1.
Subgenre
–
Genre is any form or type of communication in any mode with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented, often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible. Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, in later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized, and to works on their unique merit. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is used in the history and criticism of visual art. These are distinguished from staffage, incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting, Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the hierarchy of genres was a one in artistic theory. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a role in academic art. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as adult, young adult. They also must not be confused with format, such as novel or picture book
2.
Science fiction
–
Science fiction often explores the potential consequences of scientific and other innovations, and has been called a literature of ideas. Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon Knight summed up the difficulty, saying science fiction is what we point to when we say it, a definition echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of pornography, you do not know what it is, in 1970 or 1971William Atheling Jr. According to science fiction writer Robert A, rod Serlings definition is fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science fiction is the improbable made possible, Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative possible worlds or futures. Science fiction elements include, A time setting in the future, in alternative timelines, a spatial setting or scenes in outer space, on other worlds, or on subterranean earth. Characters that include aliens, mutants, androids, or humanoid robots, futuristic or plausible technology such as ray guns, teleportation machines, and humanoid computers. Scientific principles that are new or that contradict accepted physical laws, for time travel, wormholes. New and different political or social systems, e. g. utopian, dystopian, post-scarcity, paranormal abilities such as mind control, telepathy, telekinesis Other universes or dimensions and travel between them. A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of science itself. Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan considered Keplers work the first science fiction story and it depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earths motion is seen from there. Later, Edgar Allan Poe wrote a story about a flight to the moon, more examples appeared throughout the 19th century. Wells The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with advanced weaponry and it is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth. In the late 19th century, the scientific romance was used in Britain to describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the 1884 novella Flatland, the term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for writers such as Olaf Stapledon. In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of Amazing Stories magazine. In 1912 Edgar Rice Burroughs published A Princess of Mars, the first of his series of Barsoom novels, situated on Mars
3.
Inner core
–
It is composed of an iron–nickel alloy and some light elements. The temperature at the core boundary is approximately 5700 K. She observed that the seismic waves reflect off the boundary of the inner core and this boundary is known as the Bullen discontinuity, or sometimes as the Lehmann discontinuity. A few years later, in 1940, it was hypothesized that this core was made of solid iron. The outer core was determined to be liquid from observations showing that compressional waves pass through it, dziewonski and Gilbert established that measurements of normal modes of vibration of Earth caused by large earthquakes were consistent with a liquid outer core. It has recently claimed that shear waves have been detected passing through the inner core, these claims were initially controversial. Pure iron was found to be denser than the core by approximately 3% and these considerations suggest that its temperature is about 5,700 K. The pressure in the Earths inner core is slightly higher than it is at the boundary between the outer and inner cores, it ranges from about 330 to 360 gigapascals. Iron can be solid at such high temperatures only because its temperature increases dramatically at pressures of that magnitude. A report published in the journal Science concludes that the temperature of iron at the inner core boundary is 6230 ±500 K. The Earths inner core is thought to be growing as the liquid outer core at the boundary with the inner core cools. Even though it is growing into liquid, it is solid and it was even suggested that Earths inner core might be a single crystal of iron. However, this prediction was disproved by observations indicating that in there is a degree of disorder within the inner core. In addition, the properties of the inner cores surface vary from place to place across distances as small as 1 km and this variation is surprising, since lateral temperature variations along the inner-core boundary are known to be extremely small. Recent discoveries suggest that the inner core itself is composed of layers. Because the inner core is not rigidly connected to the Earths solid mantle, estimates of this super-rotation are around one degree of extra rotation per year. Growth of the core is thought to play an important role in the generation of Earths magnetic field by dynamo action in the liquid outer core. This causes it to become buoyant and helps drive convection of the outer core, speculation also continues that the inner core might have exhibited a variety of internal deformation patterns
4.
Hollow Earth
–
The Hollow Earth hypothesis proposes that the planet Earth either is entirely hollow or otherwise contains a substantial interior space. The scientific community has dismissed the notion since at least the late 18th century, the concept of a hollow Earth recurs many times in folklore and as the premise for subterranean fiction, fake news, and a subgenre of adventure fiction. It is also featured in some present-day pseudoscientific and conspiracy theories, in ancient times, the concept of a subterranean land inside the Earth appeared in mythology, folklore and legends. The idea of a realm is also mentioned in Tibetan Buddhism belief. According to one story, there is an ancient city called Shamballa which is located inside the Earth, in Thracian and Dacian legends, it is said that there are underground chambers occupied by an ancient God called Zalmoxis. In Mesopotamian religion there is a story of a man who, after traveling through the darkness of a tunnel in the mountain of Mashu, in Hindu mythology, the underworld is referred to as Patala. In the Hindu epic Ramayana, it has been depicted how Rama and Lakshmana were taken by the king of the underworld Ahiravan, later on they were rescued by Hanuman. The Angami Naga tribes of India claim that their ancestors emerged in ancient times from a subterranean land inside the Earth, the Taino from Cuba believe their ancestors emerged in ancient times from two caves in a mountain underground. Natives of the Trobriand Islands believe that their ancestors had come from a subterranean land through a hole called Obukula. Mexican folklore also tells of a cave in a five miles south of Ojinaga. In the middle ages, an ancient German myth held that some mountains located between Eisenach and Gin Germany hold a portal to the inner Earth, a Russian legend says the Samoyeds, an ancient Siberian tribe, traveled to an underground cavern city to live inside the Earth. In Native American mythology, it is said that the ancestors of the Mandan people in ancient times emerged from a subterranean land through a cave at the side of the Missouri River. There is also a tale about a tunnel in the San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona near Cedar Creek which is said to lead inside the Earth to a land inhabited by a mysterious tribe. It is also the belief of the tribes of the Iroquois that their ancient ancestors emerged from a world inside the Earth. The elders of the Hopi people believe that a Sipapu entrance in the Grand Canyon exists which leads to the underworld, ancestors of the Inca supposedly came from underground caves which are located east of Cuzco, Peru. Edmond Halley in 1692 put forth the idea of Earth consisting of a shell about 800 km thick. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles, the spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings and he envisaged the atmosphere inside as luminous and speculated that escaping gas caused the Aurora Borealis
5.
Age of Enlightenment
–
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, The Century of Philosophy. In France, the doctrines of les Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance in opposition to an absolute monarchy. French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution, some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. Les philosophes of the widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons, coffee houses. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the Church, a variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment. The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution, earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, Benjamin Franklin visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence, others like James Madison incorporated them into the Constitution in 1787. The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, the ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an intellectual movement known as Romanticism. René Descartes rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking and his attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied in philosophic areas leading to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by John Lockes 1690 Essay Concerning Human Understanding and his dualism was challenged by Spinozas uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter in his Tractatus and Ethics. Both lines of thought were opposed by a conservative Counter-Enlightenment. In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines, the political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. Francis Hutcheson, a philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words. Much of what is incorporated in the method and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy. Immanuel Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the sphere through private
6.
Pseudoscience
–
Pseudoscience consists of claims, beliefs, or practices presented as being plausible scientifically, but which are not justifiable by the scientific method. The term pseudoscience is often considered pejorative because it suggests something is being presented as science inaccurately or even deceptively, accordingly, those termed as practicing or advocating pseudoscience often dispute the characterization. The demarcation between science and pseudoscience has philosophical and scientific implications, differentiating science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony, environmental policies, and science education. The word pseudoscience is derived from the Greek root pseudo meaning false and the English word science, an earlier recorded use of the term was during 1843 by the French physiologist François Magendie. From time to time, though, the usage of the word occurred in a formal, technical manner around a perceived threat to individual and institutional security in a social and cultural setting. A number of principles are accepted by scientists as standards for determining whether a body of knowledge, method. Experimental results should be reproducible and verified by other researchers, statistical quantification of significance, confidence, and error are also important tools for the scientific method. During the mid-20th century, Karl Popper emphasized the criterion of falsifiability to distinguish science from nonscience, falsifiability means a result can be disproved. For example, a statement such as God exists may be true or false, Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einsteins theory of relativity as an example of science. The point is made there is no physical test to refute the claim of the presence of this dragon. No matter what test you think you can devise, there is then a reason why this does not apply to the invisible dragon, sagan concludes, Now, whats the difference between an invisible, incorporeal, floating dragon who spits heatless fire and no dragon at all. During 1942, Robert K. Merton identified a set of five norms which he characterized as what makes a real science, If any of the norms were violated, Merton considered the enterprise to be nonscience. These are not broadly accepted by the scientific community and his norms were, Originality, The tests and research done must present something new to the scientific community. Detachment, The scientists reasons for practicing this science must be simply for the expansion of their knowledge, the scientists should not have personal reasons to expect certain results. Universality, No person should be able to easily obtain the information of a test than another person. Social class, religion, ethnicity, or any other factors should not be factors in someones ability to receive or perform a type of science. Skepticism, Scientific facts must not be based on faith, one should always question every case and argument and constantly check for errors or invalid claims. Public accessibility, Any scientific knowledge one obtains should be available to everyone
7.
Scientific romance
–
Scientific romance is an archaic term for the genre of fiction now commonly known as science fiction. G. Wells and Arthur Conan Doyle, in recent years, the term has come to be applied to science fiction written in a deliberately anachronistic style, as a homage to or pastiche of the original scientific romances. In 1859 the Southern Literary Messenger referred to Balzacs Ursule Mirouët as a romance of mesmerism. Then, in 1884, Charles Howard Hinton published a series of scientific, F. Bleiler views Burroughs as part of the new development of pulp science fiction that arose in the early 20th century. The same year as A Princess of Mars, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle published The Lost World, in recent years, the term scientific romance has seen a revival, being self-applied by modern works of science fiction which deliberately ape previous styles. Though it uses the term, Dennis Overbyes novel Einstein in Love, regarding heroes, several novels by H. G. Wells have the protagonist as nameless, and often powerless, in the face of natural forces. The evolutionary perspective can be seen in tales involving long time periods—two examples being The War of the Worlds and The Time Machine by Wells, D. Beresford and several works by S. Fowler Wright. Regarding space, C. S. Stableford also notes, that some of the British scientific romances were saved from being entirely gloomy, by their philosophical speculation. He cites E. V. Odles The Clockwork Man, John Gloags Tomorrows Yesterday and Murray Constantines Proud Man as examples of type of scientific romance. Nonetheless, not all British science fiction from that period comports with Stablefords thesis, some, for example, reveled in adventures in space and held an optimistic view of the future. By the 1930s, there were British authors who were intentionally writing science fiction for American publication, at that point, British writers who used the term scientific romance did so either because they were unaware of science fiction or because they chose not to be associated with it. Even so, the influence of the scientific romance era persisted in British science fiction, John Wyndhams work is cited as providing a bridge between traditional British scientific romance and the more varied science fiction which has replaced it. Some commentators believe scientific romance had some impact on the American variety
8.
Sword and sorcery
–
Sword and sorcery is a subgenre of fantasy generally characterized by sword-wielding heroes engaged in exciting and violent conflicts. An element of romance is often present, as is an element of magic, unlike works of high fantasy, the tales, though dramatic, focus mainly on personal battles rather than world-endangering matters. Sword and sorcery commonly overlaps with heroic fantasy, a film genre tangentially related to sword and sorcery, at least in name, is sword-and-sandal, though its subjects are generally oriented to biblical times and early history, instead of fantasy. Not to be confused with cloak and dagger or cloak and sword and he had initially proposed the term epic fantasy. However, the celebrated American sword-and-sorcery author Fritz Leiber replied in the journal Ancalagon suggesting and he expanded on this in the July 1961 issue of Amra, commenting, I feel more certain than ever that this field should be called the sword-and-sorcery story. This accurately describes the points of culture-level and supernatural element and also distinguishes it from the cloak-and-sword story—and from the cloak-and-dagger story too. Since its inception, many attempts have been made to redefine precisely what sword, although many have debated the finer points, the consensus characterizes it by a strong bias toward fast-paced, action-rich tales set within a quasi-mythical or fantastical framework. Unlike high fantasy, the stakes in sword and sorcery tend to be personal, settings are typically exotic, and protagonists often morally compromised. Many sword and sorcery tales have been turned into a series of adventures. Their lower stakes and less-than world-threatening dangers make this more plausible than a repetition of the perils of epic fantasy, so too does the nature of the heroes, most sword-and-sorcery protagonists, travellers by nature, find peace after adventure deathly dull. At one extreme, the heroes of E. R. Sword and sorcery ultimately draws from mythology and classical epics such as Homers Odyssey and it is also influenced by historical fiction. Sir Walter Scott, under the influence of romantic collection of folklore and ballads, however, very few of his writings contain fantastic elements, in most, the appearance of such is explained away. However, its themes of adventure in a strange society influenced the adventures set in foreign lands by H. Rider Haggard, haggards works included many fantastic elements. However, these historical swashbucklers lack the supernatural element that defines the genre. Another influence was early fantasy fiction such as Lord Dunsanys The Fortress Unvanquishable, Save for Sacnoth, all of these authors influenced sword and sorcery for the plots, characters, and landscapes used. In addition, many sword and sorcery writers, such as Robert E. Sword and sorcery proper only truly began in the pulp fantasy magazines. Particularly important was the magazine Weird Tales, which published Howards Conan stories and C. L. Moores Jirel of Joiry tales, as well as key S&S influences like Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith. The genre has been defined, strongly, by the work of Robert E. Howard, particularly his tales of Conan the Barbarian and Kull of Atlantis, mostly in Weird Tales from 1932 and 1929 respectively
9.
Dinosaur
–
Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic. Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research and they became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago. Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago, until the late 20th century, all groups of dinosaurs were believed to be extinct. As such, birds were the dinosaur lineage to survive the mass extinction event. This article deals primarily with non-avian dinosaurs, Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 10,000 living species, are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish, using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species and fossil remains, while dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, evidence suggests that egg laying and nest building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs.7 meters and heights of 18 meters and were the largest land animals of all time. Still, the idea that dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias, as large. Many dinosaurs were small, Xixianykus, for example, was only about 50 cm long. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs, most of the community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. The large sizes of some groups, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured dinosaurs regular appearance in best-selling books and films. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, the term is derived from the Greek words δεινός and σαῦρος. Though the taxonomic name has often interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs teeth, claws. Instead, dinosaurs, like many forms of reptile sub-groups, did not exhibit characteristics which were traditionally regarded as reptilian. Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of Triceratops, Neornithes, their most recent common ancestor, Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs. In traditional taxonomy, birds were considered a class that had evolved from dinosaurs
10.
Hominidae
–
Several revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to vary over time. Its original meaning referred only to humans and their closest non-extant relatives and that restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees. The current, 21st-century meaning of hominid includes all the great apes including humans, the most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae, in the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa, the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98. 4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms, the earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis, followed by Ardipithecus, with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus. The classification of the apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. The original meaning of the referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term hominin. And the meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a different usage of hominid that today all the great apes including humans. A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the apes, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees. A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae, gorillas, chimpanzees, a hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini, Chimpanzees and humans. A homininan is a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini, a human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies. For each clade it is indicated approximately when newer extant clades emerged, some texts will refer to Homonini as the Hominina branch. Many scientists, including paleoanthropologists, continue to use the term hominid to mean humans, as mentioned, Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their close relatives, with the other great apes all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, thus, many biologists now assign Pongo to the family Hominidae
11.
Cryptids
–
While biologists regularly identify new species, cryptozoologists focus on entities mentioned in the folklore record. Cryptozoologists may consider any figure from folklore to be a cryptid after the term cryptozoology, the Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun cryptid as an animal whose existence or survival to the present day is disputed or unsubstantiated, any animal of interest to a cryptozoologist. Some dictionaries and encyclopedias define the term cryptid as an animal whose existence is questionable, well-known examples include the Yeti in the Himalayas, the Loch Ness Monster in Scotland, Sasquatch in North America, and chupacabras in the Americas. Additionally, Eberhart argues for six exclusions from classification as a cryptid, cryptids must be big, weird, dangerous or significant to humans in some way. Someone needs to observe an animal and someone else needs to discredit the sighting. Cryptozoologists function as interventionists between witnesses and skeptical scientists, bizarre humans Angels or demons the paranormal or supernatural is admitted only if it has an animal shape. Aliens arrived a long ago and thus classify as residents. Searching For Hidden Animals, An Inquiry into Zoological Mysteries, Eberhart, George M. Mysterious Creatures, A Guide to Cryptozoology
12.
Refugium (population biology)
–
In biology, a refugium, sometimes termed simply a refuge or just a fuge, is a location of an isolated or relict population of a once more widespread species. This isolation can be due to changes, geography, or human activities such as deforestation. Going from west to east, suggested examples include the Franco-Cantabrian region, the Italian and Balkan peninsulas, the Ukrainian LGM refuge, and the Bering Land Bridge. As an example of a locale refugia study, Jürgen Haffer first proposed the concept of refugia to explain the diversity of bird populations in the Amazonian river basin. Haffer suggested that change in the late Pleistocene led to reduced reservoirs of habitable forests in which populations become allopatric. Over time, that led to speciation, populations of the species that found themselves in different refugia evolved differently. As the Pleistocene ended, the arid conditions gave way to the present humid rainforest environment, scholars have since expanded the idea of this mode of speciation and used it to explain population patterns in other areas of the world, such as Africa, Eurasia, and North America. Theoretically, current biogeographical patterns can be used to infer past refugia, if several unrelated species follow concurrent range patterns, moreover, the current distribution of species with narrow ecological requirements tend to be associated with the spatial position of glacial refugia. One can provide an explanation of refugia involving core temperatures. In the northern hemisphere, north-facing sites on hills or mountains, the reverse are sun- or heat-exposed, lower-elevation, south-facing sites, hot sites. Each site becomes a refugium, one as a cold-surviving refugium, canyons with deep hidden areas lead to these separate types of refugia. A concept not often referenced is that of sweepstakes colonization, when a dramatic ecological event occurs, for example a bolide strike, leonard, Neagha and C. Michael Hogan. National Council for Science and the Environment
13.
Extraterrestrial life
–
Extraterrestrial life, also called alien life, is life that does not originate from Earth. These hypothetical life forms may range from simple single-celled organisms to beings with civilizations far more advanced than humanity, although many scientists expect extraterrestrial life to exist in some form, there is no evidence for its existence to date. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of intelligent life elsewhere in the universe, the science of extraterrestrial life in all its forms is known as exobiology. The science of astrobiology considers life on Earth as well, in 2015, remains of biotic life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia, when the young Earth was about 400 million years old. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth and it has also played a major role in works of science fiction. Over the years, science fiction works have increased the publics interest in the possibility of extraterrestrial life, some encourage aggressive methods to try for contact with intelligent extraterrestrial life, whereas others argue that it might be dangerous to actively call attention to Earth. Alien life, such as microorganisms, has been hypothesized to exist in the Solar System and this hypothesis relies on the vast size and consistent physical laws of the observable universe. The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang,13.8 billion years ago, Life may have emerged independently at many places throughout the universe. Alternatively, life may have formed less frequently, then spread—by meteoroids, in any case, complex organic molecules may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains surrounding the Sun before the formation of Earth. According to these studies, this process may occur outside Earth on several planets and moons of the Solar System, since the 1950s, scientists have argued the idea that habitable zones around stars are the most likely places to find life. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists, astrobiologists have also considered a follow the energy view of potential habitats. Life on Earth requires water as its solvent in which biochemical reactions take place, More generally, life based on ammonia has been suggested, though this solvent appears less suitable than water. It is also conceivable that there are forms of life whose solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon, about 29 chemical elements play an active positive role in living organisms on Earth. About 95% of this matter is built upon only six elements, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus. These six elements form the building blocks of virtually all life on Earth. The unique characteristics of carbon make it unlikely that it could be replaced, even on another planet, the carbon atom has the unique ability to make four strong chemical bonds with other atoms, including other carbon atoms. These covalent bonds have a direction in space, so that carbon atoms can form the skeletons of complex 3-dimensional structures with definite architectures such as nucleic acids, carbon forms more compounds than all other elements combined. The great versatility of the atom makes it the element most likely to provide the bases—even exotic ones—for the chemical composition of life on other planets
14.
Dante Alighieri
–
Durante degli Alighieri, simply called Dante, was a major Italian poet of the Late Middle Ages. In the late Middle Ages, the majority of poetry was written in Latin. In De vulgari eloquentia, however, Dante defended use of the vernacular in literature, as a result, Dante played an instrumental role in establishing the national language of Italy. In addition, the first use of the interlocking three-line rhyme scheme, Dante has been called the Father of the Italian language and one of the greatest poets of world literature. In Italy, Dante is often referred to as il Sommo Poeta and il Poeta, he, Petrarch, Dante was born in Florence, Republic of Florence, present-day Italy. The exact date of his birth is unknown, although it is believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in the Divine Comedy, in 1265, the sun was in Gemini between approximately May 11 and June 11. Dante claimed that his family descended from the ancient Romans, but the earliest relative he could mention by name was Cacciaguida degli Elisei, born no earlier than about 1100. Dantes father, Alaghiero or Alighiero di Bellincione, was a White Guelph who suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the Battle of Montaperti in the middle of the 13th century. Dantes family had loyalties to the Guelphs, an alliance that supported the Papacy and which was involved in complex opposition to the Ghibellines. The poets mother was Bella, likely a member of the Abati family and she died when Dante was not yet ten years old, and Alighiero soon married again, to Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. When Dante was 12, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Manetto Donati, contracting marriages at this early age was quite common and involved a formal ceremony, including contracts signed before a notary. But by this time Dante had fallen in love with another, Beatrice Portinari, years after his marriage to Gemma he claims to have met Beatrice again, he wrote several sonnets to Beatrice but never mentioned Gemma in any of his poems. The exact date of his marriage is not known, the certain information is that, before his exile in 1301. Dante fought with the Guelph cavalry at the Battle of Campaldino and this victory brought about a reformation of the Florentine constitution. To take any part in life, one had to enroll in one of the citys many commercial or artisan guilds, so Dante entered the Physicians. In the following years, his name is recorded as speaking or voting in the various councils of the republic. A substantial portion of minutes from meetings in the years 1298–1300 was lost, however
15.
Divine Comedy
–
The Divine Comedy is a long narrative poem by Dante Alighieri, begun c.1308 and completed in 1320, a year before his death in 1321. It is widely considered the preeminent work in Italian literature, and is seen as one of the greatest works of world literature, the poems imaginative vision of the afterlife is representative of the medieval world-view as it had developed in the Western Church by the 14th century. It helped establish the Tuscan language, in which it is written and it is divided into three parts, Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. On the surface, the poem describes Dantes travels through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise or Heaven, but at a level, it represents, allegorically. At this deeper level, Dante draws on medieval Christian theology and philosophy, especially Thomistic philosophy, consequently, the Divine Comedy has been called the Summa in verse. The work was simply titled Comedìa and the word Divina was added by Giovanni Boccaccio. The first printed edition to add the word divina to the title was that of the Venetian humanist Lodovico Dolce, the Divine Comedy is composed of 14,233 lines that are divided into three canticas – Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso – each consisting of 33 cantos. An initial canto, serving as an introduction to the poem and generally considered to be part of the first cantica, the number three is prominent in the work, represented in part by the number of canticas and their lengths. Additionally, the scheme used, terza rima, is hendecasyllabic, with the lines composing tercets according to the rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc. Written in the first person, the tells of Dantes journey through the three realms of the dead, lasting from the night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of 1300. The Roman poet Virgil guides him through Hell and Purgatory, Beatrice, Dantes ideal woman, within each group of 9,7 elements correspond to a specific moral scheme, subdivided into three subcategories, while 2 others of greater particularity are added to total nine. For example, the seven sins of the Catholic Church that are cleansed in Purgatory are joined by special realms for the Late repentant. The core seven sins within Purgatory correspond to a scheme of love perverted, subdivided into three groups corresponding to excessive love, deficient love, and malicious love. In central Italys political struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines, Dante was part of the Guelphs, who in general favored the Papacy over the Holy Roman Emperor, florences Guelphs split into factions around 1300, the White Guelphs and the Black Guelphs. The last word in each of the three canticas is stelle, the poem begins on the night before Good Friday in the year 1300, halfway along our lifes path. Conscious that he is ruining himself and that he is falling into a low place where the sun is silent, Dante is at last rescued by Virgil, the circles number 9, with the addition of Satan completing the structure of 9 +1 =10. Having survived the depths of Hell, Dante and Virgil ascend out of the undergloom to the Mountain of Purgatory on the far side of the world. The Mountain is on an island, the land in the Southern Hemisphere
16.
Inferno (Dante)
–
Inferno is the first part of Dante Alighieris 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy. It is followed by Purgatorio and Paradiso, the Inferno tells the journey of Dante through Hell, guided by the ancient Roman poet Virgil. As an allegory, the Divine Comedy represents the journey of the soul toward God, Canto I The poem begins on the night of Maundy Thursday on March 241300 A. D. shortly before dawn of Good Friday. The narrator, Dante himself, is years old. The poet finds himself lost in a wood, astray from the straight way of salvation. He sets out to climb directly up a mountain. The three beasts, taken from the Jeremiah 5,6, are thought to symbolize the three kinds of sin that bring the unrepentant soul into one of the three divisions of Hell. According to John Ciardi, these are incontinence, violence and bestiality, and fraud and malice, Dorothy L. Sayers assigns the leopard to incontinence and it is now dawn of Good Friday, April 8, with the sun rising in Aries. The beasts drive him back despairing into the darkness of error, however, Dante is rescued by a figure who announces that he was born sub Iulio and lived under Augustus, it is the shade of the Roman poet Virgil, author of the Aeneid, a Latin epic. Canto II On the evening of Good Friday, Dante is following Virgil but hesitates, Virgil explains how he has sent by Beatrice. Beatrice has been sent with prayers from the Virgin Mary and of Saint Lucia, rachel, symbolic of the contemplative life, also appears in the heavenly scene recounted by Virgil. The two of them begin their journey to the underworld. Dante and his guide hear the screams of the Uncommitted. These are the souls of people who in life took no sides, the opportunists who were for neither good nor evil, among these Dante recognizes a figure implied to be Pope Celestine V, whose cowardice served as the door through which so much evil entered the Church. Mixed with them are outcasts who took no side in the Rebellion of Angels and these souls are forever unclassified, they are neither in Hell nor out of it, but reside on the shores of the Acheron. Naked and futile, they race around through the mist in eternal pursuit of an elusive, wavering banner while relentlessly chased by swarms of wasps and hornets, who continually sting them. Loathsome maggots and worms at the sinners feet drink the putrid mixture of blood, pus and this symbolizes the sting of their guilty conscience and the repugnance of sin. This may also be seen as a reflection of the spiritual stagnation they lived in, after passing through the vestibule, Dante and Virgil reach the ferry that will take them across the river Acheron and to Hell proper
17.
Hell
–
Hell, in many mythological, folklore and religious traditions, is a place of torment and punishment in an afterlife. Religions with a divine history often depict hells as eternal destinations while Religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations. Typically these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the Earths surface, other afterlife destinations include Heaven, Purgatory, Paradise, and Limbo. Hell is sometimes portrayed as populated with demons who torment those dwelling there, many are ruled by a death god such as Nergal, Hades, Hel, Enma or Satan. Subsequently, the word was used to transfer a pagan concept to Christian theology, Some have theorized that English word hell is derived from Old Norse hel. However, this is unlikely as hel appears in Old English before the Viking invasions. Furthermore, the word has cognates in all the other Germanic languages and has a Proto-Germanic origin, Hell appears in several mythologies and religions. It is commonly inhabited by demons and the souls of dead people, a fable about hell which recurs in folklore across several cultures is the allegory of the long spoons. Hell is often depicted in art and literature, perhaps most famously in Dantes Divine Comedy, punishment in Hell typically corresponds to sins committed during life. In many religious cultures, including Christianity and Islam, Hell is often depicted as fiery, painful and harsh, despite these common depictions of Hell as a place of fire, some other traditions portray Hell as cold. Buddhist - and particularly Tibetan Buddhist - descriptions of hell feature a number of hot. Among Christian descriptions Dantes Inferno portrays the innermost circle of Hell as a lake of blood. At death a person faced judgment by a tribunal of forty-two divine judges, if they had led a life in conformance with the precepts of the Goddess Maat, who represented truth and right living, the person was welcomed into the Two Fields. If found guilty the person was thrown to a devourer and would be condemned to the lake of fire, the person taken by the devourer is subject first to terrifying punishment and then annihilated. These depictions of punishment may have influenced medieval perceptions of the inferno in hell via early Christian, purification for those considered justified appears in the descriptions of Flame Island, where humans experience the triumph over evil and rebirth. For the damned complete destruction into a state of non-being awaits but there is no suggestion of eternal torture, the weighing of the heart in Egyptian mythology can lead to annihilation. The Tale of Khaemwese describes the torment of a man, who lacked charity. Divine pardon at judgement always remained a concern for the Ancient Egyptians
18.
Ludvig Holberg
–
Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian double monarchy. He was influenced by Humanism, the Enlightenment and the Baroque, Holberg is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature, and is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the Lille Grønnegade Theatre in Copenhagen. Holbergs works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936, Holberg was the youngest of six brothers. His father, Christian Nielsen Holberg, died before Ludvig was one year old and he was educated in Copenhagen, and was a teacher at the University of Copenhagen for many years. At the same time, he started his career as an author. He began to study theology at the University of Copenhagen and later taught law, history. In Holbergs youth, it was common to study theology and specialize according to degree, for example in Greek, Latin. For the purpose of becoming a lawyer, it was normal to study abroad, Holberg was formally appointed assistant professor after having first worked as one without pay. He had to accept the first available position, which was teaching metaphysics, later, he became a professor and taught rhetoric and Latin. Finally, he was given a professorship in the subject which he prized most and was most productive in and he was not formally admitted to Oxford University, but spent his time there using the libraries and participating in Latin discussions with the English students. Holbergs travels were an inspiration in his later writings – these experiences matured him both artistically and morally. Holberg let himself be inspired by old Latin comedies and newer French comedies he had seen in Paris and his writings can be divided into three periods, during which he produced mainly history, 1711–1718, mainly satirical poetry and stage comedies, 1719–1731, and mainly philosophy, 1731–1750. His rich output of comedies during the period was shaped by his role as house dramatist at Denmarks first public theater. These comedies are the works on which his fame rests today, Holbergs only novel, the satirical science-fiction/fantasy Niels Klims Underground Travels was originally published in Latin in 1741 as Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum. In Paris, Holberg met the Danish scientist Jacob Winsløw, who was Catholic, Winsløw tried to convert Holberg, without success. This was a new, modern understanding of the question of religion, Holberg was interested in intellect because he felt that this is what binds society together. He also wondered why there was so much evil in the world, Holberg was open to biblical criticism, and Holbergs religious representation was, for the most part, deism. He was critical of the notion of original sin, instead subscribing to the notion of free will
19.
Niels Klim's Underground Travels
–
Niels Klims Underground Travels, originally published in Latin as Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum, is a satirical science-fiction/fantasy novel written by the Norwegian–Danish author Ludvig Holberg. The novel starts with a foreword that assures that everything in the story is an account of the title characters exploits in the Underworld. His curiosity drives him to investigate a cave in a mountainside above the town. He ends up falling down the hole, and after a while he finds himself floating in free space. After a few days of orbiting the planet revolves around the inner sun, he is attacked by a gryphon, and he falls down on the planet. There he wanders about for a short while until he is attacked and he climbs up into a tree, and to his astonishment the tree can move and talk, and he is taken prisoner by tree-like creatures with up to six arms and faces just below the branches. He is accused of attempted rape on the town clerks wife, the case is dismissed and he is set by the Lord of Potu to learn the language. But, since he has longer legs than the Potuans. During the course of the book, Klim vividly chronicles the culture of the Potuans, their religion, their way of life and his suggestion is poorly received and he is sentenced to be exiled to the inner rim of the Earths crust. There, he marries and fathers a son, but again he is driven from hearth and home due to his tyranny and as he escapes he falls into a hole, which carries him through the crust and back up to Bergen again. There, he is mistaken by the townsfolk to be the Wandering Jew and he learns that he has been away for twelve years, and is taken in by his old friend, mayor Abelin, who writes down everything Klim tells him. He later receives a job as principal of the college of Bergen, Holberg knew that the satirical content of the novel would cause an uproar in Denmark-Norway, so the book was first published in Germany, in Latin. He thus got an audience than he would have gotten in his homeland. The novel made him widely acclaimed across Europe, Danish, German, French, and Dutch translations were also published in 1741. Along with a number of stories, an excerpt was included in the anthology The Road to Science Fiction, Volume 1. The work is referenced in Poes The Fall of the House of Usher and it is one of the first science fiction novels to use the Hollow Earth concept. The story was adapted to a costly 3 episode TV-series for The Danish Broadcasting Coorporation in 1984, in one chapter, Klim refers to Pliny the Elder and his Naturalis Historia when he feels that his descriptions of the Underworld inhabitants would seem too incredible for other humans to believe. There are a few characters in the book that were actual persons, niels Klim was employed at Korskirken, a church in downtown Bergen, as bellringer
20.
Giacomo Casanova
–
Giacomo Girolamo Casanova was an Italian adventurer and author from the Republic of Venice. His autobiography, Histoire de ma vie, is regarded as one of the most authentic sources of the customs and norms of European social life during the 18th century. As was not uncommon at the time, Casanova, depending on circumstances, used more or less fictitious names and he often signed his works Jacques Casanova de Seingalt after he began writing in French following his second exile from Venice. He has become so famous for his complicated and elaborate affairs with women that his name is now synonymous with womanizer. He associated with European royalty, popes, and cardinals, along with such as Voltaire, Goethe. He spent his last years in Bohemia as a librarian in Count Waldsteins household, Giacomo Girolamo Casanova was born in Venice in 1725 to actress Zanetta Farussi, wife of actor and dancer Gaetano Casanova. Giacomo was the first of six children, being followed by Francesco Giuseppe, Giovanni Battista, Faustina Maddalena, Maria Maddalena Antonia Stella, and Gaetano Alvise. At the time of Casanovas birth, the city of Venice thrived as the capital of Europe, ruled by political and religious conservatives who tolerated social vices. It was a stop on the Grand Tour, traveled by young men coming of age. The famed Carnival, gambling houses, and beautiful courtesans were powerful drawing cards and this was the milieu that bred Casanova and made him its most famous and representative citizen. Casanova was cared for by his grandmother Marzia Baldissera while his mother toured about Europe in the theater and his father died when he was eight. Though the unguent applied was ineffective, Casanova was fascinated by the incantation, Perhaps to remedy the nosebleeds, Casanova, on his ninth birthday, was sent to a boarding house on the mainland in Padua. For Casanova, the neglect by his parents was a bitter memory, so they got rid of me, he proclaimed. Conditions at the house were appalling, so he appealed to be placed under the care of Abbé Gozzi, his primary instructor. Casanova moved in with the priest and his family and lived there through most of his teenage years and it was also in the Gozzi household that Casanova first came into contact with the opposite sex, when Gozzis younger sister Bettina fondled him at the age of eleven. Bettina was pretty, lighthearted, and a reader of romances. The girl pleased me at once, though I had no idea why and it was she who little by little kindled in my heart the first sparks of a feeling which later became my ruling passion. Although she subsequently married, Casanova maintained an attachment to Bettina
21.
John Cleves Symmes Jr.
–
John Cleves Symmes, Jr. was an American Army officer, trader, and lecturer. Symmes is best known for his 1818 variant of the Hollow Earth Theory, John Cleves Symmes, Jr. was born in Sussex County, NJ, son of Thomas and Mercy Symmes. Though Justice Symmes had no children, the younger John Cleves Symmes was often referred to by his later military rank. Symmes received a good common English education and at on March 26,1802 and he was commissioned into the 1st Infantry Regiment and was promoted to Second Lieutenant on May 1,1804, to First Lieutenant on July 29,1807 and to Captain on January 20,1813. In 1807, Symmes fought a duel with Lieutenant Marshall. Symmes suffered a wound in his wrist, Marshall one in his thigh, afterwards, the two men became friends. On December 25,1808, Symmes married Mary Anne Lockwood, Symmes also served during the Siege of Fort Erie, and continued in his Army career until being honorably discharged on June 15,1815. After leaving the Army, Symmes moved to St. Louis and he sold supplies to Army, and obtained a license to trade with the Fox Indians. However, his business venture was unsuccessful and in 1819, Symmes moved his family to Newport, but while failing as a trader, Symmes was contemplating the rings of Saturn and developing his theory of the Hollow Earth—a theory which he would spend the remainder of his life promoting. One April 10,1818, Symmes announced his Hollow Earth theory to the world, while a few enthusiastic supporters would ultimately lionize Symmes as the Newton of the West, in general the world was not impressed. It was for years a fruitful source of jest with the newspapers. In its original form, Symmes Hollow Earth theory described the world as consisting of five concentric spheres, with our outer earth and its atmosphere as the largest. He visualized the Earths crust as being approximately 1,000 miles thick, with an Arctic opening about 4,000 miles wide, and an Antarctic opening around 6,000 miles wide. Symmes proposed that the curvature of the rim of these openings was gradual enough that it would be possible to actually enter the inner earth without being aware of the transition. He argued that due to the force of Earths rotation. Symmes concept of polar openings connecting the Earths surface to the inner Earth was to be his contribution to Hollow Earth lore. Such polar openings would come to be known as Symmes Holes in literary Hollow Earths, writing in August 1817 to his stepson, Anthony Lockwood, Symmes for the first time stated that I infer that all planets and globes are hollow. But Symmes theory was far from unprecedented, while the idea of polar openings leading into a Hollow Earth was Symmes innovation, the concept of a Hollow Earth had an intellectual pedigree dating back to the 17th century and Edmond Halley
22.
Nathaniel Ames
–
Nathaniel Ames, American almanac-maker and physician, published the first annual American almanac. He was the son of Nathaniel Ames first and the father of Nathaniel third, the family was descended from William Ames of Bruton, Somerset, England, whose son William emigrated to Massachusetts and settled at Braintree as early as 1640. Captain Nathaniel Ames, father of this subject, lived at Bridgewater. Six children were born to them, of whom Nathaniel second was the eldest son and his father is said to have been learned in astronomy and mathematics, as well as practicing medicine. In 1725 he published the first annual number of his almanac and he is said to have moved to Dedham in 1732 and his name is entered from that place on the list of subscribers to Princes Chronology, to which most of the subscriptions were made in 1728. On September 14,1735, he married Mary, daughter of Capt. Ames’ wife had owned a tavern, in August 1749 Ames won the case, and thus established an exception to the rule of inheritance in Massachusetts. However, two of the eleven Superior Court of Judicature justices were against him, leading the normally amiable Ames to an especially vituperative stance against lawyers for the rest of his career. He took down his tavern sign and replaced it with a cartoon of the judges, each was shown studying the Province laws, except the two dissenters, who had their backs turned to the law books. Chief Justice Paul Dudley, one of the dissenters, sent the sheriff to arrest Ames, Ames was warned and quickly substituted Matt. 16,4, “A wicked and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign, and there no sign be given unto it. ”On October 30,1740, he married his second wife Deborah, daughter of Jeremiah Fisher, by whom he had six children, the eldest being Nathaniel third. In that year,1740, he was one of the subscribers to the celebrated Land Bank. The contemporary entry in John Whitings Diary reads Jan,25,1750, Dr. Ames began to keep tavern”, although Briggs and Kittredge provide different dates for the commencement of this venture. He continued to live at Dedham until his death of fever in 1764 and it was demolished in 1817 and is now the site of the Norfolk County Registry of Deeds. His chief importance is as founder and editor of his almanacs, the father issued the first number in 1725, three years before James Franklin started his in Rhode Island and eight years before Benjamin Franklin inaugurated Poor Richards Almanack. Moses Coit Tyler considered it as superior to Franklins, which it resembled in many ways, Ames, however, undoubtedly did much to bring, if only in brief allusions and extracts, some knowledge of the better English authors to innumerable New England farmhouses. Ames gave rise to an industry, and he had many imitators. Among those who followed in his footsteps was Dudley Leavitt of Meredith, New Hampshire, in 1775, during the Siege of Boston, Jabez Fitch, a young officer in the Colonial Army, visited Ames tomb in the Old Village Cemetery in Dedham. Finding the tomb open, he entered, opened the casket, Nathaniel Ames, Dictionary of American Biography
23.
Faddey Bulgarin
–
Bulgarin was born into a noble Polish family near Minsk, Belarus. His father, one of Kosciuszkos associates, was exiled to Siberia for having assassinated a Russian general, Bulgarin was educated in a St. Petersburg military school, took part in the Battle of Friedland but was arrested for theft soon afterwards. While his regiment was stationed in Finland, Bulgarin deserted to Warsaw and he fought under Napoleons banners in the Peninsular War and the 1812 Lithuanian campaign. In 1812 Bulgarin was taken prisoner in Battle of Berezina and transported to Prussia, there is a 6-year lapse in his biography after that. In 1820, Bulgarin travelled from Warsaw to St. Petersburg and he also made friends with the playwright Alexander Griboyedov and the philologist Nicholas Gretsch. The latter helped him to edit the newspaper Northern Bee, the literary journal Fatherlands Son, bulgarins unscrupulous manners made him the most odious journalist in Russia. Alexander Pushkin, in particular, ridiculed him in a number of epigrams, Bulgarin retorted with epigrams, in which Pushkins name was rendered as Chushkin. Inspired by Sir Walter Scott, Bulgarin wrote the Vyzhigin series of historical novels and he followed these with two sententious novels about the False Dmitry and Ivan Mazepa. In 1837 he published under his own name a lengthy description of Imperial Russia, which was actually a work by Professor Nikolai Alexeyevich Ivanov of Dorpat University
24.
Edgar Allan Poe
–
Edgar Allan Poe was an American writer, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and he is widely regarded as a central figure of Romanticism in the United States and American literature as a whole, and he was one of the countrys earliest practitioners of the short story. Poe is generally considered the inventor of the fiction genre and is further credited with contributing to the emerging genre of science fiction. He was the first well-known American writer to try to earn a living through writing alone, resulting in a difficult life. Poe was born in Boston, the child of two actors. His father abandoned the family in 1810, and his mother died the following year, thus orphaned, the child was taken in by John and Frances Allan of Richmond, Virginia. They never formally adopted him, but Poe was with them well into young adulthood, tension developed later as John Allan and Edgar repeatedly clashed over debts, including those incurred by gambling, and the cost of secondary education for the young man. Poe attended the University of Virginia for one semester but left due to lack of money, Poe quarreled with Allan over the funds for his education and enlisted in the Army in 1827 under an assumed name. It was at time that his publishing career began, albeit humbly, with the anonymous collection of poems Tamerlane and Other Poems. With the death of Frances Allan in 1829, Poe and Allan reached a temporary rapprochement, however, Poe later failed as an officer cadet at West Point, declaring a firm wish to be a poet and writer, and he ultimately parted ways with John Allan. Poe switched his focus to prose and spent the several years working for literary journals and periodicals. His work forced him to move among several cities, including Baltimore, Philadelphia, in Richmond in 1836, he married Virginia Clemm, his 13-year-old cousin. In January 1845, Poe published his poem The Raven to instant success and his wife died of tuberculosis two years after its publication. For years, he had been planning to produce his own journal The Penn, Poe and his works influenced literature in the United States and around the world, as well as in specialized fields such as cosmology and cryptography. Poe and his work appear throughout popular culture in literature, music, films, a number of his homes are dedicated museums today. The Mystery Writers of America present an award known as the Edgar Award for distinguished work in the mystery genre. He was born Edgar Poe in Boston on January 19,1809 and he had an elder brother William Henry Leonard Poe, and a younger sister Rosalie Poe. Their grandfather David Poe Sr. had emigrated from Cavan, Ireland to America around the year 1750, Edgar may have been named after a character in William Shakespeares King Lear, a play that the couple were performing in 1809
25.
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket
–
The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket is the only complete novel written by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The work relates the tale of the young Arthur Gordon Pym, various adventures and misadventures befall Pym, including shipwreck, mutiny, and cannibalism, before he is saved by the crew of the Jane Guy. Aboard this vessel, Pym and a sailor named Dirk Peters continue their adventures farther south, docking on land, they encounter hostile black-skinned natives before escaping back to the ocean. The novel ends abruptly as Pym and Peters continue toward the South Pole, the story starts out as a fairly conventional adventure at sea, but it becomes increasingly strange and hard to classify. Poe, who intended to present a story, was inspired by several real-life accounts of sea voyages. He also drew from his own experiences at sea, analyses of the novel often focus on the potential autobiographical elements as well as hints of racism and the symbolism in the final lines of the work. Difficulty in finding literary success early in his short story-writing career inspired Poe to pursue writing a longer work, a few serialized installments of The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket were first published in the Southern Literary Messenger, though never completed. The full novel was published in July 1838 in two volumes, Some critics responded negatively to the work for being too gruesome and for cribbing heavily from other works, while others praised its exciting adventures. Poe himself later called it a very silly book, the book comprises a preface,25 chapters, and an afterword, with a total of around 72,000 words. Arthur Gordon Pym was born on the island of Nantucket, famous for its fishing harbor and his best friend, Augustus Barnard, is the son of the captain of a whaling ship. One night, the two boys become drunk and decide, on Augustuss whim, to advantage of the breeze and sail out on Pyms sailboat. The breeze, however, turns out to be the beginnings of a violent storm, the situation gets critical when Augustus passes out drunk, and the inexperienced Pym must take control of the dinghy. The Ariel is overtaken by the Penguin, a whaling ship. Against the captains wishes, the crew of the Penguin turns back to search for, after they are safely back on land, they decide to keep this episode a secret from their parents. His first ocean misadventure does not dissuade Pym from sailing again, rather and his interest is further fueled by the tales of a sailors life that Augustus tells him. Pym decides to follow Augustus as a stowaway aboard the Grampus, Augustus helps Pym by preparing a hideout in the hold for him and smuggling Tiger, Pyms faithful dog, on board. Augustus promises to provide Pym with water and food until the ship is too far from shore to return, due to the stuffy atmosphere and vapors in the dark and cramped hold, Pym becomes increasingly comatose and delirious over the days. He cant communicate with Augustus, and the promised supplies fail to arrive, in the course of his ordeal, he discovers a letter written in blood attached to his dog Tiger, warning Pym to remain hidden, as his life depends on it
26.
MS. Found in a Bottle
–
Found in a Bottle is an 1833 short story by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The plot follows an unnamed narrator at sea who finds himself in a series of harrowing circumstances, as he nears his own disastrous death while his ship drives ever southward, he writes an MS. or manuscript, telling of his adventures which he casts into the sea. Some critics believe the story was meant as a satire of typical sea tales, Found in a Bottle as one of many entries to a writing contest offered by the weekly Baltimore Saturday Visiter. Each of the stories was well liked by the judges but they unanimously chose MS, Found in a Bottle as the contests winner, earning Poe a $50 prize. The story was published in the October 19,1833. An unnamed narrator, estranged from his family and country, sets sail as a passenger aboard a ship from Batavia. Some days into the voyage, the ship is first becalmed then hit by a simoom that capsizes the ship and sends everyone except the narrator and an old Swede overboard. Driven southward by the magical simoom towards the South Pole, the ship eventually collides with a gigantic black galleon. Once the new ship arrives, the narrator finds outdated maps, also, he finds it to be manned by elderly crewmen who are unable to see him, he steals writing materials from the captains cabin to keep a journal which he resolves to cast into the sea. This ship too continues to be driven southward, and he notices the crew appears to show signs of hope at the prospect of their destruction as it reaches Antarctica. The ship enters a clearing in the ice where it is caught in a vast whirlpool, Found in a Bottle is one of Poes sea tales. The storys horror comes from its scientific imaginings and its description of a world beyond the limits of human exploration. Biographer Kenneth Silverman wrote that the story is a crescendo of ever building dread in the face of ever stranger and ever more imminent catastrophe. This prospect of unknown catastrophe both horrifies and stimulates the narrator, like Poes narrator in another early work, Berenice, the narrator in MS. Found in a Bottle lives predominantly through his books, or more accurately his manuscripts, the otherworldly ship on which the narrator finds himself may evoke the legendary ghost ship, the Flying Dutchman. A number of critics have argued that the storys ending references the Hollow Earth theories propounded by John Cleves Symmes, Jr. Symmes and Reynold proposed that the planets interior was hollow and habitable, and was accessible via openings at the two poles. The idea was considered scientifically plausible during the early 19th century, Poe also incorporated Symmes theories into his later work The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket, his only novel. Pym bears a number of similarities to MS, Found in a Bottle, including an abrupt ending set in the Antarctic
27.
Jules Verne
–
Jules Gabriel Verne was a French novelist, poet, and playwright. Verne is generally considered a literary author in France and most of Europe. Verne has been the second most-translated author in the world since 1979 and he has sometimes been called the Father of Science Fiction, a title that has also been given to H. G. Wells and Hugo Gernsback. His parents were Pierre Verne, an originally from Provins, and Sophie Allote de la Fuÿe. In 1829, the Verne family moved some hundred meters away to No.2 Quai Jean-Bart, three sisters, Anna, Mathilde, and Marie, would follow. In 1834, at the age of six, Verne was sent to boarding school at 5 Place du Bouffay in Nantes, the teacher, Mme Sambin, was the widow of a naval captain who had disappeared some 30 years before. Mme Sambin often told the students that her husband was a shipwrecked castaway, the theme of the Robinsonade would stay with Verne throughout his life and appear in many of his novels, including The Mysterious Island, Second Fatherland, and The School for Robinsons. In 1836, Verne went on to École Saint‑Stanislas, a Catholic school suiting the pious religious tastes of his father, Verne quickly distinguished himself in mémoire, geography, Greek, Latin, and singing. In the same year,1836, Pierre Verne bought a house at 29 Rue des Réformés in the village of Chantenay on the Loire River. In his brief memoir Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunesse, Verne recalled a deep fascination with the river and with the many merchant vessels navigating it. He also took vacations at Brains, in the house of his uncle Prudent Allotte, a retired shipowner, who had gone around the world and served as mayor of Brains from 1828 to 1837. Verne took joy in playing interminable rounds of the Game of the Goose with his uncle, and both the game and his uncles name would be memorialized in two late novels. It is now known that the legend is a tale invented by Vernes first biographer, his niece Marguerite Allotte de la Füye. In 1840, the Vernes moved again to an apartment at No.6 Rue Jean-Jacques-Rousseau. In the same year Verne entered another school, the Petit Séminaire de Saint-Donatien. His unfinished novel Un prêtre en 1839, written in his teens, from 1844 to 1846, Verne and his brother were enrolled in the Lycée Royal in Nantes. After finishing classes in rhetoric and philosophy, he took the baccalauréat at Rennes, however, his father took it for granted that Verne, being the firstborn son of the family, would not attempt to make money in literature but would instead inherit the family law practice. In 1847, Vernes father sent him to Paris, primarily to begin his studies in law school, and secondarily to distance him temporarily from Nantes
28.
Journey to the Center of the Earth
–
Journey to the Centre of the Earth is an 1864 science fiction novel by Jules Verne. The story involves German professor Otto Lidenbrock who believes there are volcanic tubes going toward the centre of the Earth, the genre of subterranean fiction already existed long before Verne. However, the present book considerably added to its popularity and influenced later such writings, for example, Edgar Rice Burroughs explicitly acknowledged Vernes influence on his own Pellucidar series. While looking through the book, Lidenbrock and his nephew Axel find a note written in runic script along with the name of a 16th-century Icelandic alchemist. Lidenbrock and Axel transliterate the runic characters into Latin letters, revealing a message written in a seemingly bizarre code, Lidenbrock attempts a decipherment, deducing the message to be a kind of transposition cipher, but his results are as meaningless as the original. Professor Lidenbrock decides to lock everyone in the house and force himself, Axel discovers the answer when fanning himself with the deciphered text, Lidenbrocks decipherment was correct, and only needs to be read backwards to reveal sentences written in rough Latin. In what Axel calls bad Latin, the message reads, In Snefflls Iokulis kraterem kem delibat umbra Skartaris Iulii intra kalendas deskende, audas uiator. In slightly better Latin, with errors amended, In Sneffels Jokulis craterem, quem delibat umbra Scartaris, Julii intra kalendas descende, audax viator, et terrestre centrum attinges, quod feci. Arne Saknussemm Professor Lidenbrock is a man of astonishing impatience, and departs for Iceland immediately, taking his reluctant nephew with him. After a rapid journey via Kiel and Copenhagen, they arrive in Reykjavík, in late June, they reach the volcano, which has three craters. According to Saknussemms message, the passage to the center of the Earth is through the one crater that is touched by the shadow of a mountain peak at noon. However, the text states that this is only true during the last days of June. During the next few days, with July rapidly approaching, the weather is too cloudy for any shadows, alas for Axel, however, on the second to last day, the sun comes out and the mountain peak shows the correct crater to take. After taking a turn, they run out of water and Axel almost dies. Lidenbrock and Axel name the resulting stream the Hansbach in his honour, at another point, Axel becomes separated from the others and is lost several miles from them. Luckily, an acoustic phenomenon allows him to communicate with them from some miles away. After descending many miles, following the course of the Hansbach, the travelers build a raft out of trees and set sail. The Professor names this sea the Lidenbrock Sea, while on the water, they see several prehistoric creatures such as a giant Ichthyosaurus, which fights with a Plesiosaurus and wins
29.
Lewis Carroll
–
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, better known by his pen name Lewis Carroll, was an English writer, mathematician, logician, Anglican deacon, and photographer. He is noted for his facility at word play, logic, There are societies in many parts of the world dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of his works and the investigation of his life. Dodgsons family was predominantly northern English, with Irish connections, conservative, most of Dodgsons male ancestors were army officers or Church of England clergy. His great-grandfather, also named Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become the Bishop of Elphin. His paternal grandfather, another Charles, had been an army captain, the older of these sons – yet another Charles Dodgson – was Carrolls father. He went to Westminster School and then to Christ Church, Oxford and he reverted to the other family tradition and took holy orders. He was mathematically gifted and won a double first degree, which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career, instead, he married his first cousin Frances Jane Lutwidge in 1830 and became a country parson. Dodgson was born in the parsonage at Daresbury in Cheshire near the towns of Warrington and Runcorn. When Charles was 11, his father was given the living of Croft-on-Tees in North Yorkshire, and this remained their home for the next 25 years. He was High Church, inclining to Anglo-Catholicism, an admirer of John Henry Newman and the Tractarian movement, Young Charles was to develop an ambiguous relationship with his fathers values and with the Church of England as a whole. During his early youth, Dodgson was educated at home and his reading lists preserved in the family archives testify to a precocious intellect, at the age of seven, he was reading books such as The Pilgrims Progress. He also suffered from a stammer – a condition shared by most of his siblings – that often influenced his life throughout his years. At the age of twelve, he was sent to Richmond Grammar School at nearby Richmond, in 1846, Dodgson entered Rugby School where he was evidently unhappy, as he wrote some years after leaving, I cannot say. That any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again, I can honestly say that if I could have been. Secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear, scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease. I have not had a promising boy at his age since I came to Rugby. He left Rugby at the end of 1849 and matriculated at Oxford in May 1850 as a member of his fathers old college, after waiting for rooms in college to become available, he went into residence in January 1851. He had been at Oxford only two days when he received a summons home and his mother had died of inflammation of the brain – perhaps meningitis or a stroke – at the age of 47
30.
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
–
Alices Adventures in Wonderland is an 1865 novel written by English mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson under the pseudonym Lewis Carroll. It tells of a girl named Alice falling through a hole into a fantasy world populated by peculiar. The tale plays with logic, giving the story lasting popularity with adults as well as with children and it is considered to be one of the best examples of the literary nonsense genre. Its narrative course and structure, characters and imagery have been influential in both popular culture and literature, especially in the fantasy genre. The journey began at Folly Bridge in Oxford and ended 3 miles north-west in the village of Godstow, during the trip, Dodgson told the girls a story that featured a bored little girl named Alice who goes looking for an adventure. The girls loved it, and Alice Liddell asked Dodgson to write it down for her and he began writing the manuscript of the story the next day, although that earliest version no longer exists. The girls and Dodgson took another boat trip a month later when he elaborated the plot to the story of Alice, and in November he began working on the manuscript in earnest. To add the finishing touches, he researched natural history for the animals presented in the book and he added his own illustrations but approached John Tenniel to illustrate the book for publication, telling him that the story had been well liked by children. Some, including Martin Gardner, speculate that there was a version that was destroyed later by Dodgson when he wrote a more elaborate copy by hand. Chapter One – Down the Rabbit Hole, Alice is feeling bored and drowsy while sitting on the riverbank with her older sister and she then notices a White Rabbit wearing a waistcoat and pocket watch, talking to itself as it runs past. She follows it down a hole, but suddenly falls a long way to a curious hall with many locked doors of all sizes. She finds a key to a door too small for her to fit through. She then discovers a bottle on a table labelled DRINK ME, the contents of which cause her to shrink too small to reach the key and she eats a cake with EAT ME written on it in currants as the chapter closes. Chapter Two – The Pool of Tears, Chapter Two opens with Alice growing to such a size that her head hits the ceiling. Alice is unhappy and, as she cries, her tears flood the hallway, after shrinking down again due to a fan she had picked up, Alice swims through her own tears and meets a Mouse, who is swimming as well. She tries to make small talk with him in elementary French, offends the mouse and he tries to escape her. Chapter Three – The Caucus Race and a Long Tale, The sea of tears becomes crowded with other animals, Alice and the other animals convene on the bank and the question among them is how to get dry again. The Mouse gives them a very dry lecture on William the Conqueror, a Dodo decides that the best thing to dry them off would be a Caucus-Race, which consists of everyone running in a circle with no clear winner
31.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton
–
Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton PC, was an English novelist, poet, playwright, and politician. He was immensely popular with the public and wrote a stream of bestselling novels which earned him a considerable fortune. He coined the phrases the great unwashed, pursuit of the almighty dollar, the pen is mightier than the sword, dweller on the threshold, and he had two elder brothers, William Earle Lytton Bulwer and Henry, later Lord Dalling and Bulwer. When Edward was four his father died and his moved to London. He was a delicate, neurotic child and was discontented at a number of boarding schools, but he was precocious and Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, Ishmael and Other Poems. In 1822 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where he met John Auldjo, in 1825 he won the Chancellors Gold Medal for English verse. In the following year he took his B. A. degree and printed, for private circulation and he purchased a commission in the army, but sold it without serving. In August 1827, against his mothers wishes, he married Rosina Doyle Wheeler, when they married his mother withdrew his allowance and he was forced to work for a living. They had two children, Lady Emily Elizabeth Bulwer-Lytton, and Robert Lytton Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton who became Governor-General and his writing and political work strained their marriage while his infidelity embittered Rosina, in 1833 they separated acrimoniously and in 1836 the separation became legal. Three years later, Rosina published Cheveley, or the Man of Honour, in June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she indignantly denounced him at the hustings. He retaliated by threatening her publishers, withholding her allowance, finally he had her committed to a mental asylum. But, after a public outcry she was released a few weeks later and this incident was chronicled in her memoir, A Blighted Life. For years she continued her attacks upon her husband’s character, the death of Bulwer-Lyttons mother in 1843 greatly saddened him. His own exhaustion of toil and study had been completed by great anxiety and grief, on 20 February 1844, in accordance with his mothers will, he changed his surname from Bulwer to Bulwer-Lytton and assumed the arms of Lytton by royal licence. His widowed mother had done the same in 1811, but, his brothers remained plain Bulwer. When King Otto of Greece abdicated in 1862, he was offered the crown of Greece, in 1866 Bulwer-Lytton was raised to the peerage as Baron Lytton. According to the Fulham Football Club, he resided in the original Craven Cottage. Bulwer-Lytton had long suffered with a disease of the ear and for the last two or three years of his life he lived in Torquay nursing his health
32.
Vril
–
The Coming Race is an 1871 novel by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, reprinted as Vril, the Power of the Coming Race. A book, The Morning of the Magicians, suggested that a secret Vril Society existed in pre-Nazi Berlin, however, there is no evidence for the existence of such a society. The Coming Race was published anonymously in late 1871, but Bulwer-Lytton was known to be the author. Samuel Butlers Erewhon was also published anonymously, in March 1872, when it was revealed in the 25 May 1872 edition of the Athenaeum that Butler was the author, sales dropped by 90 percent because he was unknown at the time. The novel centers on a young, independent, unnamed, wealthy traveler, who visits a friend and they explore a natural chasm in a mine which has been exposed by an exploratory shaft. The narrator reaches the bottom of the chasm safely, but the rope breaks, the narrator finds his way into a subterranean world occupied by beings who seem to resemble angels. He befriends the first being he meets, who guides him around a city that is reminiscent of ancient Egyptian architecture. The explorer meets his hosts wife, two sons and daughter who learn to speak English by way of a dictionary during which the narrator unconsciously teaches them the language. His guide comes towards him, and he and his daughter, Zee, explain who they are, the narrator is offended by the idea that the Vril-ya are better adapted to learn about him than he is to learn about them. Nevertheless, the guide and his son Taee behave kindly towards him, the narrator soon discovers that the Vril-ya are descendants of an antediluvian civilization called the Ana, who live in networks of subterranean caverns linked by tunnels. Originally surface dwellers, they had fled underground thousands of years previously to escape a massive flood, the place where the narrator descended housed 12,000 families, one of the largest groups. This mastery gave them access to a force that could be controlled at will. It is this fluid that the Vril-ya employed to communicate with the narrator, men and women have equal rights. The women are stronger and larger than the men, the women are also the pursuing party of romantic relationships. They marry for just three years, after which the men choose whether to remain married, or be single, the female may then pursue a new husband. However, they make the choice to remarry. Their religion posits the existence of a superior being but does not dwell on his nature, the Vril-ya believe in the permanence of life, which according to them is not destroyed but merely changes form. The narrator adopts the attire of his hosts and begins also to adopt their customs, Zee falls in love with him and tells her father, who orders Taee to kill him with his staff
33.
Feminism
–
Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
34.
James De Mille
–
James De Mille was a professor at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, and an early Canadian popular writer who published numerous works of popular fiction from the late 1860s through the 1870s. He was born in Saint John, New Brunswick, son of the merchant and shipowner and he attended Horton Academy in Wolfville and spent one year at Acadia University. He then travelled with his brother Elisha Budd to Europe, spending half a year in England, France, on his return to North America, he attended Brown University, from which he obtained a Master of Arts degree during 1854. He married Anne Pryor, daughter of the president of Acadia University, John Pryor and he served there until 1865 when he accepted a new appointment at Dalhousie as professor of English and rhetoric. He continued to write and teach at Dalhousie until his death at the age of 46. O. W. C. Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Douglas Edward MacLeod,1968 Leonard Vandervaart, Ideas in the Fiction of Victorian Canada, James de Mille, Agnes Maule Machar and Robert Barr. Ottawa, National Library of Canada,1990
35.
A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder
–
A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder is the most popular book by James De Mille. It was serialized posthumously and anonymously in Harpers Weekly, and published in form by Harper. It was serialized subsequently in the United Kingdom and Australia, and published in form in the United Kingdom. Later editions were published from the plates of the Harper and Brothers first edition, during the late 19th, the satiric and fantastic romance is set in an imaginary semi-tropical land in Antarctica inhabited by prehistoric monsters and a cult of death-worshipers called the Kosekin. The title and locale were inspired by Edgar Allan Poes Ms. Found in a Bottle and it was unfortunate for De Milles reputation as a writer that this work was published after She and King Solomons Mines. The main story of the novel is the narrative of the adventures of Adam More, after passing through a subterranean tunnel of volcanic origin, he finds himself in a lost world of prehistoric animals, plants and people sustained by volcanic heat despite the long Antarctic night. A secondary plot of four yachtsmen who find the written by Adam More. They comment on Mores report, and one identifies the Kosekin language as a Semitic language, rather than accumulating wealth, the natives seek to divest themselves of it as quickly as possible. Contemporary reviews of the novel were coloured by the release of She. Both reviews, along with a July 1888 review in The Week, lost World A scholarly edition of the work was published by the Centre for Editing Early Canadian Texts. This edition is the source of the information provided by this article, a Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder was first published in nineteen installments in Harpers Weekly, Vol.32, from January 7,1888 to May 12,1888. Each installment was accompanied by an illustration by Gilbert Gaul, a Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder. Harper and Brothers, New York,1888, a Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder. A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder, a Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder. A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder, ISBN 0-88629-039-2, ISBN 0-7735-2167-4 De Mille, James. A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder, Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder at Project Gutenberg The book as serialized in Harpers Weekly in 1888
36.
George Sand
–
Amantine-Lucile-Aurore Dupin, best known by her pseudonym George Sand, was a French novelist and memoirist. She is equally known for her much publicized romantic affairs with a number of artists, including Polish composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin. Sand later used the setting in many of her novels and it has been said that her upbringing was quite liberal. She was also related more distantly to King Louis Philippe of France through common ancestors from German. Sands mother, Sophie-Victoire Delaborde, however, was a commoner, in 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married Casimir Dudevant, illegitimate son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children, Maurice and Solange, in early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of romantic rebellion. In 1835, she was separated from Dudevant and took her children with her. Later in life, she corresponded with Gustave Flaubert, and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference and she engaged in an intimate friendship with actress Marie Dorval, which led to widespread but unconfirmed rumours of a lesbian affair. Letters written by Sand to Dorval made such references as wanting you either in your dressing room or in your bed, in Majorca one can still visit the Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa, where she spent the winter of 1838–1839 with Chopin and her children. This trip to Majorca was described by her in Un hiver à Majorque and they separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons. In her novel Lucrezia Floriani, Sand used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol and he is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers a great deal through her affection for Karol. Though Sand claimed not to have made an out of Chopin. However, the point in their relationship involved her daughter Solange. Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after she and her husband, Sand took Chopins support of Solange as outright treachery and confirmation that Chopin had always loved Solange. Sands son Maurice also disliked Chopin, Maurice wanted to establish himself as the man of the estate and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival for that role. Chopin was never asked back to Nohant, in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the Place Vendôme in the following year. Chopin was penniless at that time, his friends had to pay for his stay there, the funeral was attended by over 3,000 people, including Eugène Delacroix, Franz Liszt, Victor Hugo and other famous people. George Sand, however, was notable by her absence, a liaison with the writer Jules Sandeau heralded her literary debut
37.
William R. Bradshaw
–
William Richard Bradshaw was an Irish-born American author, editor and lecturer who served as president of the New York Anti-Vivisection Society. He is known best for his science fiction-type novel The Goddess of Atvatabar, Bradshaw was born in 1851 in Ireland and brought to the United States as an infant. He was a resident of Flushing, Queens, New York from 1896 until his death and he was an active participant of anti-vivisectionism for many years. A member of the Republican party, he served as a party district captain in Flushing, Bradshaw died after a brief illness at his home at 37 Locust Street, Flushing on July 19,1927, aged 75. He was survived by his wife, two sons and three daughters, Bradshaw contributed regularly to a number of magazines, and served as editor of two of them, Literary Life and later The Decorator and, from 1890 to 1896, Decorator and Furnisher. He was also associated with Field and Stream magazine and it was published by J. F. Douthitt in 1892, and featured an introduction by Julian Hawthorne and illustrations by Cyrus Durand Chapman. The Goddess of Atvatabar, being the history of the discovery of the interior world, and conquest of Atvatabar The House. The Salon Carpets and Rugs Hunting for Gold at Porcupine Lake Naturopathy the Medicine of the Future Trouble for Henry G. Harris, in The New York Times, Aug.20,1899, page 11. Arrest of Henry G. Harris, in The, Oct.1899, charles A. Ludlum, obituary in The New York Times, Dec.30,1913, page 9. William R. Bradshaw Dies, obituary in The New York Times, July 20,1927, page 23
38.
John Uri Lloyd
–
John Uri Lloyd was an American pharmacist influential to the development of pharmacognosy, ethnobotany, economic botany, and herbalism. He also wrote novels set in northern Kentucky and his most popular novel was the science fiction or allegorical Etidorhpa, or, the end of the earth, the strange history of a mysterious being and the account of a remarkable journey. First distributed privately, it was illustrated and printed in eighteen editions. Translated into seven languages, it was read in Europe as well as the United States. John Uri Lloyd was born in upstate New York to teachers Sophia Webster and his family relocated to Florence and Petersburg in northern Kentucky, near Cincinnati, Ohio in 1853. Lloyd took an apprenticeship with the chemist William J. M. Gordon when he was 14 years old and his younger brothers Nelson Ashley Lloyd and Curtis Gates Lloyd also became chemists. During 1886 the brothers bought the Merrell and Thorpe Company, renaming it as Lloyd Brothers, Pharmacists, John Lloyds innovations include a cold still for plant extractions and the first buffered alkaloid, called alcresta. During 1919 Lloyd and his two brothers established trusts to fund the Lloyd Library and Museum, today it is considered by many to house the finest collections in the world devoted to eclectic medicine, medical botany and pharmacy. During the 19th and early 20th century, the eclectic medicine movement was popular and it founded associated medical schools, including the Eclectic Medical Institute, first located in Worthington in 1833, which moved to Cincinnati, where it had students from 1845 to 1939. After Lloyds death in 1936, S. B, penick bought the Lloyd Brothers firm in 1938. In 1960 Hoechst AG, the German pharmaceutical manufacturer, purchased the operations, in 2013 the American company Eli Lilly and Company bought Hoechst AG. Lloyd combined his interests by writing a series of local description novels about the northern Kentucky area and his most popular and influential work was the novel Etidorhpa, a scientific allegory that some consider a work of science fiction. It was part of what are called the genre of hollow earth novels, based on a journey to the interior of the earth and he first distributed the book privately. When it was printed commercially, illustrations by J. Augustus Knapp were added and it ran to eighteen editions and was translated into seven languages. The John Uri Lloyd House in Cincinnati was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, the Lloyd Library and Museum, Cincinnati
39.
NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages
–
NEQUA or The Problem of the Ages, according to Reginalds Science Fiction & Fantasy Literature 1700–1974, is one of the first feminist science fiction books published in the United States. It was first serialized in the newspaper Equity, two editions were published in Topeka Kansas in 1900. The title page lists Jack Adams as the author, in the body of the work it is revealed that Jack Adams is actually a woman dressing in men’s clothing, who has spent several years searching for her betrothed on various ocean voyages. She is so successful in her masquerade as a male that she works for the ship captains. The voyage described in Nequa is to the Arctic, where the ship trapped in the ice. After several harrowing adventures the ship is freed and then proceeds to sail north. The Captain of the ship, Rafael Ganoa is amazed to find that when they reach a spot, which should be close to the north pole. Actually they have sailed into the inside of the earth, where they meet the Altrurians, individual members of the Altrurian Society describe how the evolution of Altrurian society took place. These explanations reflect Populist thought of the time with definite feminist proclivities, Jack Adams exposes his/her secret and is chastised by her betrothed Captain Ganoe as having broken several conventions that exist among the outer earth society. Compilations which have include information about Nequa, have resulted in misunderstandings about the authorship of the book, a. O. Grigsby was a Populist and later a Socialist who was editor of several newspapers from the 1890s through 1900. The first edition of NEQUA listed A. O, Grigsby and Mary P. Lowe as the copyright holders. There was also an explanation printed in the first edition which credits Dr. T. A. H. Lowe with the ideas found in NEQUA. Dr. T. A. H. Lowe studied Eclectic Medicine at the Eclectic Medical Institute in Cincinnati, NEQUA contains many ideas which are similar to other hollow earth books, particularly one titled Mizora. Mizora first appeared in serialized form in the Cincinnati Commercial, a newspaper, two other Eclectic Physicians also wrote subterranean fiction. John Uri Lloyd was a teacher in the Pharmacy Department at the Eclectic Medical Institute in Cincinnati and he wrote Etidorhpa which had elements of secret Masonic rituals and alchemy woven throughout the book. Cyrus Teed was also an Eclectic Institute physician who preached the existence of a world inside of the earth and he became leader of Koreshanity which built a commune in Florida. According to Worldcat NEQUA in printed form is only owned by eleven libraries, out of print for 115 years, interest in its political, social and economic systems have reappeared on the internet. The original copyright was held by newspaper editors and publishers who were political organizers using the word to further their political cause
40.
Nome Kingdom
–
The Nome Kingdom is a fictional region near the Land of Oz that is ruled by the Nome King. It is near the Land of Ev, Rinkitink, and the countries where Whimsies. The Nome Kingdom is also known as the Dominions of the Nome King, the Nome Kingdom is located underground and beneath the mountains that are north of the Land of Ev. There are no trees or small animals in the Nome Kingdom, inside the mountains are vast caverns which extend for miles and miles. Thousands of Nomes work at furnaces and forges, hammering precious metals or polishing jewels, in Ozma of Oz, the Queen of Ev and her children were once sold to the Nome King who transformed them into items of Bric-a-brac and placed them in his palace. Upon emerging in the Emerald City, his forces drank from the Forbidden Fountain, forgot everything, Great Domed Cavern - The largest cave in the Nome Kingdom. Metal Forest - An artificial forest in the Great Domed Cavern and this is where the Nomes store their riches. All the trees are solid gold and tower as high as oak trees, the Metal Forest also has Hotel Trees which bear edible food. Hot Lake - An unnamed hot bubbling lake where the Nomes like to go swimming, Nome Kings Palace - The home of the Nome King. Rubber Country - An area of land that is near the Nome Kingdom, everything there is all rubbery and is surrounded by a brook of dry water. Colonel Crinkle - A dapper-looking Nome who is the colonel of the Nome Army and he temporarily became General after General Blug was disposed of. After an argument with the Nome King, General Crinkle was taken to the chamber where he was sliced thin. General Blug - A Nome who is the general of the Nome Army and he was the one who suggested that the Nome King have his forces tunnel under the Deadly Desert. Upon an argument involving Princess Ozmas powers, Nome King knocked General Blug unconscious and had him thrown away, General Guph - An old Nome who was the successor of General Blug and Colonel Crinkle. Guph was the one who enlisted the Whimsies, the Phanfasms, after Ruggedo was overthrown by Kaliko, Guph was made the new Chamberlain. Iron Giant - A mechanical construct created by Smith & Tinker for the Nome King and it is used to keep trespassers into locating the Nome Kings palace. The Iron Giant once stepped on Sawhorse and it was later stopped by Dorothy using the Magic Belt. Long-Eared Hearer - A Nome with large ears and he can hear people on the surface or people over 9,306 miles down the Hollow Tube
