princely states in India. It covered 82,698 square miles of fairly homogeneous territory and had a population of roughly 16.34 million people, Hyderabad State had its own army, airline, telecommunication system, railway network, postal system, currency and radio broadcasting service. In spite of the overwhelming Hindu majority, Hindus were severely under-represented in government, police, of 1765 officers in the State Army,1268 were Muslims,421 were Hindus, and 121 others were Christians, Parsis and Sikhs. Of the officials drawing a salary between Rs. 600-1200 per month,59 were Muslims,5 were Hindus and 38 were of other religions, the Nizam and his nobles, who were mostly Muslims, owned 40% of the total land in the state. The Nizam decided to keep Hyderabad independent, unlike the other princely states, in September 1948, in Operation Polo, the Indian Army marched into Hyderabad, deposed the Nizam, and annexed the state into the Indian Union. Seven Nizams ruled Hyderabad for two centuries until 1947, the Asaf Jahi rulers were great patrons of literature, art, architecture, and culture, and rich food. The Nizams patronized aspects of a Persianate society, copied from their Turco-Mongol Mughal overlords, the last Nizam had been the richest man in the world in his time. He pushed education, science, and establishment of Osmania University, nizām-ul-mulk was a title first used in Urdu around 1600 to mean Governor of the realm or Deputy for the Whole Empire. The word is derived from the Arabic language, as in Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi, better known by his title of Nizam al-Mulk, Nizām, meaning order. The Nizam was referred to as Ala Hadrat / Ala Hazrat or Nizam Sarkar, the first Nizam ruled on behalf of the Mughal emperors. After the death of Aurangzeb, the Nizams split from the Mughals to form an independent kingdom, when the British achieved paramountcy over India, the Nizams were allowed to continue to rule their princely states as client kings. The Nizams retained internal power over Hyderabad State until 17 September 1948 when Hyderabad was integrated into the new Indian Union
5.
Robert Clive
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He is credited with securing a large swath of South Asia and the wealth that followed, for the British crown. Together with Warren Hastings he was one of the key figures in the creation of British India, with all his attention focused on one prize. He also sat as a Tory Member of Parliament in London, Clive was one of the most controversial figures in all British military history. His achievements included establishing control over much of India, and laying the foundation of the entire British Raj, for that he was vilified by his contemporaries in England, and put on trial before Parliament. Of special concern was that he amassed a fortune in India. Modern historians have criticised him for atrocities, for high taxes, Robert Clive was born at Styche, the Clive family estate, near Market Drayton in Shropshire, on 29 September 1725 to Richard Clive and Rebecca Gaskell Clive. The family had held the estate since the time of Henry VII. The family had a history of public service, members of the family included an Irish chancellor of the exchequer under Henry VIII. Roberts father, who supplemented the estates modest income as a lawyer, also served in Parliament for many years, Robert was their eldest son of thirteen children, he had seven sisters and five brothers, six of whom died in infancy. Clives father was known to have a temper, which the boy apparently inherited, for reasons that have not been documented, Clive was sent to live with his mothers sister in Manchester while still a toddler. Biographer Robert Harvey suggests that this move was made because Clives father was busy in London trying to provide for the family, daniel Bayley, the sisters husband, reported that the boy was out of measure addicted to fighting. He was a troublemaker in the schools he was sent to. When he was older he and a gang of teenagers established a protection racket that vandalised the shops of merchants in Market Drayton. Clive also exhibited fearlessness at an early age and he is reputed to have climbed the tower of St Marys Parish Church in Market Drayton and perched on a gargoyle, frightening those down below. He was said to have been a pupil at Stand Grammar School in Whitefield and he climbed the tower there and threw slates at passers by. When Clive was nine his aunt died, and, after a stint in his fathers cramped London quarters. There he attended the Market Drayton Grammar School, where his unruly behaviour prompted his father to him to Merchant Taylors School in London. His bad behaviour continued, and he was sent to a trade school in Hertfordshire to complete a basic education
6.
Mir Jafar
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Mir Jafar Ali Khan Bahadur was the first Nawab of Bengal with support from the British East India Company. He was the son of Sayyid Ahmad Najafi. His rule is considered the start of British imperialism in India and was a key step in the eventual British domination of vast areas of the subcontinent. Thus after helping the British defeat Siraj ud-Daulah he became the new Nawab of Bengal in 1757 with military support from the British East India Company as a reward for his betrayal, however, Jafar failed to satisfy constant British demands for money. In 1758, Robert Clive discovered that through his agent Khoja Wajid, Dutch ships of war were also seen in the River Hooghly. Circumstances led to the Battle of Chinsurah, British company official Henry Vansittart proposed that since Jafar was unable to cope with the difficulties, Mir Qasim, Jafars son-in-law, should act as Deputy Subahdar. In October 1760, the company forced him to abdicate in favor of Qasim. However, Qasims independent spirit and plan to force the East India company out of his led to his overthrow. Mir Qasim however refused to accept this and went to war against the company, Jafar ruled until his death on January 17,1765 and lies buried at the Jafarganj Cemetery in Murshidabad, West Bengal, India. In 1747 the Marathas led by Raghoji I Bhonsle, began to raid, pillage and annex the territories of the Alivardi Khan, the enraged Alivardi Khan then dismissed the shamed Mir Jafar. Mir Jafar pretended loyalty to Alivardi Khans successor Siraj Ud Daulah, after Siraj Ud Daulah’s defeat and subsequent execution, Jafar achieved his long-pursued dream of gaining the throne, and was propped up by the British East India company as puppet Nawab. Jafar paid Rs.17,700,000 as compensation for the attack on Calcutta to the company, in addition, he gave bribes to the officials of the company. However, the British defeated the Dutch at the Battle of Chinsurah in November 1759, however, Qasim proved to be both able and independent, strongly condemned the interference of East India company in the governing of his domain. Mir Qasim formed an alliance to force the British East India company out of East India, the Company soon went to war with him and his allies. With the defeat in Buxar, Mir Qasim was eventually overthrown, Mir Jafar managed to regain the good graces of the British, he was again installed Nawab in 1763 and held the position until his death in 1765. But the conflict involved the assertive British East India Company. The Mughals were led by Prince Ali Gauhar, who was accompanied by Muhammad Quli Khan, Hidayat Ali, Mir Afzal and their forces were reinforced by the forces of Shuja-ud-Daula and Najib-ud-Daula. The Mughals were also joined by Jean Law and 200 Frenchmen, the breakup of the centralized Mughal empire by 1750, led to creation of a large number of independent kingdoms
7.
Battle of Plassey
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The Battle of Plassey was a decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on 23 June 1757. The battle consolidated the Companys presence in Bengal, which expanded to cover much of India over the next hundred years. The battle took place at Palashi on the banks of the Bhagirathi River, about 150 kilometres north of Calcutta and south of Murshidabad, the belligerents were the Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company. Siraj-ud-daulah had become the Nawab of Bengal the year before, Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander in chief of the nawabs army, and also promised him to make him Nawab of Bengal. He defeated the Nawab at Plassey in 1757 and captured Calcutta, the battle was preceded by the attack on British-controlled Calcutta by Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah and the Black Hole massacre. The British sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson from Madras to Bengal, Clive then seized the initiative to capture the French fort of Chandernagar. Tensions and suspicions between Siraj-ud-daulah and the British culminated in the Battle of Plassey, the battle was waged during the Seven Years War, and, in a mirror of their European rivalry, the French East India Company sent a small contingent to fight against the British. Siraj-ud-Daulah had a superior force and made his stand at Plassey. The British, worried about being outnumbered, formed a conspiracy with Siraj-ud-Daulahs demoted army chief Mir Jafar, along with such as Yar Lutuf Khan, Jagat Seths, Omichund. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan thus assembled their troops near the battlefield, the battle was ended in 11 hours. This is judged to be one of the battles in the control of Indian subcontinent by the colonial powers. The British now wielded enormous influence over the Nawab and consequently acquired significant concessions for previous losses and revenue from trade. The British East India Company had a presence in India with the three main stations of Fort St. George in Madras, Fort William in Calcutta and Bombay Castle in western India. These stations were independent presidencies governed by a president and a council, the British adopted a policy of allying themselves with various princes and Nawabs, promising security against usurpers and rebels. The Nawabs often gave them concessions in return for the security, by then, all rivalry had ceased between the British East India Company and the Dutch or Portuguese. The French were a late comer in India trade, but they established themselves in India and were poised to overtake Britain for control. The War of the Austrian Succession marked the beginning of the struggle between Britain and France and of European military ascendancy and political intervention in the Indian subcontinent. In September 1746, Mahé de La Bourdonnais landed off Madras with a naval squadron, the defences of Madras were weak and the garrison sustained a bombardment of three days before surrendering
8.
Treaty of Allahabad
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The Treaty marks the political and constitutional involvement and the beginning of British rule in India. Based on the terms of the agreement, Alam granted the East India Company Diwani rights, thus East India Company got appointed as the imperial tax collector for the Eastern province. These rights allowed the Company to collect revenue directly from the people of Bengal, Bihar, in return, the Company paid an annual tribute of twenty-six lakhs of rupees while securing for Shah Alam II the districts of Kora and Allahabad. The tribute money paid to the emperor was for the maintenance of the Emperors court in Allahabad, the accord also dictated that Shah Alam be restored to the province of Varanasi as long as he continued to pay certain amount of revenue to the Company. Awadh was returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah, but Allahabad and Kora were taken from him, the Nawab of Awadh also had to pay fifty-three lakhs of rupees as war indemnity to the East India Company. The Nawab of Awadh, Shuja ud Daulah, was made to pay a war indemnity of 5 million rupees to the Company. Moreover, the two signed an alliance by which the Company promised to support the Nawab against an outside attack provided he paid for services of the troops sent to his aid and this alliance made the Nawab dependent on the Company. This was a point in Indian history. List of treaties Wikisource, Text of Allahabad Treaty
9.
Battle of Buxar
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British army was engaged in the fighting numbered 7,071 comprising 857 British,5,297 Indian sepoys and 918 Indian cavalry. The alliance armys numbers were estimated to be over 40,000, according to other sources, the combined army of the Mughals, Awadh and Mir Qasim consisting of 40,000 men was defeated by a British army comprising 10,000 men. The lack of basic co-ordination among the three desperate allies was responsible for their decisive defeat, according to the British, Durrani and Rohilla cavalry were also present and fought during the battle in various skirmishes. But by midday the battle was over and Shuja-ud-Daula blew up large tumbrils, Mir Qasim also fled with his 3 million rupees worth of Gemstones and later even committed suicide. Mirza Najaf Khan reorganised formations around Shah Alam II, who retreated and he also claimed that the three Indian allies suffered 2,000 dead and that many more were wounded. Another source says there were 69 European and 664 sepoy casualties on the British side and 6,000 casualties on the Mughal side. The victors captured 133 pieces of artillery and over 1 million rupees of cash, the British victory at Buxar had at one fell swoop, disposed of the three main scions of Moghul power in Upper India. Mir Kasim disappeared into an impoverished obscurity, Shah Alam realigned himself with the British, and Shah Shuja fled west hotly pursued by the victors. The whole Ganges valley lay at the Companys mercy, Shah Shuja eventually surrendered, Battle of Plassey A detailed description of the Battle of Buxar
10.
Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley
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Richard Colley Wesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley KG PC PC was styled Viscount Wellesley from birth until 1781 and was known as Earl of Mornington from 1781 until 1799. He was an Irish and British politician and colonial administrator and he was the eldest son of The 1st Earl of Mornington, an Irish peer, and Anne, the eldest daughter of The 1st Viscount Dungannon. He was also the brother of Field Marshal The 1st Duke of Wellington and he first made his name as Governor-General of India between 1798 and 1805 and later served as Foreign Secretary in the British Cabinet and as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Wellesley was born in 1760 in Ireland, where his family were part of the Ascendancy and he was educated at the Royal School, Armagh, Harrow School and Eton College, where he distinguished himself as a classical scholar, and at Christ Church, Oxford. He was elected Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Ireland in 1782, due to the extravagance of his father and grandfather, he found himself so indebted that he was ultimately forced to sell all the Irish estates. However, in 1781 he was appointed to the position of Custos Rotulorum of Meath. In 1784 he joined also the British House of Commons as member for Bere Alston, soon afterwards he was appointed a Lord of the Treasury by William Pitt the Younger. Mornington seems to have caught Pitts large political spirit in the period 1793 to 1797, Robert Clive won and Warren Hastings consolidated the British ascendancy in India, but Mornington extended it into an empire. On the voyage outwards, he formed the design of annihilating French influence in the Deccan, soon after his landing, in April 1798, he learned that an alliance was being negotiated between Tipu Sultan and the French republic. Mornington resolved to anticipate the action of the enemy, and ordered preparations for war, the first step was to effect the disbandment of the French troops entertained by the Nizam of Hyderabad. The invasion of Mysore followed in February 1799, and the campaign was brought to a conclusion by the capture of Seringapatam on 4 May 1799. In 1803, the restoration of the Peshwa proved the prelude to the Mahratha war against Sindhia and he found the East India Company a trading body, but left it an imperial power. He was an excellent administrator, and picked two of his brothers for his staff, Arthur was his military adviser, and Henry was his personal secretary. He founded Fort William College, a training centre intended for those who would be involved in governing India, a free-trader like Pitt, he endeavoured to remove some of the restrictions on the trade between Britain and India. He reached England just in time to see Pitt before his death and he had been created a Peer of Great Britain in 1797, and in 1799 became Marquess Wellesley in the Peerage of Ireland. He formed a collection of over 2,500 painted miniatures in the Company style of Indian natural history. A motion by James Paull to impeach Wellesley due to his expulsion of the traders from Oudh was defeated in the House of Commons by 182 votes to 31 in 1808. Resolutions condemning him for the abuse of power were moved in both the Lords and Commons, but defeated by large majorities, in 1809 Wellesley was appointed ambassador to Spain
11.
Nawab
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Nawab or nawaab is an honorific title ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of princely states in South Asia. Nawab usually refers to males, the equivalent is begum or nawab begum. The primary duty of a nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province, in some cases, these titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs or Sardars of large or important tribes were given the title. The term nawab was originally used for the subahdar or viceroy of a subah or region of the Mughal empire. It is a Hindustani term, used in Urdu, Hindi, Bengali and many other North-Indian languages, borrowed via Persian from the Arabic, being the plural of naib. In some areas, especially Bengal, the term is pronounced nobab and this later variation has also entered English and other foreign languages. The term nawbab is often used to refer to any Muslim ruler in north or south India while the term nizam is preferred for a senior official—it literally means governor of region. The Nizam of Hyderabad had several nawabs under him, Nawabs of Cuddapah, Sira, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Chicacole, Nizam was his personal title, awarded by the Mughal Government and based on the term Nazim as meaning senior officer. Nazim is still used for a collector in many parts of India. The term nawab is still technically imprecise, as the title was awarded to Hindus and Sikhs, as well. With the decline of empire, the title, and the powers that went with it. Other former rulers bearing the title, such as the nawabs of Bengal, some princes became Nawab by promotion, e. g. the ruler of Palanpur was diwan until 1910, then nawab sahib. Other nawabs were promoted are restyled to another style, or to and back. The style for a queen is begum. Most of the dynasties were male primogenitures, although several ruling Begums of Bhopal were a notable exception. Before the incorporation of the Subcontinent into the British Empire, nawabs ruled the kingdoms of Awadh, Bengal, Arcot and Bhopal. The title nawab was also awarded as a distinction by the paramount power, similarly to a British peerage, to persons
12.
Awadh
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Nepalgunj was an administrative region, which serves as the present-day capital of Province No.5 of Nepal. The region is home to a dialect, Awadhi, spoken by Awadhis. Awadh, known as the granary of India, was important strategically for the control of the Doab and it was a wealthy kingdom, able to maintain its independence against threats from the Marathas, the British and the Afghans. Awadhs political unity can be traced back to the ancient Hindu kingdom of Kosala, modern Awadh finds historical mention only in the Mughal time of Akbar the Great, in the late 16th century. In prehistoric times, Awadh, reputedly the kingdom of Rama, contained five main divisions, Uttara Kosala or the districts, now known as Bahraich, Gonda, Basti. Silliana, consisting of range of hills to the north of Uttara Kosala, now belonging to Nepal. Pachhimrath, which may be described as the country between Ghaghra and Gomti west to the line from Ayodhya to Sultanpur. This division included about third of present district of Faizabad, a portion of the north of Sultanpur, greater part of Barabanki. Purabrath, which may be described as the country between Ghaghra and Gomti east to the line from Ayodhya to Sultanpur. This division included about two-thirds of present district of Faizabad, the corner of Sultanpur. Arbar, extended soutwards Gomti to the Sai river, since 1350 AD different parts of the Awadh region were ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, Sharqi Sultanate, Mughal Empire, Nawabs of Awadh, East India Company and the British Raj. Lucknow was one of the centres of Indian rebellion of 1857, participated actively in Indias Independence movement. For about eighty-four years, Awadh was part of the Sharqi Sultanate of Jaunpur, Emperor Jehangir granted an estate in Awadh to a nobleman, Sheik Abdul Rahim, who had won his favour. Sheik Abdul Rahim later built Machchi Bhawan in this estate, this became the seat of power from where his descendants. Until 1719, the Subah of Awadh was a province of the Mughal Empire, Nawab –the plural of the Arabic word Naib, meaning assistant– was the term given to subahdars appointed by the Mughal emperor all over India to assist him in managing the Empire. In the absence of transport and communication facilities, they were practically independent rulers of their territory and wielded the power of life. Persian adventurer Saadat Khan, also called Burhan-ul-Mulk, was appointed the Nazim of Awadh in 1722, the city was North Indias cultural capital, its nawabs, best remembered for their refined and extravagant lifestyles, were patrons of the arts. Under them music and dance flourished, and many monuments were erected, of the monuments standing today, the Bara Imambara, the Chhota Imambara and the Rumi Darwaza are notable examples
13.
Hyderabad
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Hyderabad is the capital of the southern Indian state of Telangana and de jure capital of Andhra Pradesh. At an average altitude of 542 metres, much of Hyderabad is situated on hilly terrain around artificial lakes, established in 1591 by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, Hyderabad remained under the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty for nearly a century before the Mughals captured the region. In 1724, Mughal viceroy Asif Jah I declared his sovereignty and created his own dynasty, the Nizams dominions became a princely state during the British Raj, and remained so for 150 years, with the city serving as its capital. The city continued as the capital of Hyderabad State after it was brought into the Indian Union in 1948, since 1956, Rashtrapati Nilayam in the city has been the winter office of the President of India. In 2014, the formed state of Telangana split from Andhra Pradesh. Relics of Qutb Shahi and Nizam rule remain visible today, the Charminar—commissioned by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah—has come to symbolise Hyderabad, Golconda fort is another major landmark. The influence of Mughlai culture is evident in the regions distinctive cuisine. The Qutb Shahis and Nizams established Hyderabad as a cultural hub, the Telugu film industry based in the city is the countrys second-largest producer of motion pictures. Hyderabad was historically known as a pearl and diamond trading centre, many of the citys traditional bazaars remain open, including Laad Bazaar, Begum Bazaar and Sultan Bazaar. Special economic zones dedicated to technology have encouraged companies from India. The emergence of pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries in the 1990s led to the naming as Indias Genome Valley. With an output of US$74 billion, Hyderabad is the fifth-largest contributor to Indias overall gross domestic product, according to John Everett-Heath, the author of Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Place Names, Hyderabad means Haydars city or lion city, from haydar and ābād. It was named to honour the Caliph Ali Ibn Abi Talib, andrew Petersen, a scholar of Islamic architecture, says the city was originally called Baghnagar. One popular theory suggests that Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, the founder of the city, named it Bhagyanagar or Bhāgnagar after Bhagmati and she converted to Islam and adopted the title Hyder Mahal. The city was renamed Hyderabad in her honour, French traveller Jean de Thévenot visited the Deccan region in 1666–1667 refers to the city in his book Travels in India as Bagnagar and Aiderabad. Archaeologists excavating near the city have unearthed Iron Age sites that may date from 500 BCE, the region comprising modern Hyderabad and its surroundings was known as Golkonda, and was ruled by the Chalukya dynasty from 624 CE to 1075 CE. The Kakatiya dynasty was reduced to a vassal of the Khilji dynasty in 1310 after its defeat by Sultan Alauddin Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate and this lasted until 1321, when the Kakatiya dynasty was annexed by Malik Kafur, Allaudin Khiljis general. During this period, Alauddin Khilji took the Koh-i-Noor diamond, which is said to have mined from the Kollur Mines of Golkonda
14.
Maratha Empire
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The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian power that existed from 1674 to 1818 and ruled over much of the Indian sub-continent. The Marathas are credited to an extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The Marathas are Hindu warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau that rose to prominence by establishing a Hindavi Swarajya, known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during the Mughal–Maratha Wars and later controlled a large part of India. Chhattrapati Shahu, grandson of Shivaji, was released by Mughals after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, following a brief struggle with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu became ruler and appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later, his descendants, as the peshwas or prime ministers of the empire. Balaji and his descendants played a key role in expansion of Maratha rule, the empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south to Peshawar in the north, and Bengal and Andaman Islands in the east. In 1761, the Maratha Army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmad Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion into Afghanistan, ten years after Panipat, the young Peshwa Madhavrao Is Maratha Resurrection reinstated Maratha authority over North India. In a bid to manage the large empire, Madhavrao I gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights. They became known as the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of the Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, the Marathas remained the preeminent power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars which left the East India Company in control of most of India. A large portion of the Maratha empire was coastline, which had secured by the potent Maratha Navy under commanders such as Kanhoji Angre. He was very successful at keeping foreign naval ships, particularly of the Portuguese and British, securing the coastal areas and building land-based fortifications were crucial aspects of the Marathas defensive strategy and regional military history. The Maratha Empire is also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, the historian Barbara Ramusack says that the former is a designation preferred by Indian nationalists, while the latter was that used by British historians. Maratha power was fragmented among several discrete fragments, although at present, the word Maratha refers to a particular caste of warriors and peasants, in the past the word has been used to describe Marathi people, including Marathas themselves. Shivaji was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhosle clan who is considered to be the founder of the Maratha empire. Shivaji led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and he created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against the Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati of the new Maratha kingdom in 1674, the state Shivaji founded was a Maratha kingdom comprising about 4. 1% of the subcontinent, but spread over large tracts. At the time of his death is was dotted with about 300 forts, about 40,000 cavalry,50,000 foot soldiers and naval establishments all over the west coast. Over time, the kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity, Shivaji had two sons, Sambhaji and Rajaram
15.
Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
16.
Tipu Sultan
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Tipu Sultan, also known as the Tiger of Mysore, and Tipu Sahib, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore, Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He is considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery, Tipu Sultan deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies in their 1792 and 1799 Siege of Srirangapatna. Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later became emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu, Tipu engaged in expansionist attacks against his neighbours. He remained an enemy of the British East India Company. In the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into the humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of conquered territories, including Malabar. He sent emissaries to foreign states, including the Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan and he is said to have forced Manglore Catholics to convert to Islam. Also during his only three temples of his kingdom were able to offer daily Pooja. Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 at Devanahalli, in present-day Bengaluru Rural district and he was named Tipu Sultan after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Tipu was also called Sultan Sayyid walShareef Fateh Ali Khan Tipu after his grandfather Fath Muhammad, Tipu was born at Devanhalli in a Najeeb AlTarfayn Sayyid family meaning having ancestry to both Imams Hassan and Hussain, as the son of Hyder Ali. Being illiterate, Hyder was very particular in giving his eldest son a princes education, from the age of 17 Tipu was given independent charge of important diplomatic and military missions. He was his fathers right arm in the wars from which Hyder emerged as the most powerful ruler of southern India. Tipus father, Hyder Ali, was an officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore, he rapidly rose in power. Hyders father, Fath Muhammad, was born in Kolar, Fateh Muhammad eventually entered the service of the Wodeyar Rajas of the Kingdom of Mysore. Tipus mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa, Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing. Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father, at age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the First Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16 and he also distinguished himself in the First Anglo-Maratha War of 1775–1779. In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port of Mahé, in response, Hyder launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of driving the British out of Madras
17.
Kingdom of Mysore
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The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom in southern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially served as a state of the Vijayanagara Empire. With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the kingdom became independent, the kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto ruler Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. During this time, it came into conflict with the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Travancore, success in the first two Anglo-Mysore wars was followed by defeat in the third and fourth. Following Tipus death in the war of 1799, large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of a subsidiary alliance, the Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore acceded to the Union of India. Even as a state, Mysore came to be counted among the more developed and urbanized regions of India. This period also saw Mysore emerge as one of the important centers of art, the Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the fine arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic patrons as well, and their legacies continue to influence music and art even today. According to traditional accounts, the kingdom originated as a state based in the modern city of Mysore and was founded by two brothers, Yaduraya and Krishnaraya. Their origins are mired in legend and are still a matter of debate, while some historians posit a northern origin at Dwaraka, Yaduraya is said to have married Chikkadevarasi, the local princess and assumed the feudal title Wodeyar, which the ensuing dynasty retained. The kings who followed ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara empire until the decline of the latter in 1565, by this time, the kingdom had expanded to thirty-three villages protected by a force of 300 soldiers. Raja Wodeyar Is reign also saw expansion with the annexation of Channapatna to the north from Jaggadeva Raya – a development which made Mysore a regional political factor to reckon with. This was in marked contrast to the chiefs of Tamil country who continued to pay off Chandragiri well into the 1630s. The invasion of the Keladi Nayakas of Malnad was also dealt with successfully and this period was followed by one of complex geo-political changes, when in the 1670s, the Marathas and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan. Chikka Devaraja, the most notable of Mysores early kings, who ruled during much of period, managed to not only survive the exigencies. He achieved this by forging alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. The kingdom soon grew to include Salem and Bangalore to the east, Hassan to the west, Chikkamagaluru and Tumkur to the north, the conflict brought mixed results with Mysore annexing Periyapatna but suffering a reversal at Palupare. According to historians Sanjay Subrahmanyam and Sethu Madhava Rao, Mysore was now formally a tributary of the Mughal empire, mughul records claim a regular tribute was paid by Mysore
18.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
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The Fourth Anglo–Mysore War was a conflict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British East India Company. This was the conflict of the four Anglo–Mysore Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore, the ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle. Britain took indirect control of Mysore, restoring the Wodeyar Dynasty to the Mysore throne, Tipu Sultans young heir, Fateh Ali, was sent into exile. The Kingdom of Mysore became a state in a subsidiary alliance with British occupied India and ceded Coimbatore, Dakshina Kannada. The war, specifically the Battle of Mallavelly and the Siege of Seringapatam, additionally, General Malarctic, French Governor of Mauritius, issued the Malarctic Proclamation seeking volunteers to assist Tipu. Horatio Nelson crushed any help from Napoleon after the Battle of the Nile, however, Lord Wellesley had already set in motion a response to prevent any alliance between Tipu Sultan and France. Three armies – one from Bombay and two British, marched into Mysore in 1799 and besieged the capital, Srirangapatnam, after some engagements with Tipu, on 8 March, a forward force managed to hold off an advance by Tipu at the Battle of Seedaseer. On 4 May, in the Battle of Seringapatam, broke through the defending walls, Tipu Sultan, rushing to the breach, was shot and killed. Today, the spot where Tipus body was discovered under the gate has been fenced off by the Archaeological Survey of India. The gate itself was demolished during the 19th century to lay a wide road. One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sultan was the use of attacks with iron-cased rocket brigades in the army. The effect of the Mysorean rockets on the British during the Third, during the war, rockets were again used on several occasions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later famous as the First Duke of Wellington, Wellesley was defeated by Tipus Diwan, Purnaiya, at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope. The commander chosen for this operation was Col, the following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force, and took the whole position without losing a single man. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards, some burst in the air like shells. Others, called ground rockets, would again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. According to one British observer, a young English officer named Bayly and he continued, The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant
19.
Third Anglo-Maratha War
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The Third Anglo-Maratha War was the final and decisive conflict between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire in India. The war left the Company in control of most of India and it began with an invasion of the Maratha territory by British East India Company troops, the largest such British controlled force massed in India. The troops were led by the Governor General Hastings supported by a force under General Thomas Hislop, operations began against the Pindaris, a band of Muslims and Marathas from central India. Peshwa Baji Rao IIs forces, supported by those of Mudhoji II Bhonsle of Nagpur and Malharrao Holkar III of Indore, pressure and diplomacy convinced the fourth major Maratha leader, Daulatrao Shinde of Gwalior, to remain neutral even though he lost control of Rajasthan. British victories were swift, resulting in the breakup of the Maratha Empire, the Peshwa was defeated in the battles of Khadki and Koregaon. Several minor battles were fought by the Peshwas forces to prevent his capture, the Peshwa was eventually captured and placed on a small estate at Bithur, near Kanpur. Most of his territory was annexed and became part of the Bombay Presidency, the Maharaja of Satara was restored as the ruler of his territory as a princely state. In 1848 this territory was annexed by the Bombay Presidency under the doctrine of lapse policy of Lord Dalhousie. Bhonsle was defeated in the battle of Sitabuldi and Holkar in the battle of Mahidpur, the northern portion of Bhonsles dominions in and around Nagpur, together with the Peshwas territories in Bundelkhand, were annexed by British India as the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories. The defeat of the Bhonsle and Holkar also resulted in the acquisition of the Maratha kingdoms of Nagpur, along with Gwalior from Shinde and Jhansi from the Peshwa, all of these territories became princely states acknowledging British control. The British proficiency in Indian war-making was demonstrated through their victories in Khadki, Sitabuldi, Mahidpur, Koregaon. The Maratha Empire was founded in 1645 by Raja Shivaji of the Bhosle dynasty, common elements among the citizens of Raja Shivajis Maratha Empire were the Marathi language, the Hindu religion, a strong sense of belonging, and a national feeling. Raja Shivaji led resistance efforts to free the Hindus from the Mughals and Muslim Sultanate of Bijapur and this kingdom was known as the Hindavi Swarajya in the Marathi language. He utterly destroyed the power of the orthodox and infamous Muslim ruler Aurangzeb, a key component of the Maratha administration was the council of eight ministers, called the Ashta Pradhan. The senior-most member of the Ashta Pradhan was called the Peshwa or the Mukhya Pradhan, the Peshwa was the right-hand man of Raja Shivaji. Raja Shivaji and most of the Maratha warriors belonged to the Maratha caste of the four-tier Hindu caste system, after Raja Shivajis death, the Peshwas gradually became the effective rulers of the state. While the Marathas were fighting the Mughals in the early 18th century, the British fortified the naval base of Bombay after they saw the Marathas defeat the Portuguese at neighbouring Vasai in May 1739. In an effort to keep the Marathas out of Bombay, the British sent envoys to negotiate a treaty, the envoys were successful, and a treaty was signed on 12 July 1739 that gave the British East India Company rights to free trade in Maratha territory
20.
Maratha
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The Maratha is a group of castes in India found predominantly in the state of Maharashtra. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, Marathas are people of India, famed in history as yeoman warriors and they reside primarily in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The general body of lists are often at variance with each other. The term Maratha originally referred to the speakers of the Marathi language, in the 17th century, it emerged as a designation for soldiers serving in the armies of Deccan sultanates. A number of Maratha warriors, including Shivajis father, Shahaji, by the mid-1660s, Shivaji had established an independent Maratha kingdom. After his death, Marathas fought under his sons and defeated Aurangzeb in the war of 27 years, the Confederacy remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British East India Company in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. By 19th century, the term Maratha had several interpretations in the British administrative records, in the Thane District Gazetteer of 1882, the term was used to denote elite layers within various castes, for example, Maratha-Agri within Agri caste, Maratha-Koli within Koli caste and so on. In the Pune District, the words Kunbi and Maratha had become synonymous, the Pune District Gazetteer of 1882 divided the Kunbis into two classes, Marathas and other Kunbis. The 1901 census listed three groups within the Maratha-Kunbi caste complex, Marathas proper, Maratha Kunbis and Konkani Marathas, the Kunbi class comprised agricultural workers and soldiers. The upper-class Marathas proper claimed Rajput descent with Kshatriya status, and included princes, some of the Maratha clans claiming Rajput descent include Bhonsales, Chavans, and Pawar. Gradually, the term Maratha came to denote an endogamous caste, from 1900 onwards, the Satyashodhak Samaj movement defined the Marathas as a broader social category of non-Brahmin groups. These non-Brahmins gained prominence in Indian National Congress during the Indian independence movement, in independent India, these Marathas became the dominant political force in the newly-formed state of Maharashtra. The empire also resulted in the relocation of substantial numbers of Maratha and other Marathi-speaking people outside Maharashtra. Today several small but significant communities descended from these live in the north, south. These descendant communities tend often to speak the languages, although many also speak Marathi in addition. Notable Maratha families outside Maharashtra include Scindia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda, Holkar of Indore, Puar of Dewas & Dhar, Ghorpade of Mudhol, and Bhonsle of Nagpur. These Brahmins supported the Maratha claim to Kshatriya status, but their success in political alliance was sporadic. Marathas have dominated the politics of Maharashtra since its inception in 1960
21.
Baji Rao II
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Baji Rao II was the last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, and governed from 1795 to 1818. He was installed as a ruler by the Maratha nobles, whose growing power prompted him to flee his capital Pune. This resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in which the British emerged victorious, in 1817, Baji Rao II joined the Third Anglo-Maratha War against the British, after they favoured the Gaekwad nobles in a revenue-sharing dispute. After suffering several defeats, the Peshwa surrendered to the British, and agreed to retire in return for an estate at Bithoor. Baji Rao was the son of the former Peshwa Raghunathrao and Anandibai, Raghunathrao had defected to the English, causing the First Anglo-Maratha War, which ended with the Treaty of Salbai. Baji Rao was born in 1775, when both his parents were kept in imprisonment by the then Peshwas cabinet, till the age of 19, he along with his brothers were kept in confinement denying even basic rights of education. Raghunathraos successor as Peshwa Madhavrao II committed suicide in 1795, a power struggle ensued among the Maratha nobles for control of the Confederacy. The powerful general Daulat Rao Scindia and minister Nana Fadnavis installed Baji Rao II as a puppet Peshwa, as such, being the son of suspected murderers, he was looked down upon by his ministers, nobility and even by his subjects. His every action was viewed with prejudice and it is said that though regarded as an administrator and builder of modern-day Pune, he was often labeled as incapable. Being a thorough Brahmin, he was averse to risks and bloodshed and tried to achieve his goals through crafty diplomacy rather than direct head-on confrontations, after the death of Fadnavis in 1800, Daulat Rao Scindia took complete control over the Peshwas government. As Scindia started eliminating his rivals within the government, Peshwa Baji Rao II became concerned about his own safety and he turned to British resident Colonel William Palmer for help. General Arthur Wellesley, was already in southern parts of the Maratha territory at that time, however, Baji Rao was reluctant to sign a treaty with the British. In 1802, Scindias rival chief Yashwant Rao Holkar marched towards Pune and he proclaimed allegiance to the Peshwa, and sent assurances that he only wanted to free Pune of Scindias control. But Baji Rao was apprehensive since he had earlier ordered killing of Yashwant Raos brother Vithoji Rao Holkar and he sought help from Scindia, who was away from Pune at that time. Scindia dispatched an army that arrived in Pune on 22 October 1802, Holkar defeated the joint forces of Peshwa and Scindia in the Battle of Hadapsar on 25 October. On the morning of 25 October, before the battle, Baji Rao had already sent preliminary terms for a treaty to the British, after the Holkar victory in the battle, he fled to Vasai, where he sought assistance from the British in Bombay. Holkar set up a council headed by Baji Raos adoptive brother Amrut Rao. Holkar and Sindhia resisted the British intrusion in Maratha affairs, which resulted in the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803-1805, in the mid-1810s, the British had intervened in a financial dispute over revenue sharing between the Peshwa and Gaekwads of Baroda
22.
Salute state
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A salute state was a princely state under the British Raj during the time of British rule which had been granted a gun salute by the British Crown, i. e. The gun-salute system of recognition was first instituted during the time of the East India Company in the late 18th century, as with the other princely states, the salute states varied greatly in size and importance. For varying periods of time, a number of states in South Asia, as with the Indian principalities, those states received varying numbers of gun salutes and varied tremendously in terms of autonomy. Following their independence in 1947, the new Indian and Pakistani governments maintained the system until 1971 and 1972. When the ruler of a princely state arrived at the Indian capital, the number of these consecutive gun salutes changed from time to time, being increased or reduced depending on the degree of honour which the British chose to accord to a given ruler. The King of the United Kingdom was accorded a 101-gun salute, the number of guns in a salute assumed particular importance at the time of holding of the Coronation Durbar in Delhi in the month of December 1911. The Durbar was held to commemorate the Coronation of King George V with guns firing almost all day, at that time there were three Princely States that were given 21 gun salutes. The Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda State H. H, the Maharaja of Mysore In 1917, HH The Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior was upgraded to a permanent and hereditary 21-gun salute, and the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir was granted the same in 1921. Both were granted the ranks as a result of the meritorious services of their soldiers in the First World War. Apart from these, no other Princely State received a 21-gun salute, three of the most prominent princes, however, enjoyed a local salute of 21 guns within the limits of their own state and 19 guns in the rest of India. They were the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Nizam, Maharajas, Princes, etc. were all deeply keen on protocol and ensured that it was practised as a matter of faith. Any departure from it was not taken kindly by them, salute of guns was one such protocol that was strictly adhered to. At the time of Indian independence and partition in 1947,118 of the roughly 565 princely states were classified as salute states, the rulers of the five premier states - Hyderabad, Mysore, Baroda, Jammu & Kashmir and Gwalior - received 21-gun salutes. The rulers of six others - Bhopal, Indore, Udaipur, Kolhapur, Travancore and Kalat - received 19-gun salutes, with Bhopal, Indore, in 1948, all rulers of nine-gun salute states were also granted the style of Highness. The salutes were themselves organised in a strict hierarchy, each ruling house of a salute state was entitled to a permanent hereditary salute. An award of a salute was only for the lifetime of the ruler. Personal, Only for the ruler personally, and not to distinguish his state as a whole, local, Hereditary to an individual states ruler only within its borders. As a religious head, the Agha Khan received a personal 11-gun salute, in certain cases, a ruler of a non-salute state or a junior member of a princely family could merit a personal salute or the personal style of Highness
23.
Rajputana Agency
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The total area of the states falling within the Rajputana Agency was 127,541 square miles, with eighteen states and two estates or chiefships. Bikaner Agency, with headquarters at Bikaner, dealt with the state of Bikaner, title Maharaja. Alwar Agency, with headquarters at Alwar, dealt with the state of Alwar, title Maharaja. Eastern Rajputana States Agency, with headquarters at Bharatpur, dealt with, Bharatpur, Jat, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17-guns Karauli, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17-guns. Kotah-Jhalawar Agency, with headquarters at Kota, dealt with, Kota, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17-guns Jhalawar, title Maharaj Rana, the small British province of Ajmer-Merwara was also included within the geographical area of Rajputana, but that was under direct British rule. All of the states had Hindu rulers, except Tonk. In the 1901 census,7,035,093 persons, the Rathore, Chauhan, Sisodia and Kachwahas ruled until Indian independence. These Rajput dynasties were gradually supplanted or subordinated by the Muslim invaders of the 11th century, at the beginning of the 16th century the Rajput power began to revive, only to be overthrown by the Babur, founder of the Mughal empire at Fatehpur Sikri in 1527. The clans were finally conquered, overawed or conciliated by Akbar, except for the distant Sisodia clan. From Akbars accession to Aurangzebs death in 1707, a period of 151 years, by the end of the century nearly the whole of Rajputana had been virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, the Pindari were defeated, and the Afghan adventurer Amir Khan submitted and signed a treaty with the British, making him the ruler of Tonk. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain, the Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, in the time of the British Raj, the majority of the people were occupied in agriculture. In the large banking and commerce flourished. In the north, the products for export were salt, grain, wool and cotton. The major imports included sugar, hardware and piece goods, Rajputana had relatively little industrial production. The principal manufactures were cotton and woolen goods, metalwork, ivory carving, in the desert tracts fine breeds of camels, cattle, horses and sheep were to be found wherever there is pasturage. Irrigation, mostly from wells, was almost confined to the northern portion, Rajputana was traversed throughout by the Rajputana railway, with its Malwa branch in the south, and diverging to Agra and Delhi in the north
24.
Indirect rule
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Indirect rule is a system of government used by the British and French to control parts of their colonial empires, particularly in Africa and Asia, through pre-existing local power structures. These dependencies were often called protectorates or trucial states, some British colonies were ruled directly by the Colonial Office in London, while others were ruled indirectly through local rulers who are supervised behind the scenes by British advisors. In 1890 Zanzibar became a protectorate of Britain, prime minister Salisbury explained his position, The condition of a protected dependency is more acceptable to the half civilized races, and more suitable for them than direct dominion. It is cheaper, simpler, less wounding to their self-esteem, gives them more career as public officials, the Princely States of India were ruled indirectly. So too was much of the West African holdings, the areas thus brought into the British sphere of influence became known as the Indian Princely States. Subsequently, the principle was applied in strategic regions on the sea routes to India. Indirect rule was effective in enabling the British to exploit natural resources. The establishment of naval and military bases in strategic points around the globe maintained the power to underpin such control. Indirect rule was cheaper and easier for the European powers, and in particular it required fewer administrators and this was the case in Kenya and Southern Nigeria, and the new leaders, often called warrant chiefs, were not always supported by the local population. The European ruling classes also often chose local leaders with similar traits to their own, many were conservative elders, and thus indirect rule fostered a conservative outlook among the indigenous population and marginalised the young intelligentsia. Furthermore, leaders empowered by the governments of European powers were not familiar with their new tasks, such as recruitment. Colonial Assimilation argued that French law and citizenship was based on universal values that came from the French Revolution, mirroring French domestic citizenship law, French colonial law allowed for anyone who could prove themselves culturally French to become equal French citizens. In French West Africa, only parts of the Senegalese Four Communes ever extended French citizenship outside a few educated African elite and this was contrasted with British Indirect Rule, which never foresaw subject Protectorates becoming legally assimilated into the home nations. While making more subtle distinctions, this model of direct versus indirect rule was dominant in academia from the 1930s until the 1970s, mamdani himself famously described indirect rule as decentralised despotism. Bussa revolt - a 1915 uprising against indirect rule in Northern Nigeria Direct colonial rule Impact of Western European colonialism, Indirect Rule, French and British Style. Africa, Journal of the International African Institute, Vol.34, the Origins of Apartheid Ideology, The Case of Ernest Stubbs and Transvaal Native Administration, c. 1902-1932. African Affairs, Vol.79, No.315, omipidan Teslim Indirect Rule in Nigeria OldNaija H. F. Morris. A History of the Adoption of Codes of Criminal Law and Procedure in British Colonial Africa, Journal of African Law, Vol.18, No
25.
Unequal treaty
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The term is also applied to treaties imposed during the same time period on late Joseon Korea by the post-Meiji Restoration Empire of Japan. The term unequal treaty first came into use in China in the early 1920s, which reduced her to semicolonial status. It did not wish to be equal, the earliest treaty later referred to as unequal was the 1841 Convention of Chuenpi negotiations during the First Opium War. China and Great Britain signed the first unequal treaties under the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842, following Qing Chinas defeat, treaties with Britain opened up five ports to foreign trade, while also allowing foreign missionaries, at least in theory, to reside within China. In addition, foreign residents in the cities were afforded trials by their own consular authorities rather than the Chinese legal system. Under the treaties, the UK and the US established the British Supreme Court for China and Japan, after World War I, patriotic consciousness in China focused on the treaties, which now became widely known as unequal treaties. The Nationalist Party and the Communist Party competed to convince the public that their approach would be more effective, germany was forced to terminate its rights, the Soviet Union surrendered them, and the United States organized the Washington Conference to negotiate them. After Chiang Kai-shek declared a new government in 1927, the western powers quickly offered diplomatic recognition. In the face of Japanese expansion in China, however, ending the system was postponed, most of Chinas unequal treaties were abrogated during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which started in 1937 and merged into the larger context of World War II. The United States Congress ended American extraterritoriality in December 1943, when the American Commodore Matthew Perry reached Japan in 1854, it signed the Convention of Kanagawa. Much more important was the Harris treaty of 1858 negotiated by U. S. envoy Townsend Harris, koreas first unequal treaty was not with the West but with Japan. Taking a page from Western tactics, in 1875 Japan sent Captain Inoue Yoshika and this forced Korea to open its doors to Japan by signing the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876. The unequal treaties ended at times for the countries involved. Japans victories in the 1894–95 First Sino-Japanese War convinced many in the West that unequal treaties could no longer be enforced on Japan, koreas unequal treaties with European states became largely null and void in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan. ISBN 978-0-674-01521-0, OCLC56493769 Hsü, Immanuel Chung-yueh, OCLC300287988 Nish, I. H. Japan Reverses the Unequal Treaties, The Anglo-Japanese Commercial Treaty of 1894. Perez, Louis G. Japan Comes of Age, Mutsu Munemitsu & the Revision of the Unequal Treaties, liberal Barbarism, The European Destruction of the Palace of the Emperor of China. The Discourse of Unequal Treaties in Modern China, Chinas Unequal Treaties, Narrating National History. International law, or, Rules regulating the intercourse of states in peace and war New York, OCLC852699 Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D. C
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that aims to allow anyone to edit articles. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites. Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia, There was only the English language version initially, but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages, which differ in content and in editing practices. With 5,377,348 articles, the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias, in 2005, Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia, and found that Wikipedias level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas. Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were so successful, Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9,2000, under the ownership of Bomis and its main figures were Jimmy Wales, the CEO of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, while Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10,2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, as a single English-language edition at www. wikipedia. com, Wikipedias policy of neutral point-of-view was codified in its first months. Otherwise, there were few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit, Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. By August 8,2001, Wikipedia had over 8,000 articles, on September 25,2001, Wikipedia had over 13,000 articles. By the end of 2001, it had grown to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions and it had reached 26 language editions by late 2002,46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the servers were taken down permanently in 2003. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in Wikipedia and these moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and to change Wikipedias domain from wikipedia. com to wikipedia. org. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006, a team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the projects increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called low-hanging fruit—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created, the Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend
