1.
Sufism
–
Sufism or Taṣawwuf, which is often defined as Islamic mysticism, the inward dimension of Islam, or the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam, is a mystical trend in Islam characterized. These orders meet for sessions in meeting places known as zawiyas, khanqahs. They strive for ihsan as detailed in a hadith, Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him, if you cant see Him, Rumi stated, The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Sufis regard Muhammad as al-Insān al-Kāmil, the perfect man who exemplifies the morality of God. The orders largely follow one of the four madhhabs of Sunni Islam, classical Sufis were characterized by their asceticism, especially by their attachment to dhikr, the practice of repeating the names of God, often performed after prayers. According to William Chittick, In a broad sense, Sufism can be described as the interiorization, historically, Muslims have used the Arabic word taṣawwuf to identify the practice of Sufis. In this view, it is necessary to be a Muslim to be a true Sufi. However, Islamic scholars themselves are not by any means in agreement about the meaning of the word sufi, Sufis themselves claim that Tasawwuf is an aspect of Islam similar to Sharia, inseparable from Islam and an integral part of Islamic belief and practice. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Tasawwuf as a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else, two origins of the word sufi have been suggested. Commonly, the root of the word is traced to ṣafā. Another origin is ṣūf, wool in Arabic, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore, the two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity. Scholars generally agree that ṣūf or wool is probably the word of Sufi. This term was given to them because they wore woollen garments, the term labisal-suf meant he clad himself in wool and applied to a person who renounced the world and became an ascetic. Others have suggested that the word comes from the term ahl aṣ-ṣuffah and these men and women who sat at al-Masjid an-Nabawi are considered by some to be the first Sufis. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all other than ṣūf on linguistic grounds. Sufi orders are based on the bayah that was given to the Prophet Muhammad by his Sahaba, by pledging allegiance to the Prophet Muhammad, the Sahaba had committed themselves to the service of God. According to Islamic belief, by pledging allegiance to Prophet Muhammad and it is through the Prophet Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard to be authentic, in which Prophet Muhammad said, I am the city of knowledge, eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf
Sufism
Sufism
–
The tomb of
Sheikh Rukn-ud-Din Abul Fath located in
Multan, Pakistan. The city of Multan is known for various Sufi Saint tombs, as they call it the City of Saints
Sufism
–
Entrance of Sidi Boumediene mosque in
Tlemcen,
Algeria, built to honor 12th century Sufi master
Abu Madyan
Sufism
–
The tomb of Khoja Afāq, near
Kashgar,
China.
2.
Islam
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
Islam
–
The
Kaaba, in
Mecca,
Hejaz region, today's
Saudi Arabia, is the
center of Islam.
Muslims from all over the world gather there to
pray in unity.
Islam
–
The dome of the
Carol I Mosque in
Constanța,
Romania, topped by the
Islamic crescent
Islam
–
Medallion showing "
Allah " (
God) in
Hagia Sophia,
Istanbul,
Turkey.
Islam
–
An
angel presenting
Muhammad and his companions with a miniature city. In the
Topkapi Palace Library,
Istanbul.
3.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
Philosophy
–
René Descartes
Philosophy
–
Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy
–
Jeremy Bentham
Philosophy
–
Thomas Hobbes
4.
Sunni Islam
–
Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam
–
Malaysian Sunni Muslims in a
Mawlid procession in capital
Putrajaya, 2013.
Sunni Islam
–
The
Great Mosque of Kairouan (also known as the Mosque of Uqba) was, in particular during the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries, an important center of Islamic learning with an emphasis on the
Maliki Madh'hab. It is located in the city of
Kairouan in
Tunisia
5.
Shia Islam
–
Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
Shia Islam
Shia Islam
–
The Investiture of
Ali at
Ghadir Khumm (
MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, AD 1309/8
Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)
Shia Islam
–
The
Imam Hussein Shrine in
Karbala, Iraq is a holy site for Shia Muslims.
Shia Islam
–
Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The
Fatimid depiction of
Ali 's sword as carved on the Gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr. Two swords were captured from the temple of the pagan polytheist god
Manāt during the
Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali. Muhammad gave them to Ali, saying that one of them was
Zulfiqar, which became the famous sword of Ali and a later symbol of Shiism.
6.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
–
The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
–
Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
–
The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
–
Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
7.
Common Era
–
Common Era or Current Era is a year-numbering system for the Julian and Gregorian calendars that refers to the years since the start of this era, i. e. since AD1. The preceding era is referred to as before the Common or Current Era, the Current Era notation system can be used as a secular alternative to the Dionysian era system, which distinguishes eras as AD and BC. The two notation systems are equivalent, thus 2017 CE corresponds to AD2017 and 400 BCE corresponds to 400 BC. The year-numbering system for the Gregorian calendar is the most widespread civil calendar used in the world today. For decades, it has been the standard, recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. The expression has been traced back to Latin usage to 1615, as vulgaris aerae, the term Common Era can be found in English as early as 1708, and became more widely used in the mid-19th century by Jewish academics. He attempted to number years from a reference date, an event he referred to as the Incarnation of Jesus. Dionysius labeled the column of the table in which he introduced the new era as Anni Domini Nostri Jesu Christi, numbering years in this manner became more widespread in Europe with its usage by Bede in England in 731. Bede also introduced the practice of dating years before what he supposed was the year of birth of Jesus, in 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. The first use of the Latin term vulgaris aerae discovered so far was in a 1615 book by Johannes Kepler, Kepler uses it again in a 1616 table of ephemerides, and again in 1617. A1635 English edition of that book has the title page in English – so far, a 1701 book edited by John LeClerc includes Before Christ according to the Vulgar Æra,6. A1716 book in English by Dean Humphrey Prideaux says, before the beginning of the vulgar æra, a 1796 book uses the term vulgar era of the nativity. The first so-far-discovered usage of Christian Era is as the Latin phrase aerae christianae on the page of a 1584 theology book. In 1649, the Latin phrase æræ Christianæ appeared in the title of an English almanac, a 1652 ephemeris is the first instance so-far-found for English usage of Christian Era. The English phrase common Era appears at least as early as 1708, a 1759 history book uses common æra in a generic sense, to refer to the common era of the Jews. The first-so-far found usage of the phrase before the era is in a 1770 work that also uses common era and vulgar era as synonyms. The 1797 edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica uses the terms vulgar era, the Catholic Encyclopedia in at least one article reports all three terms being commonly understood by the early 20th century. Thus, the era of the Jews, the common era of the Mahometans, common era of the world
Common Era
–
Key concepts
8.
Metaphysics
–
Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fundamental nature of reality. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two questions, Ultimately, what is there. Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, objects and their properties, space and time, cause and effect, a central branch of metaphysics is ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of being and how they relate to one another. Another branch is metaphysical cosmology, which seeks to understand the origin, there are two broad conceptions about what world is studied by metaphysics. The strong, classical view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist independently of any observer, the weaker, more modern view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject becomes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis. Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these worlds and what can be inferred about each one, some philosophers and scientists, such as the logical positivists, reject the entire subject of metaphysics as meaningless, while others disagree and think that it is legitimate. Ontology deals with the determination whether categories of being are fundamental and it is the inquiry into being in so much as it is being, or into beings insofar as they exist—and not insofar as particular facts may be obtained about them or particular properties belong to them. Most ontologies assume or assert the existence of categories including objects, properties, space, immediate questions arising from this include the nature of objects. Only properties can be observed directly, so what does it mean for an object to exist, how can we be sure that such objects exist at all. The word is has two uses in English, separated out in ontology. It can denote existence as in there is an elephant in the room, some philosophers also include sub-classing as a third form of is-ness or being, as in the elephant is a mammal. Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, contend that all refer to existent entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities, between these poles of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other positions. An ontology may give an account of which refer to entities, which do not, why. Other controversial categories of objects and properties which may be argued to exist or not include aesthetic and moral properties, stances about the status of such things may form the foundation for other branches of philosophy such as aesthetics, ethics and political philosophy. Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue, metaphysicians investigating identity are tasked with the question of what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to itself. Other issues of identity arise in the context of time, what does it mean for something to be itself across two moments in time, how do we account for this. Another question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria ought to be for determining identity, and how does the reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions
Metaphysics
–
Plato –
Kant –
Nietzsche
9.
Cosmology
–
Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. The term cosmology was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blounts Glossographia, religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature and traditions of creation and eschatology. Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers, such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and philosophers of space and time. Because of this scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology may include both scientific and non-scientific propositions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not be tested. Cosmology differs from astronomy in that the former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described cosmology as a science because when we look out in space. Physics and astrophysics have played a role in shaping the understanding of the universe through scientific observation. Physical cosmology was shaped through both mathematics and observation in an analysis of the whole universe, cosmogony studies the origin of the Universe, and cosmography maps the features of the Universe. In Diderots Encyclopédie, cosmology is broken down into uranology, aerology, geology, metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing of man in the universe in relationship to all other entities. Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics that deals with the study of the physical origins and it also includes the study of the nature of the Universe on a large scale. In its earliest form, it was what is now known as celestial mechanics, greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle, and Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. The geocentric Ptolemaic system was the theory until the 16th century when Nicolaus Copernicus. This is one of the most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology, when Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica in 1687, he finally figured out how the heavens moved. A fundamental difference between Newtons cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle—that the bodies on earth obey the same laws as all the celestial bodies. This was a crucial advance in physical cosmology. Physicists began changing the assumption that the Universe was static and unchanging, in 1922 Alexander Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe that contained moving matter. In parallel to this approach to cosmology, one long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax. This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the U. S. National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D. C
Cosmology
–
The
Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) was completed in September 2012 and shows the farthest
galaxies ever photographed. Except for the few stars in the foreground (which are bright and easily recognizable because only they have
diffraction spikes), every speck of light in the photo is an individual galaxy, some of them as old as 13.2 billion years; the observable universe is estimated to contain more than 200 billion galaxies.
Cosmology
–
Evidence of
gravitational waves in the
infant universe may have been uncovered by the microscopic examination of the
focal plane of the
BICEP2 radio telescope.
Cosmology
–
Art
10.
Tariqa
–
A tariqa is a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking Haqiqa, which translates as ultimate truth. A tariqa has a murshid who plays the role of leader or spiritual director, the members or followers of a tariqa are known as muridin, meaning desirous, viz. The path metaphor of tariqa is that of a path, taken by the mystic. A fourth station following the succession of shariah, tariqa and haqiqa is called marifa and this is the unseen center of haqiqa, and the ultimate aim of the mystic, corresponding to the unio mystica in Western mysticism. Tasawwuf, Arabic word that refers to mysticism and Islamic esotericism, is known in the West as Sufism, the most popular tariqa in the West is the Mevlevi Order, named after Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi. In the same time the Bektashi Order was also founded, named after the Alevi Muslim saint Haji Bektash Veli, others can be offshoots of a tariqa. For example, the Qalandariyya has roots in Malamatiyya and Wafai of orders are offshoots of the Suhrawardi order, membership of a particular Sufi order is not exclusive and cannot be likened to the ideological commitment to a political party. Unlike the Christian monastic orders which are demarcated by firm lines of authority and sacrament, the non-exclusiveness of Sufi orders has consequences for the social extension of Sufism. They cannot be regarded as indulging in a zero sum competition which a political analysis might have suggested. Rather their joint effect is to impart to Sufism a cumulant body of tradition, rather than individual, in most cases the sheikh nominates his khalifa or successor during his lifetime, who will take over the order. In rare cases, if the sheikh dies without naming a khalifa, in some orders it is recommended to take a Khalif from the same order as the murshid. In some groups it is customary for the khalifa to be the son of the sheikh, although in other groups the khalīfa, in yet other orders a successor may be identified through the spiritual dreams of its members. Tariqas have silsilas chain, lineage of sheikhs, almost all orders except the Naqshbandi order claim a silsila that leads back to Muhammad through Ali. Many other silsilas contain the names of Shia Imams, every Murid, on entering the tariqa, gets his awrad, or daily recitations, authorized by his murshid. Usually these recitations are extensive and time-consuming, one must also be in a state of ritual purity. The recitations change as a student moves from a mere initiate to other Sufi degrees, the Initiation ceremony is routine and consists of reading chapter 1 of the Quran followed by a single phrase prayer. Criteria have to be met to be promoted in rank, the way is to repeat a single phrase prayer 82,000 times or more as in the case of Burhaniyya. Murids who experience unusual interaction during meditation, hear voices like would you like to see a prophet and this Murid is promoted faster than others
Tariqa
Tariqa
–
"Tariqat" in the Four Spiritual Stations: The Four Stations,
sharia, tariqa,
haqiqa. The fourth station,
marifa, which is considered "unseen", is actually the center of the haqiqa region. It's the essence of all four stations.
11.
Abdal
–
Abdal is a rank of forty saints, but more often the larger group of 356 saints in Sufi theosophy. In this theology it is said that they are known to and appointed by Allah. The term over time has come to include a hierarchy of saints, all of different rank. Abdal is the plural of Badal or rather Badeel, and means those who get replaced, the Abdals are the group of true, pure believers in God. They serve God during their lifetime, when they die, they are replaced by another selected by God from a larger group said to be the 500 Akhyar. The Abdals are headed by their leader, Al-Ghawth, who is said to reside in Mecca and this leader is often referred to as the Qutb, which means Pole in Arabic. This leader though unknown to the public is usually sought out by all of the lower ranking members of the abdal, at various times in history, shaykhs have been known to publicly claim to be the Qutb, despite the tradition of remaining outside of the public eye. The missions of the Abdals are to be Gods merciful subjects everywhere they reside and it is said that a Badal exists in each continent. Although the majority live in Al-Sham. some live in Iraq, some in Lebanon, some in Egypt, some in Antioch, some in al-Massisa and they have divine powers and super-natural abilities. A person does not recognize that he is one of the Abdal until he becomes aware of his status suddenly though a revelation and it is said that a Badal can be identified through his continuous good deeds and forgiving nature. He may be rich or poor, married or bachelor, child or adult, such concepts are established in the Sunni branch of Islam, and in particular in the latter’s original Sufi schools of spiritual disciplines. The abdal function as the keepers of equilibrium in the world, varying in classification and denomination, the identity of the abdal are entirely unknown to the public and even to themselves. With the ability to transmit blessings and perform miracles the abdal as a whole are able to fill the role of prophet. Similarly, it is believed that when judgement day comes, they act as intermediaries between God and the human race. As far as the number of the abdal is concerned, there are 300 friends of Allah in the creation whose hearts are like that of Adam, there are 40 whose hearts are similar to the heart of Musa and 7 whose hearts are similar to the heart of Ibrahim. There are 5 whose hearts are like that of Jibra’il and 3 whose hearts are like that of Mika’il, when he dies, then one of the three whose heart is like Mika’il replaces him and one of the five replaces him. One of the seven replaces one of the five, one of the forty replaces one of the seven and one of the three-hundred replaces one of the forty and a normal Muslim replaces one of the three-hundred. It is due to these 356 awliya that creation are given life and killed, due to rain falls, vegetation grows
Abdal
Abdal
12.
Dervish
–
A dervish or darvesh is someone guiding a Sufi Muslim ascetic down a path or Tariqah, known for their extreme poverty and austerity. Their focus is on the values of love and service. In most Sufi orders, a dervish is known to practice dhikr through physical exertions or religious practices to attain the ecstatic trance to reach God and their most common practice is Sama which is associated with Rumi. Dervish is a Turkish word from the 1580s that is derived from the Persian word darvīsh and it has been used in the same manner as the Arabic word Faqir to refer to Muslim holy men who have given up worldly pleasures for an austere and religious life. Many dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken a vow of poverty, the main reason they beg is to learn humility, but Dervishes are prohibited to beg for their own good. They have to give the money to other poor people. Others work in professions, Egyptian Qadiriyya – known in Turkey as Kadiri – are fishermen. Some classical writers indicate that the poverty of the dervish is not merely economic and it is, however, also practiced by other orders. The Sama is only one of the many Sufi ceremonies performed to try to reach religious ecstasy, the name Mevlevi comes from the Persian poet Rumi, who was a dervish himself. This practice, though not intended as entertainment, has become a tourist attraction in Turkey, there are various orders of Dervishes, almost all of which trace their origins from various Muslim saints and teachers, especially Imam Ali. Various orders and suborders have appeared and disappeared over the centuries, Dervishes spread into North Africa, Turkey, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Iran, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. Other groups include the Bektashis, who are connected to the janissaries, and the Senussi, other fraternities and subgroups chant verses of the Quran, play drums or whirl in groups, all according to their specific traditions. They practice meditation, as is the case with most of the Sufi orders in South Asia, many of whom owe allegiance to, or were influenced by, each fraternity uses its own garb and methods of acceptance and initiation, some of which may be rather severe. This Dervish army enabled Hassan to carve out a state through conquest of lands claimed by the Somali Sultans, the Ethiopians. The Dervish State acquired renown in the Islamic and Western worlds due to its resistance against Britain, the Dervish State successfully repulsed British-led Somali and Ethiopian forces four times and forced them to retreat to the coastal region. The polity also maintained relations with authorities, receiving support from the Ottoman and German empires. The Turks also named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, the Dervish State was finally defeated by the British in 1920. Various western historical writers have used the term dervish rather loosely, linking it to, among other things
Dervish
–
A dervish in
Tehran
Dervish
–
Dervish with a lion and a tiger,
Mughal painting, c. 1650
Dervish
Dervish
–
A
Pakistani Dervish at
Tulamba (May 2008).
13.
Fakir
–
A fakir, or faqir, derived from faqr is a person who is self-sufficient and only possesses the spiritual need for God. Faqirs are Muslim ascetics and Sufis who have taken vows of poverty and worship, faqirs are characterized by their attachment to dhikr, and asceticism. Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate, the term may refer to a Muslim Sufi ascetic in the Middle East and South Asia. The term has also been used to refer to Hindu. These usages developed primarily in the Mughal era in the Indian subcontinent, there is also a distinct clan of faqirs found in North India, descended from communities of faqirs who took up residence at Sufi shrines. During the 17th century, another noble and spirited Muslim scholar and saint, Sultan Bahoo, revolutionized Sufism and reinstated the definition of faqr, historically, the terms tasawwuf, faqr, and faqer were first used by Husayn ibn Ali, who was the grandson of Muhammad. He wrote a book, Mirat ul Arfeen, on this topic, however, under Ummayad rule, neither could this book be published nor was it allowed to discuss tasawwuf, Sufism or faqr openly. For a long time, after Husayn ibn Ali, the information and teachings of faqr, tasawwuf and Sufism kept on transferring from heart to heart. In the 10th century, highly reputed Muslim Abdul-Qadir Gilani, who is the founder of Qadri silsila, in the 13th century, Ibn Arabi was the first vibrant Muslim scholar who not only started this discussion publicly but also wrote hundreds of books about Sufism, tasawwuf and faqr. In English, faqir or fakir originally meant a mendicant dervish, in mystical usage, the word fakir refers to mans spiritual need for God, who alone is self-sufficient. Although of Muslim origin, the term has come to be applied in India to Hindus as well, largely replacing gosvamin, sadhu, bhikku, fakirs are generally regarded as holy men who are possessed of miraculous powers. Among Muslims, the leading Sufi orders of fakirs are the Chishtiyah, Qadiriyah, Naqshbandiyah, the Cambridge English Dictionary defines faqir as a member of an Islamic religious group, or a holy man. Winston Churchill is known to have referred to the peaceful resistance promoting independence leader of India, Mahatma Gandhi, the attributes of a fakir have been defined by many Muslim saints and scholars, however, some significant definitions from distinguished personalities of Islam are quoted here. One of the most respected and beloved early Muslim saints, Abdul-Qadir Gilani, also elaborated Sufism, tasawwuf, explaining the attributes of a fakir, he says, faqir is not who can not do anything and is nothing in his self-being. But faqir has all the powers and his orders can not be revoked. Then, Ibn Arabi explained Sufism, including faqr, in more details and he wrote more than 500 books on topics relating to Sufism, tasawwuf and faqr. He was the first Muslim scholar who introduced the idea of Wahdat al-wujud, another dignified Muslim saint, Sultan Bahoo, describes a fakir as one who has been entrusted with full authority from Allah. In the same book, Sultan Bahoo says, Faqir attains eternity by dissolving himself in oneness of Allah and he, when, eliminates his-self from other than Allah, his soul reaches to divinity
Fakir
Fakir
–
Photograph of a shrine of a Muslim Sufi fakir,
Sultan Bahoo,
Punjab,
Pakistan
Fakir
–
Emperor
Jahangir receiving a petition from a fakir.
14.
Fana (Sufism)
–
Fanaa is the Sufi term for passing away or annihilation. Fana means to die before one dies and it represents a breaking down of the individual ego
Fana (Sufism)
15.
Haal
–
Haal or ḥāl is a special-purpose, temporary state of consciousness, generally understood to be the product of a Sufis spiritual practices while on his way toward God. A ḥāl is by nature transient and one should not attempt to prolong it and it results from psychological or spiritual influences which affect the man during his progress towards God. Related concepts are ecstasy, annihilation, happiness, despondency, awakening, intoxication and they arise like flashes on the horizon, blinding flashes of lightning which disappear immediately. However, these stages are necessary for the experience of Man, thanks to them he may distinguish the contingent from the consciousness anything. According to Ibn Arabi, Fanaa is the apex of the aḥwāl, since aḥwāl are considered in Sufism to be gifts from God, there is nothing on the part of human beings that can be done to ensure that they are granted, for man is merely the receiver. Yet, unlike material gifts exchanged among men, man cannot do anything to avoid experiencing these special states, no prerequisites have been determined for man to receive any particular ḥāl since it has been noted that even the unreligious occasionally experience states that have been granted by God. The explanation given for this follows from the idea that there is an overabundance of divine grace and, thus. Likewise, those that are in the stages of their spirituality may experience aḥwāl just as much as the more advanced Sufis. When enduring a particular ḥāl, such as that of ecstasy, as well, for the one experiencing a state of ecstasy to be understood, only those that are in a similar state will understand what is being said. This also applies to work, since someone who is viewing a piece of art or reading a particular passage must be in the same ḥāl as the creator was at the time of work’s creation. Failing to do this will result in a lack of understanding between the creator and his audience. For him, once a state has been granted by God, man maintains that state, or condition and his reason for making this claim, however, comes from a hadith given by Muhammad, as well as an explanation of that hadith from Abu Ali ad-Daqqaq. The passage is written as follows, My heart becomes shrouded, in regard to this hadith, I hears Abu Ali ad-Daqqaq, Gods mercy upon him, say, “The prophet was continually rising in his states. When he rose from one condition to a one, he might glance at the condition he has risen beyond. His states were continually being intensified, given this passage from Muhammad, it would appear that Qushayrī is correct in making his claim, but many Sufis still consider each state to come and go like a flash of lightning. Still others would claim that while most aḥwāl are short-lived, the more advanced aḥwāl can remain with man for a period of time. This ḥāl is one in which its receiver can experience a feeling of joy or of fear depending on aspect of God has been revealed to him. There attention towards the salik or student causes the state of estacsy but if someone gets control its more better, a state that is described by its opposites, as the one experiencing it can feel either fear or love, sorrow or joy, or contentment or restlessness
Haal
Haal
16.
Haqiqa
–
Haqiqa is one of the four stages in Sufism, shari’a, tariqa, haqiqa and marifa. Shari’a is Islamic law or Islamic jurisprudence as revealed in the Quran, the first step in Sufism is following every aspect of the law perfectly. The purpose of this is to prove their love for God, by rigorous self-discipline, when the Sufi fully lives his or her life according to the Shari’a he or she is ready to progress to the second stage. This conformity to rules is important because it recognizes that the spirit of a man or woman is affected by the actions of the body. In this way, bringing the body under the will of God also purifies the spirit, in Universal Sufism as practiced in current times, some orders propose an evolution of this concept. Rather than an adherence to Islamic law, the would-be Sufi is enjoined to live a morally sound life based on the universal laws found in the scripture of nature. The central authority is not the Koran per se, but the evident operations of the cosmos, tariqa in Arabic means path and it denotes a Sufi brotherhood or chain or order. The orders are governed by shaykhs, spiritual leaders that mentor Sufis, shaykhs are identified by the signs of Gods grace that are evident, such as the ability to perform miracles. They take on people, usually male, that are committed to the Sufi lifestyle and it is common for the shaykh to test a new disciple by ignoring them, assigning humiliating tasks or being rude to them. When the disciple has passed these tests, he is introduced to the awrad and these prayers must be studied before they are recited, because mistakes made in the prayer are sins. When the disciple has studied and recited the awrad for an amount of time, he is expected to experience visions. Sufis believe that at point the disciple is able to see spiritual things that are veiled from most people. In Universal Sufism, tariqat is the phase during which a seeker becomes increasingly aware of and her spiritual path through life begins to appear more clearly as a palimpsest of views and behavioral options which become available as her consciousness expands. This phase generally ensues after initiation in a Sufi order has been taken, haqiqa is a difficult concept to translate. Haqiqa may be best defined as the knowledge that comes from communion with God, for instance, a shaykh that has advanced through tariqa has haqiqa and can see into the lives of his disciples in a spiritual sense. He has knowledge of pregnancies and sicknesses before his disciples tell him and he can see beyond the physical world because of his proximity to God and possession of haqiqa. Haqiqa is less a stage in itself and more the marker of a level of consciousness. In Universal Sufism, Haqiqat is the phase in which the central ongoing question/concern of the seeker is subsistent reality, the life of the seeker becomes a fathoming device in which what is timeless, formless, weightless etc, is recognized and valued above all
Haqiqa
17.
Ihsan
–
Ihsan, also spelled ehsan, is an Arabic term meaning perfection or excellence. It is a matter of taking ones inner faith and showing it in both deed and action, a sense of social responsibility borne from religious convictions. That definition comes from the Hadith of Gabriel in which Muhammad states, to worship God as though you see Him, Ihsan, meaning to do beautiful things, is one of the three dimensions of the Islamic religion, islam, iman and ihsan. In contrast to the emphases of islam and iman, the concept of ihsan is primarily associated with intention, one who does what is beautiful is called a muhsin. It is generally held that a person can only achieve true ihsan with the help and guidance of God, while traditionally Islamic jurists have concentrated on Islam and theologians on Iman, the Sufis have focused their attention on Ihsan. Ihsan constitutes the highest form of worship and it is excellence in work and in social interactions. For example, ihsan includes sincerity during Muslim prayers and being grateful to parents, family, the Mysteries of Ihsan, Natural Contemplation and the Spiritual Virtues in the Quran by James W. Morris Hadith of Angel Gabriel Hadith #2 from An-Nawawis Forty Hadiths
Ihsan
–
The three dimensions of Islam (
Islam including
Iman including Ihsan.)
18.
Keramat
–
In Islamic mysticism, karamat is the ability to perform supernatural wonders by Muslim saints. It is a thaumaturgic gift akin to miracles. e, muslims who have reached a high rank of piety through proper knowledge of and practice of Islam, and, most important, through the constant zikr, that is, remembrance of Allah. Allah creates karamaat to support the waliyy and it is also believed that attribute of karamat is not only for muslim saints and is not parameter of sainthood. Holy personalities in all religions can perform karamat with some differences, reynold A. Nicholson, Chapter 5 Saints and Miracles of The Mystics of Islam. ISBN 0-941532-48-8 p. 88-104 Trimingham, J. Spencer, ISBN 0-19-501662-9 p. 26-28 Tay al-Ard, the keramat of teleportation. Datuk Keramat, local religion in Malaysia and Singapore
Keramat
Keramat
19.
Kashf
–
Kashf unveiling is a Sufi concept rooted in Gnostic ideals dealing with knowledge of the heart rather than of the intellect. Kashf describes the state of experiencing a divine revelation after ascending through spiritual struggles. Kashf is etymologically related to mukashafa “disclosure”/ “divine irradiation of the essence”, in Sufism, an even further revelatory capacity exists by which the Divine mysteries become readily apparent to the seeker through the light of knowledge of God. This is called tajalli manifestation. ’ The Imminent is imminent, the verb “kashafa, ” but never the noun “kashf” occurs in the Quran a variety of times in the sense of either “to uncover” or “to take away”. The nearest of creatures to God are Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael, and between them and Him are four veils, a veil of fire, a veil of darkness, a veil of cloud, and a veil of water. Al-Kushayri expands on al-Kalabadhi’s proposal that tajalli of “the essence” of the Divine is called mukashafa and he then illustrates three stages in progression towards understanding the Real, Muhadara—getting oneself into position vis-à-vis the objective sought. The objective remains veiled at this stage and this stage presupposes the presence of the heart, but relies on transmission of proof through the intellect. Here reasoning gives way to evident proof, one directly encounters the Attributes of God. Yet, this stage is considered an intermediary stage. This stage indicates an encounter with The Real, without the intellect OR the intuition acting as an intermediary. This is direct experience of the Divine Essence, al-Ghazali—This Sufi scholar discusses the concept of kashf, not purely in its mystical sense, but also with respect to theology in general. In conjunction with Al-Kushayri, Al-Ghazali links kashf with intuition, for Al-Ghazali, mukashafa has a dual sense, It indicates an inner state of purification, which is subjective and brought about by “unveiling” or kashf. It describes the objective truths that are revealed through the “unveiling”/kashf, since, for Al-Ghazali, kashf is linked to intuition, he describes mukashafa as the certain knowledge of the unseen discovered by the “science of the saints”. Ibn Arabi—This Sufi mystic indicates the necessity for “divine unveiling” as the means by which to understand the universality of the reality of realities, in fana, the individual ego passes away and divine self-manifestation occurs. This self-manifestation is eternal, but it must be continually reenacted by the human in time, therefore, the human becomes a pure receptor required for pure consciousness to be realized. The human is a sort of barzakh or intermediary between divinity and elementality, between spirit and matter, and open to the experience of kashf, in his text, Hujwiri describes the “veils which should be lifted” in order to purify ones heart and really pursue Sufism. Hujwiri argues for the importance of “morals” over “formal practice” in Sufism and he was the first to directly address the problematic diversity in Muslim belief during his time. In Kashf ul Mahjoob, he describes various Sufi approaches to theoretical ideas, in Shi’ism, the spiritual experience of kashf is treated as a theological rather than purely mystical dimension. ”The Ismalis define “cycles of metahistory” which alternate between phases of “unveiling” and “occultation”
Kashf
20.
Lataif-e-sitta
–
These six subtleties are thought to be parts of the self in a similar manner to the way glands and organs are part of the body. Drawing from the Quran, many Sufis distinguish Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi, among Sufis spiritual development involves awakening centers of perception that lie dormant in every person. The help of a guide is considered necessary to activate them in a certain order. Each center is associated with a color, a general area of the body. Activation of all these centers is part of the methodology of the Sufi way or Work. According to some, this latifa is located slightly below the navel, the word nafs is usually translated as self or psyche. Its etymology is rooted in breath and is common to virtually all archaic psychologies where the act of breathing was connected with life, ego may be assumed as an equivalent for Nafs in modern psychology. The central aim of the Sufi path is transformation of Nafs from its state of ego-centredness through various psycho-spiritual stages to the purity. In essence, this is almost identical to Christian paradigm of vita purgativa, according to some, this latifa is located in the left of Chest and is yellow, for others it is red. In it man witnesses his deeds, by awakening it man also gets the knowledge of the realm of Jins. The word Qalb, stands for heart, in Sufi terminology, this spiritual heart is again variously described. For some, it is the seat of beatific vision, others consider it the gate of Ishq or Divine love. Yet, for the majority, it is the battleground of two warring armies, those of Nafs and Ruh or spirit, in short, cleansing of the Qalb or heart is a necessary spiritual discipline for travellers on the Sufi path. The term for this process is Tazkiah-I-Qalb and the aim is the erasure of everything that stands in the way of purifying Gods love or Ishq, often people take their hearts word as truthful. If the hearts were indeed truthful, then why are not all the people of the heart united, Qalb of the common folk is in a sleeping or unconscious state, and does not possess any awareness or correct understanding. This heart can err in judgement due to the dominance of the Self and Khannas, placing trust in a sleeping heart is foolish. When the Name Allah does vibrate in the heart, an awareness of Right and Wrong and it is then called Qalb-e Salim. Then the prominence of the meditation by Qalb changes its direction towards God and this heart can prevent a person from mischief, but it can not make a right judgement
Lataif-e-sitta
Lataif-e-sitta
21.
Manzil
–
For the convenience of people who wish to read the Quran in a week the text may be divided into 7 portions, each portion is known as Manzil. The following division to 7 equal portions is by Hamza Al-Zayyat, al-Maida through At-Tawba consisting of 5 surahs. Yunus through An-Nahl consisting of 7 surahs, al Isra through Al-Furqan consisting of 9 surahs. Ash-Shuara through Ya-Seen consisting of 11 surahs, as-Saaffat through Al-Hujarat consisting of 13 surahs. Qaf through An-Nass consisting of 65 surahs
Manzil
–
Quran
22.
Marifa
–
In Sufism, marifa describes the mystical intuitive knowledge of spiritual truth reached through ecstatic experiences, rather than revealed or rationally acquired. Marifat is one of the Four Doors of Sufism, Sharia, marifa, mystical knowledge & awareness, mysticism. A metaphor to explain the meaning of marifa involves pearl gathering, Sharia is the boat, tariqa is represented by the pearl gatherers rowing, haqiqa is the pearl, and marifa is the ability to tell the difference between true and false pearls
Marifa
23.
Nafs
–
Nafs is an Arabic word occurring in the Quran and means self, psyche ego or soul. Much of the literature on nafs, however, is focused on the Sufi conceptions of the term. According to the Sufi philosophies, the nafs in its state is the ego. Nafs is an important concept in the Islamic tradition, especially within Sufism, the Quran affords much importance to the nafs of an individual, highlighting the agency of free will and intelligence, without which neither responsibility nor accountability can exist. Iqbal stated, It is probable that Nietzsche borrowed it from the literature of Islam or of the East and degraded it by his materialism. There are three stages of nafs in Sufi philosophy, just as there are three types of soul in Platos tripartite theory of soul from which the Sufis borrowed the basic concept. The Sufis call them stages in the process of development, refinement, in its primitive stage the nafs incites us to commit evil, this is the nafs as the lower self, the base instincts. In the eponymous Sura of the Quran, Yusuf says Yet I claim not that my nafs was innocent, Islam emphasizes the importance of fighting the inciting nafs in Quran as well as in hadith. One tradition holds that Muhammad said after returning from a war and his companions asked, O prophet of God, what is the big struggle. He replied, The struggle against nafs and this stage is generally divided into the levels al nafs al-hayawaniyya und al nafs al-iblissiyya. Al nafs al-hayawaniyya describes the self, which runs after material possessesion, sensual desires, al nafs al-iblissiyya is even lower than the animal state, because the self seeks to replace God in the love for itselves. The Quran enjoins the faithful to hinder the nafs from lust, rumi warns of the nafs in its guise of religious hypocrisy, saying the nafs has a rosary and a Koran in its right hand, and a scimitar and dagger in the sleeve. Animal imagery is used to describe the nafs. A popular image is a donkey or unruly horse that must be trained, rumi compares the nafs to a camel that the hero Majnun, representing the intellect, strains to turn in the direction of the dwelling-place of his beloved. In Sura al-Qiyama the Quran mentions the self-accusing nafs and this is the stage where the conscience is awakened and the self accuses one for listening to one’s ego. One repents and asks for forgiveness, here the nafs is inspired by your heart, sees the results of your actions, agrees with your brain, sees your weaknesses, and aspires to perfection. In Sura al-Fajr the Quran mentions the nafs at peace and this is the ideal stage of ego for Muslims. On this level one is firm in faith and leaves bad manners behind
Nafs
Nafs
24.
Qalandar
–
Qalandars, are wandering ascetic Sufi dervishes who may or may not be connected to a specific tariqat. They were mostly in Central Asia, India and Pakistan, in the latter qalandar is also used as a title, some famous qalandars include Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, Bu Ali Shah Qalandar and Shams Ali Qalandar. A qalandar is a person who has excelled in seeing things and he witnesses part in the whole and sees the whole in the part and, then, after detaching himself from all this, plunges into a state of ecstasy. The status of a qalandar is even higher than the loved ones because duality remains there even in state, i. e. one is the loved one. In qalanderiyat there is no duality, Qalandar is a title given to a saint who is at a very high level of spirituality. They are different from other saints and have strong feelings of love for Gods creation. Qalandars, among the saints, are persons who may enjoy freedom from the ties and bounds of time. It is claimed that all living things are given in their charge and command, every part of the universe may be at their disposal but these people are far above temptation. When people request them they feel duty-bound to listen and rectify the cause of miseries of people because they have been appointed by God for this very purpose. Qalandars have always spread the message of love and humanity, they are always in the state of ecstasy, songs honoring famous qalandars are called qalandri dhamaal in Pakistan and India. Dhamaal are a popular South Asian musical subgenre about Sufi saints such as Lal Shahbaz Qalandar and these songs typically incorporate qawwali styles as well as different local folk styles, such as bhangra and intense naqareh or dhol drumming. The Qalandariyya were an unorthodox tariqa of roaming Sufi dervishes that originated in medieval al-Andalus as an answer to the fundamentalist onslaught of the Almohad Caliphate, from there they quickly spread into North Africa, the Mashriq, Greater Iran, Central Asia, Pakistan and India. Dervish Fakir Qalandar Qalandariyah Lal Shahbaz Qalander Mast Qalandar Rabia Basri Tando Jahania Sadhu Ewing, arguing Sainthood, Modernity, Psychoanalysis, and Islam. Durham, North Carolina, Duke University Press
Qalandar
Qalandar
–
The tomb of
Lal Shahbaz Qalandar at
Sehwan Shareef,
Sindh, Pakistan
25.
Qutb
–
Qutb, Qutub, Kutb, Kutub, or Kotb, means axis, pivot or pole. Qutb can refer to movements and used as an astronomical term or a spiritual symbol. In Sufism, a Qutb is the human being, al-insān al-kāmil. The Qutb is the Sufi spiritual leader that has a connection with God and passes knowledge on which makes him central to, or the axis of, Sufism. There are five Qutbs per era and they are infallible and trusted spiritual leaders and they are only revealed to a select group of mystics because there is a human need for direct knowledge of God. In the teachings of Al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi, there is evidence to suggest that the Qutb is the head of the saintly hierarchy which provides evidence to support the belief in the qutb. The hadīth attributed to Ibn Mas‘ūd has been used as proof that a qutb exists and this hadīth was called into question for its reliability of the sanad and was discarded by MuhammadRashīd Ridā. There are two different conceptions of the Qutb in Sufism, temporal Qutb and cosmic Qutb, the temporal and cosmic qutb are connected which guarantees that God is present in the world at all times. The temporal qutb is known as the helper or al-ghawth and is located in a person on Earth, the cosmic qutb is manifested in the temporal qutb as a virtue which can be traced back to al-Hallādj. The temporal qutb is the leader for the earth-bound saints. It is said that all beings - secret, animate, the only beings exempt from this are al-afrād, which belong to the angels, the djinn, who are under the jurisdiction of Khadir, and those who belong to the tenth stratum of ridjālal-ghayb. Due to the nature of the Qutb, the location where he resides and it is thought by most that the Qutb is corporeally or spiritually present in Mecca at the Kaba, which is referred to as his maqām. The cosmic Qutb is the Axis of the Universe in a dimension from which originates the power of the temporal Qutb. The cosmic hierarchy is the way that the power is ensured to exist through the cosmos. Two descriptions of the come from notable Sufis. The first is Ali Hujwiris divine court, there are three hundred akhyār, forty abdāl, seven abrār, four awtād three nuqabā and one qutb. The second version is Ibn Arabī’s which has a different, more exclusive structure, there are eight nujabā, twelve nuqabā, seven abdāl, four awtād, two a’immah, and the qutb. For those named Qutb ad-Din, with many variant transliterations, see Qutb ad-Din
Qutb
26.
Silsila
–
Silsila is an Arabic word meaning chain, link, connection often used in various senses of lineage. In particular, it may be translated as order or spiritual genealogy where one Sufi Master transfers his khilfat to his spiritual descendant, silsilas originated with the initiation of Sufi orders which dates back to the Islamic prophet Mohammad. Most silsilas trace their lineage back to his cousin and son-in-law Ali bin Abi Talib such as the Qadiriyyah, the Chishtiyya, however, other silsilas owe their ancestry to other caliphs such as the Naqshbandiyyah order of South Asia is through the Caliph Abu Bakr. Centuries ago, Arabia did not have schools for formal education, students went to masters who taught them. Upon completion of their study, they received ijazah which acted as the certification of their education, a graduate then acted as a master having his own students or disciples. This chain of masters was known as Silsila or lineage, the shaikh gives his disciples permission to practice the tariqa, he may also authorise one or more of them to teach it to others, i. e. appoint them as his khalîfa. In this way a hierarchically ordered network of teachers may emerge, each shaikh can show a chain of authorities for the tarekat he teaches, his silsila or spiritual genealogy. Usually the silsila reaches back from ones own teacher up to the Prophet, a Sufis silsila is his badge of identity and source of legitimation, it provides him with a list of illustrious predecessors and shows how he is related to other Sufis. Silsila can be of a partial knowledge or a book as well, all Hafiz, Muhaddiths, Qaries are given a chain of credible narrators linking to the Islamic prophet Mohammad. For Muslims, the Chain of Authenticity is an important way to ascertain the validity of a saying of Mohammad, the Chain of Authenticity relates the chain of people who have heard and repeated the saying of Mohammad through the generations, until that particular Hadith was written down. A similar idea appears in Sufism in regards to the lineage and teachings of Sufi masters and this string of master to student is called a silsila, literally meaning “chain”. The focus of the silsila like the Chain of Authenticity is to trace the lineage of a Sufi order to Mohammad through his Companions, Ali bin Abi Talib, Abu Bakr, and Umar. When a Sufi order can be traced back to Mohammad through one of the three aforementioned Companions the lineage is called the Silsilat al-Dhahab or the “Chain of Gold”. In early Islamic history, gold was a desired prize and was used for currency, to show wealth and power. Thus, gold was the most desired commodity in the material world and this often included removing oneself from society and other people in general. As Sufism became a movement in Islam, individual Sufis began to group together. These groups were based on a common master and this common master then began spiritual lineage, which is a connection between a Sufi order in which there is a common spiritual heritage based on the master’s teachings called tariq or tariqah. As the number of Sufi orders grew, there arose a need for legitimacy of the orders to each order was following the teachings of Mohammad directly
Silsila
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A silsilah tablet in Yu Baba
Gongbei in
Linxia City
Silsila
27.
Sufi cosmology
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Sufi cosmology is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with Sufism. It is a Sufi approach which discusses the creation of man and the universe and these stages are also termed as “Tanzalat-e-Satta. Many saints have explained these Tanzalat-e-Satta in their books, abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi has discussed them in his Arabic book called Tohfa Mursala. They are also discussed in the exegesis of Fusoos-ul-Hikam, a book by Ibn Arabi, alam-i-HaHoot, The level of HaHoot refers to HaHooiyat. It is an Arabic term which pertains to the Divines Essence prior to manifestation, the spiritual stage related to it is called Ahdiyat. This is the Realm of pre-existence and a level of non creation, according to sufis, this state of Ahdiyat is incapable of being conceived, incapable of interpretation and is beyond all logical bounds. At this stage Allah is all alone and hidden in his own veil, nothing exists here, neither the universe nor the creation. Here the Zaat and neither His attributes are revealed or manifested, alam-i-Yahoot, The spiritual stage pertaining to YaHoot is referred to as Wahdat. YaHoot is the first level of manifestation of Hoo, when the Divine Essence desired to manifest, He manifested Himself in the form of Noor-e-Mohammad. Since YaHoot is a world of Oneness, so it clarifies that Noor of Mohammad is a manifestation of God’s Essence and is not a separate entity and this is the first step towards Divine descent. The creation has not started yet, here Hoo is called Allah which in Arabic means the worshippable one, because there is a being in the form of Noor of Mohammad who worships Allah. And the level is called yaHoot because there is an entity who would address Hoo as YaHoo, alam-i-LaHoot, The world of LaHoot is related to the level of Wahdiyat. Here the soul of Mohammad is manifested from the Noor of Mohammad, since this is a world of Unity so at this level Noor of Allah and Noor of Mohammad are in the same form. Therefore, the soul of Mohammad is in fact the soul of Allah called Rooh-e-Qudsi, at this level the whole universe and its creation is hidden in Noor-e-Mohammad and is anxious to manifest itself. The above three levels are the levels of Unity and non-creation, the presence of Hoo in HaHoot, YaHoot and LaHoot indicates Absolute Unity. The creation takes place in the levels of Jabrut, Malakut and Nasut. Alam-i-Jabrut, Jabrut is an Arabic term which means bridge or anything that connects two things and it is called Jabrut because it connects the above three levels of non-creation and the coming levels of creation. The level of Jabrut is related to the level of creation of souls of human beings, here Allah created the souls of human beings from Rooh-e-Qudsi
Sufi cosmology
28.
Sufi metaphysics
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Major ideas in Sufi metaphysics have surrounded the concept of waḥdah meaning unity, or in Arabic توحيد tawhid. Two main Sufi philosophies prevail on this topic, Waḥdat al-wujūd literally means the Unity of Existence or Unity of Being. On the other hand, waḥdat ash-shuhūd, meaning Apparentism or Unity of Witness, holds that God, after that, the mystical thinker and theologian Abu Saeed Mubarak Makhzoomi discussed this concept in his book called Tohfa Mursala. An Andalusian Sufi saint Ibn Sabin is also known to employ this term in his writings, but the Sufi saint who is most characterized in discussing the ideology of Sufi metaphysics in deepest details is Ibn Arabi. He employs the term wujud to refer to God as the Necessary Being and he also attributes the term to everything other than God, but he insists that wujud does not belong to the things found in the cosmos in any real sense. Rather, the things borrow wujud from God, much as the earth borrow light from the sun, the issue is how wujūd can rightfully be attributed to the things, also called entities. From the perspective of tanzih, Ibn Arabi declares that wujūd belongs to God alone, and, in his famous phrase, from the point of view of tasbih, he affirms that all things are wujūd’s self-disclosure or self-manifestation. In sum, all things are He/not He, which is to say that they are both God and other than God, both wujud and other than wujud, in his book Fasus –al-Hikam, Ibn-e-Arabi states that wujūd is the unknowable and inaccessible ground of everything that exists. God alone is true wujūd, while all things dwell in nonexistence, so also wujūd alone is nondelimited, while everything else is constrained, confined, wujūd is the absolute, infinite, nondelimited reality of God, while all others remain relative, finite, and delimited. Ibn Arabi’s doctrine of wahdat ul wujud focuses on the reality of creatures instead of exoteric dimension of reality. Therefore he interprets that wujud is one and unique reality from which all reality derives, the external world of sensible objects is but a fleeting shadow of the Real, God. God alone is the all embracing and eternal reality, whatever exists is the shadow of the Real and is not independent of God. This is summed up in Ibn Arabi’s own words, glory to Him who created all things, being Himself their very essence To call wujud or Real Being one is to speak of the unity of the Essence. In other terms, it is to say that Being—Light in itself—is nondelimited, in contrast, everything other than Being—every existent thing —is distinct, defined, and limited. The Real is incomparable and transcendent, but it itself in all things, so it is also similar. It possesses such utter nondelimitation that it is not delimited by nondelimitation, God possesses Nondelimited Being, but no delimitation prevents Him from delimitation. In this sense, wujūd designates the Essence of God or of the Real, on lower levels, wujūd is the underlying substance of everything other than God —which is how Ibn Arabi and others define the cosmos or universe. Hence, in a meaning, the term wujūd is used as shorthand to refer to the whole cosmos
Sufi metaphysics
29.
Sufi poetry
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Sufi poetry has been written in many languages, both for private devotional reading and as lyrics for music played during worship, or dhikr. In Punjab, Sindh and other provinces of India Sufi poetry played a role in maintaining communal harmony in turbulent times. Sufi poetry in most of the languages and vernaculars of India, by the nobility of its pious feelings. Sufi poetry has bestowed a remarkable legacy of communal harmony for posterity, SUFISM by R. M. Chopra,2016, Anuradha Prakashan, New Delhi
Sufi poetry
30.
Sufi psychology
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There are three central ideas in Sufi Islamic psychology, which are the Nafs, the Qalb and the Ruh. The origin and basis of terms is Quranic and they have been expounded upon by centuries of Sufic commentaries. Nafs is considered to be the lowest principle of man, higher than the nafs is the Qalb, and the Ruh. This tripartition forms the foundation of later, more complicated systems, bayezid Bistami, Hakīm at-Tirmidhī, and Junayd have followed this tripartition. Kharrāz, however, inserts between nafs and qalb the element tab, nature, the functions of man. The spiritual body was created in adult form of the living body, the Sufis often add the element of sirr, the innermost part of the heart in which the divine revelation is experienced. Then he imprisoned the conscience in the spirit and the spirit in the heart, then He tested them and sent prophets, and then each began to seek its own station. The body occupied itself with prayer, the heart attained to love, the arrived at proximity to its Lord. Nafs is the aspect of the psyche that can be viewed along a continuum, the self at its lowest level refers to our negative traits and tendencies, controlled by emotions, desires and its gratification. Sufic psychology identifies seven levels of the nafs, which have identified in the Quran. The process of growth depends on working through these levels and these are, tyrannical self, regretful self, inspired self, serene self, pleased self, pleasing self and the pure self. In Sufi psychology the heart refers to the heart or qalb. It is this spiritual heart that contains the deeper intelligence and wisdom and it holds the Divine spark or spirit and is the place of gnosis and deep spiritual knowledge. Just as the physical heart supplies blood to the body, the spiritual heart nourishes the soul with wisdom and spiritual light, according to Sufic psychology emotions are from the self or nafs, not from the heart. The qalb mediates between the Nafs and spirit and its task is control the nafs and direct the man toward the spirit. The spirit ruh is in connection with the Divine, even if one is unconscious of that connection. The spirit has seven levels or facets of the complete spirit and these levels are, mineral, vegetable, animal, personal, human, secret and secret of secret souls. Each level represents the stages of evolution, and the process that it goes through in its growth, the spirit is holistic, and extends to all aspects of the person, i. e. the body, the mind and the soul
Sufi psychology
31.
Tazkiah
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Tazkiah is an Arabic-Islamic term alluding to tazkiyah al-nafs meaning purification of the self. This refers to the process of transforming the nafs from its state of ego-centrality through various spiritual stages towards the level of purity. Tazkiah originally meant pruning the plant – to remove what is harmful for its growth, when the term is applied to the human personality, it means to beautify it and to remove from it all evil traces and spiritual diseases that are obstacles in experiencing Allah. In Islam, the objective of religion and shariah and the real purpose of raising prophets from among mankind was performing and teaching tazkiah. Literally the term encompasses two meanings, one is to cleanse and purify from adulterants, while the other is to improve and develop towards the height of perfection. Technically it conveys the sense of checking oneself from erroneous tendencies and beliefs and turning them to the path of virtue and piety, the word zakat comes from the same Arabic verbal root, since zakat purifies an individuals wealth by recognition of Allahs right over a portion of it. It finds its origin in the Quranic command to, Take sadaqah from their property in order to purify and sanctify them, the soul is created devoid of traits. As one progresses through life he develops malakat related to his lifestyle, the soul becomes accustomed to repeated behavior, which then determines actions. Noble faculties manifest moral and wise behavior, while evil faculties manifest immorality and these faculties determine the fate in the akhira. Moral virtues bring eternal happiness and well-bring, while moral corruption leads to everlasting wretchedness, man must purge blameworthy traits before he can integrate ethical and moral virtues. According to the ulema, obtainment of falaḥ in this life, similarly, Allah says in sura as-shuara, On that Day, neither wealth nor children will be of any benefit, only he who comes before Allah with a sound heart free of evil. Thus, the people who will be saved from punishment on the Day of Judgment are those possessing qulub salīma. The phrase salīm is related to the word aslama because Islam is moving towards that state of soundness, attempts to obey Gods commands are successful only when one is purified, then the soul can receive Gods unlimited grace. The hadith of the Prophet Muhammad, does not refer to outward cleanliness alone and they said, And what is the greater jihad. He replied, The striving of Allahs servants against their idle desires, when some Sufi masters were asked about the meaning of Islam, they answered, slaughtering the soul by the swords of opposition. The famous Sufi master Mawlana Jalal al-Din al-Rumi has argued that the constant struggle against nafs is jihad al-akbar, to attain perfection, it is necessary to struggle against lusts and immoral tendencies, and prepare the soul to receive Gods grace. If man travels the path of purification, God will aid, the level of human perfection is determined by discipline and effort. Man stands between two extremes, the lowest is below beasts and the highest surpasses the angels, movement between these extremes is discussed by ilm al-akhlaq or the science of ethics
Tazkiah
32.
Yaqeen
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Yaqeen is generally translated as certainty, and is considered the summit of the many stations by which the path of walaya is fully completed. This is the repository of liberating experience in Islam and it is, in fact, ihsân which gives the external religion its true meaning and the domain of faith its real values. It occurs in the Quran about certainty, And worship your Lord until there comes to you the certainty, the first degree is referred to by the name ‘ilm-ul-yaqeen, which means that certainty is the result of knowledge. At this degree the object of certainty is knowledge just as the aim of knowledge is certainty, both together are in the soul uniquely, such that certainty is the first degree of spiritual life and the last of speculative experience. This particular degree of yaqeen is the result of divine theophanies in act at the level of existence. The second degree of yaqeen is what one calls in Sufi terms ayn-ul-yaqeen, at this level, the object of certainty is present in front of the gnostic and is not only a speculative concept. Here knowledge becomes what one calls ilm-e-huzuri’’, and that is the aspect of Certainty in the spiritual way. By this kind of knowledge, the man of the Way is distinguished from philosophers, finally, the last degree of yaqeen is called haqq-ul-yaqeen, that is, certainty as supreme truth. At this stage, in fact, knowledge is not limited to the intellect and this is the final phase of yaqeen, the apotheosis of the spiritual and intellectual journey. Theophanies and Lights in the Thought of Ibn Arabi
Yaqeen
33.
Nasheed
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A nasheed is a work of vocal music that is either sung a cappella or accompanied by percussion instruments such as the daf. This is because many Muslim scholars state that Islam prohibits the use of musical instruments except for some basic percussion, anasheed are popular throughout the Islamic world. The material and lyrics of a nasheed usually make reference to Islamic beliefs, history, some Ulama argue that the use of musical instruments is implicitly prohibited in the Ahadith. The founders of all four of the major madhabs – schools of thought in Islam – as well as other prominent scholars, have debated the legitimacy. Another Islamic scholar, Ibn Taymiyyah, once said that music is like alcohol to the soul, a majority of Muslim scholars traditionally have held that at least some music with some of its instruments are Haraam, sinful by the hadith, as well as by tradition. There are, of course, those who reject such claims, citing revealed scriptures, earlier prophets, and the example of Mohammed in the appreciation of the musical arts. Allah will destroy them during the night and will let the mountain fall on them, however, the isnad of this hadith includes Hisham ibn Ammar, who is not considered trustworthy. A new generation of nasheed artists use a variety of musical instruments in their art. Many new nasheed artists are non-Arabs and sing in different languages, some nasheed bands are Native Deen, Outlandish and Raihan. Arabic nasheed artists – or Munshids – include Abu Mazen, Abu Rateb, Abu Al joud, thibon, Jean-Jacques, Inshad, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture, An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God, Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO,2014, Vol. I, pp. 294–298
Nasheed
34.
Dhikr
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For the Quranic software, see Zekr. Dhikr (also Zikr, Zekr, and variants, is the name of devotional acts in Islam in which short phrases or prayers are repeatedly recited silently within the mind or aloud. Rarely, it is counted on a string of beads or a set of prayer beads, a person who recites the Dhikr is called a ḏākir. Tasbih is a form of dhikr that involves the repetitive utterances of short sentences glorifying God, the content of the prayers includes the names of God, or a duʿāʾ taken from the hadith or the Quran. There are several verses in the Quran that emphasize the importance of remembering the will of God by saying such as God willing, God knows best. This is the basis for dhikr, Sura 18, ayah 24 states a person who forgets to say, God Willing, should immediately remember God by saying, May my Lord guide me to do better next time. Other verses include sura 33, ayah 41, O ye who believe, celebrate the praises of Allah, and do this often, and sura 13, ayah 28, They are the ones whose hearts rejoice in remembering God. Absolutely, by remembering God, the hearts rejoice, Muhammad said, The best is La ilaha illa’llah, and the best supplicatory prayer is Al-hamdu li’llah. Muslims believe dhikr is one of the best ways to enter in the level of Heaven. To Sufis, dhikr is seen as a way to spiritual enlightenment. All Muslim sects endorse individual rosaries as a method of meditation, the goal of which is to obtain a feeling of peace, separation from worldly values, there are several phrases that are usually read when remembering Allah. Here are a few, Allah- الله is the name of God in Arabic, a similar version is Laa hawla wa laa quwwata illaa billaahil aleeul atheem. Laa ilaaha illal laahu wahdahoo laa sharikalahoo lahul mulku wa lahul hamdu wa huwa alaa kulli shaiin qadeer, SubhanAllahi wa biHamdihi, Subhan-Allahi l-adheem Some of these can be said together. e. g- SubhanAllahi wal hamdulillaahi wa laa ilaaha ilallaahu wAllahu Akbar. SubhanAllahi wal hamdulillaahi wa laa ilaaha ilallaahu wAllahu Akbar wa laa hawla wa laa quwwata illaa billaahil aleeul azeem, Laa ilaaha illal laahu wahdahoo laa sharikalahoo lahul mulku wa lahul hamdu wa huwa alaa kulli shaiin qadeer. SubhanAllahi wal hamdulillaahi wa laa ilaaha ilallaahu wAllahu Akbar wa laa hawla wa laa quwwata illaa billaahil aleeul azeem, Laa ilaaha illa Anta, subhaanaka inni kuntu min al-zaalimeen. Reciting the Quran sincerely is also considered a kind of Dhikr, E. g. - Reciting Sura Ikhlas / Tawheed is equal to one-third of the Quran. Reciting Sura Ikhlas 10 times gives a palace in Heaven, Reciting Sura Kaafiroon is equal to one-fourth of the Quran. Reciting Sura Nasr is equal to one-fourth of the Quran, Reciting Sura Zilzalah is equal to half of the Quran
Dhikr
35.
Sama (Sufism)
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Sama is a Sufi ceremony performed as dhikr. Sama means listening, while dhikr means remembrance and these rituals often includes singing, playing instruments, dancing, recitation of poetry and prayers, wearing symbolic attire, and other rituals. It is a popular form of worship in the Chishti order of the Indian subcontinent. In 2008, UNESCO confirmed the The Mevlevi Sama Ceremony of Turkey as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and this term stems from the root-verb meaning acceptance by tradition, from which derives the words سَمْع and اِسْتِمَاع, often paired with نَقْل and تَقْلِيد. It may have been in use since the 10th century to refer to a type of dhikr, a spiritual concert and it often involves prayer, song and dance. The origination of Sama is credited to Rumi, Sufi master, the story of the creation of this unique form of dhikr is that Rumi was walking through the town marketplace one day when he heard the rhythmic hammering of the goldbeaters. With that the practice of Sama and the dervishes of the Mevlevi order were born, the sama has roots in Persian pre-Islamic culture, specially in middle Dassanid era. and is associated with Indian traditions. Abu Said, was born in Mayhana, a town near Sarakhs and he is noted for establishing a rule for conduct in the khanqah and also for the introduction of music, poetry and dance, as part of the Sufi collective devotional ritual of dhikr. The Whirling Dervishes of the Mevlevi order are probably the best-known practitioners of Sama, Mevlevi practitioners of sema are adult initiates into the order, which historically only meant men. Participants move as a group in a circle while turning each individually. Sema is prominent in the ceremonies of the Alevi community of Turkey, the most common forms of Alevi sema include kirklar semahı and turnalar semahı. They are performed by male and female teenagers, often in mixed groups, and participants turn facing each other in pairs or small groups. Many cemeviler have organized groups that perform at events such as the annual Hacı Bektaş Veli Festival. In Egypt, the Mevlevi form of Sama is known as tannoura and has been adopted by other Sufi orders as well and it is also performed as a folk and concert dance. The Sama represents a journey of mans spiritual ascent through mind. Turning towards the truth, the follower grows through love, deserts his ego, finds the truth and arrives at perfection. He then returns from this journey as a man who has reached maturity. Rumi has said in reference to Sama, For them it is the Sama of this world, even more for the circle of dancers within the Sama who turn and have in their midst, their own Kaaba
Sama (Sufism)
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Whirling Dervishes in
Istanbul,
Turkey
Sama (Sufism)
Sama (Sufism)
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Aka polyphony
36.
Sufi whirling
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It is a customary meditation practice performed within the Sema, or worship ceremony, through which dervishes aim to reach the source of all perfection, or kemal. The Mevlevi practice gave rise to an Egyptian form, tanoura and this has also developed into a performance dance by non-Sufis, including dancers outside the Islamic world. A member of such a fraternity is referred to as a Persian darwish and these turuk were responsible for organizing an Islamic expression of religious life, often founded by independent saints or resulted from the division of existing orders. Each Sufi tariqa stems from a unique silsila, or chain of order in which a member must learn, ones silsila extends through the members individual teacher, to their teacher and so on, through time until one is connected to the Prophet and thus Allah. The Prophet himself is revered as the originator of Sufism, which has in turn been traced down through a series of saints, a dervish practices multiple rituals, the primary of which is the dhikr, a remembering of Allah. The dhikr involves recitation of devotional Islamic prayer and this dhikr is coupled with physical exertions of movement, specifically dancing and whirling, in order to reach a state assumed by outsiders to be one of ecstatic trances. As explained by Sufis, In the symbolism of the Sema ritual, by removing his black cloak, he is spiritually reborn to the truth. At the beginning of the Sema, by holding his arms crosswise, the semazen appears to represent the number one, thus testifying to Gods unity. While whirling, his arms are open, his arm is directed to the sky, ready to receive Gods beneficence, his left hand. The semazen conveys Gods spiritual gift to those who are witnessing the Sema, revolving from right to left around the heart, the semazen embraces all humanity with love. The human being has been created with love in order to love, mevlâna Jalâluddîn Rumi says, All loves are a bridge to Divine love. Yet, those who have not had a taste of it do not know, as the ritual dance begins, the dervish dons a felt cap, a sikke, in addition to a turban wrapped around the head, a trademark of the Mevlevi order. The sheikh leads the ritual with strict regulations, to begin, The sheikh stands in the most honored corner of the dancing place, and the dervishes pass by him three times, each time exchanging greetings, until the circling movement starts. The rotation itself is on the foot, the center of the rotation being the ball of the left foot. The impetus for the rotation is provided by the right foot, the Western world, having witnessed Sufi whirling through tourism, have described the various forms of dhikr as barking, howling, dancing, etc. The practice of each tariqa is unique to its order, specific traditions. The same tariqa in one country will not mirror that of country as each orders ritual stresses emotional religious life in various forms. The Mevleviyah order, like others, practice the dhikr by performing a whirling meditation
Sufi whirling
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Whirling Dervishes, at Rumi Fest 2007.
Sufi whirling
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Mevlevi dervishes whirling in
Pera by
Jean-Baptiste van Mour
Sufi whirling
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Whirling Dervishes
Sufi whirling
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Turkish
whirling dervishes of
Mevlevi Order, bowing in unison during the Sema ceremony
37.
Ziyarat
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Sites of pilgrimage include mosques, graves, battlefields, mountains, and caves. Ziyārat can also refer to a form of supplication made by the Shia, in which they send salutations and greetings to Muhammad, different Muslim-majority countries, speaking many different languages, use different words for these sites where ziyarat is performed. Sufi places of worship and retreat may be built near the graves of famous Sufi Saints, Ziyarat comes from Arabic, زور to visit. Iranian and south-Asian Muslims use the word ziyarat for both the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca as well as for pilgrimages to other such as visiting a holy place. In Indonesia the term is ziarah for visiting holy places or graves, some Sunni scholars such as Ibn Taymiyyah, have also rejected the notion that such things are innovations. It is popular Shii belief that to be buried near the place of the Imams is beneficial. In Shii sacred texts it is stated that the time between death and resurrection should be spent near the Imams, Hajj Imamzadeh List of ziyarat locations Tablet of Visitation Jamiah kabirah Ziyarat Privratsky, Bruce G. Muslim Turkistan, Kazak Religion and Collective Memory. The cult of holy places, religious practices among Soviet Muslims
Ziyarat
Ziyarat
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Carrying corpses to the Holy Shrines, Persia, 19th century.
38.
Alians
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The Alians in Turkish Alyanlar, are a Shia order, similar to the Sufi Mevlevi, who live in several regions of Bulgaria. Alians revere Ali ibn Abi Talib, son-in-law and first cousin of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and they follow the mystical rituals of the wandering dervishes. The Alians are similar but not the same as Alevi, because the Alians believed to be descendants of Imam Alis son Abbas ibn Ali and Umm ul-Banin. Other Muslims view Alians as ghulat, because of their views about imam Ali and they are an extremely closed society and zealously hide their rituals. Circumcision is done when the Boy is one old, and with 13 years he got the first time shaved his Pubic Hair in a special ceremony. They married closed in the Tribe and in a young age and it is known that Alians are mysticists and believe in personal communication with God through a near-trance state. They do not use the traditional Islamic rituals, but use candles, Demir Baba teke is a sacred place to Alians and other Islamic sects because Demir Baba, a famous dervish who lived during the 16th century, is buried there in the lands of northeastern Bulgaria. The tekke of Otman Baba, located in the Haskovo-region village of Teketo, is another Alian holy site, Alians refused to visit madrassahs in the Ottoman Empire, because orthodox Sunni Islam was taught there. As a consequence, they educated their children only within the bounds of their society, the latter, along with the reticence of their esoteric culture, and the urbanization, doomed them to gradual assimilation. By the Second World War and the communism in Bulgaria many Alians fled in the European part of Turkey
Alians
Alians
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Demir Baba teke, Alian sacred place
Alians
39.
Azeemiyya
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The Silsila-e-Azeemiyya is a Muslim Sufi order based in Pakistan with a following in the UK, the US, Austria, Serbia, Russia, Australia, Canada & various countries of the Middle East. The tariqa was started by Qalandar Baba Auliya also known as Syed Muhammad Azeem Barkhia and it is currently headed by Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi since 1980. Aims and objectives of Azeemia Spiritual Order, which are to be observed by all the members of this Order are, to strive to advance the Spiritual Mission of the Islamic prophet Mohammed after practicing his teachings truthfully. To serve the creatures of God, to invite the people to acquire the religious knowledge besides learning the spiritual and the modern sciences. To help people to have that thinking pattern through which they could be aware of their Soul, to be sympathetic and courteous to everyone, as much as possible, irrespective of his caste, creed or color by considering the whole of mankind a family. To maintain their distinction and identity in everything said or done. To advance in greeting irrespective of their age, be kind to the creatures of the Lord. Avoid mutual differences in the Silsila, act upon every directive of the Spiritual Teacher without having anything against it at heart. Never try to prove the superiority of your Silsila by comparing it with any other Silsila, anybody causing trouble or nuisance should be expelled from the Silsila. Lessons for chanting and cogitating must be practiced with punctuality, recite the Quran, giving due consideration to the meanings of the text studied. Establish an affinity with God during performance of Salaat, Spiritual Associate or a student of any other Silsila can be accepted in Silsila Azeemia as an apprentice. Anybody who is engaged in a silsila cannot be admitted to the Silsila Azeemia because it is the law that a person cannot have admissions in two spiritual orders simultaneously. No one can break away after being admitted to the Silsila, anybody desirous of admission in the Silsila must be clearly told to carefully consider the option of taking admission because this bond is irrevocable. People entrusted with a responsibility in the Silsila should not call anybody their disciple and they should treat them as friends and should address them as friend. Anyone with authority in the Silsila should not ensconce on a seat of distinction made for him. Appearance and seating in the public must be like an ordinary person, male, female, young and old, being the creative masterpieces of the Lord Creator are all brethren and sisters for one another with respect to Adam. Every one is equal, nobody is superior or inferior to others, superiority only befits him who enjoys the cognition of the ocean of the Attributes of God, who reflects the attributes of the Lord Creator, is helpful to his fellow beings and hurts nobody. Don’t let any doubt enter into your heart, anybody having dubiety cannot ever have cognition of the Lord
Azeemiyya
40.
Bayramiye
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The order spread to the then Ottoman capital Istanbul where there were several tekkes and into the Balkans. The order also spread into Egypt where a tekke was found in the capital, although the order today is almost nonexistent, its influence can be seen in Aziz Mahmud Hudayi founder of the Jelveti order, and the prolific writer and Muslim saint İsmail Hakkı Bursevî. The Role of the Bektashis in Turkeys National Struggle, see pp. 21–22 Trimmingham, J. Spencer
Bayramiye
Bayramiye
41.
Bektashi Order
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The Bektashi Order or the Bektashi Tariqah, is a dervish order named after the 13th century Alevi Wali Haji Bektash Veli from Khorasan, but founded by Balım Sultan. The order is found throughout Anatolia and the Balkans, and was particularly strong in Albania, Bulgaria. The order represents the ideology of Bektashism. The mystical practices and rituals of the Bektashi order were systematized and structured by Balım Sultan in the 16th century after many of the orders distinct practices. A large number of academics consider Bektashism to have fused a number of Shia and Sufi concepts, although the order contains rituals, throughout its history Bektashis have always had wide appeal and influence among both the Ottoman intellectual elite as well as the peasantry. Bektashism places much emphasis on the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wujood وحدة الوجود and this has often been labeled as pantheism, although it is a concept closer to panentheism. Bektashism is also permeated with Shiite concepts, such as the marked reverence of Ali, The Twelve Imams. The old Persian holiday of Nowruz is celebrated by Bektashis as Imam Alis birthday, in keeping with the central belief of Wahdat-ul-Wujood the Bektashi see reality contained in Haqq-Muhammad-Ali, a single unified entity. Bektashi do not consider this a form of trinity, there are many other practices and ceremonies that share similarity with other faiths, such as a ritual meal and yearly confession of sins to a baba. Bektashis base their practices and rituals on their non-orthodox and mystical interpretation and understanding of the Quran and they have no written doctrine specific to them, thus rules and rituals may differ depending on under whose influence one has been taught. Bektashis generally revere Sufi mystics outside of their own order, such as Ibn Arabi, Al-Ghazali, Bektashis hold that the Quran has two levels of meaning, an outer and an inner. They hold the latter to be superior and eternal and this is reflected in their understanding of both the universe and humanity, Bektashism is also initiatic and members must traverse various levels or ranks as they progress along the spiritual path to the Reality. First level members are called aşıks عاشق and they are those who, while not having taken initiation into the order, are nevertheless drawn to it. Following initiation one becomes a mühip محب, after some time as a mühip, one can take further vows and become a dervish. The next level above dervish is that of baba, the baba is considered to be the head of a tekke and qualified to give spiritual guidance. Above the baba is the rank of halife-baba, traditionally there were twelve of these, the most senior being the dedebaba. The dedebaba was considered to be the highest ranking authority in the Bektashi Order, traditionally the residence of the dedebaba was the Pir Evi which was located in the shrine of Hajji Bektash Wali in the central Anatolian town of Hacıbektaş, known as Hajibektash complex. With the abolition of Janissaries, the Bektashi order was banned throughout the Ottoman Empire by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 and this decision was supported by the Sunni religious elite as well as the leaders of other, more orthodox, Sufi orders
Bektashi Order
Bektashi Order
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Order of Bektāshī dervishes Bektaşi Tarikatı
Bektashi Order
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World Headquarters of the Bektashi Community in
Tirana,
Albania
42.
Burhaniyya
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The Tariqa Burhāniyya is an Sufi order founded by Sayyidi Abul Hasan ash-Shadhuli and Sayyidi Ibrahim al Disuqi in the 13th century. The orders full name is Tariqa Burhaniya Disuqiya Shadhuliya, referring to its founders, burhan-u-din is a surname of Sayyidi Ibrahim al Disuqi and means evidence of religion. The order has a charity in the UK, Tariqa Burhaniya Dsuqiyya Shazuliyya. The order was renewed by the Sudanese Sheikh Mawlana Mohamed Osman Abdu al Burhani, after his death the leadership of the order passed to his son Sheikh Ibrahim as Sheikh Mohamed Osman Abdu al-Burhani. During the leadership of Sheikh Ibrahim the order was spreading also in parts of the Arab Middle East, especially in Europe. Since 2003 the order is under the guidance of his grandson Sheikh Mohamed as Sheikh Ibrahim as Sheikh Mohamed Osman Abdu al-Burhani, the domicile of the european center of the order is located on the edge of the Lüneburg Heath in Germany. Burhaniya is the order of Sayyidi Ibrahim al Qurashi al Disuqi. The spiritual line of the Burhaniya sheikhs traces back to the Islamic Prophet Mohammed
Burhaniyya
43.
Chishti Order
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The Chishtī Order is a Sunni Sufi order within the mystic Sufi tradition of Islam. It began in Chisht, a town near Herat, Afghanistan about 930 CE. The Chishti Order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, the Chishti Order is primarily followed in Afghanistan and Indian subcontinent. It was the first of the four main Sufi orders to be established in this region, Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti Order in Lahore and Ajmer, sometime in the middle of the 12th century CE. He was eighth in the line of succession from the founder of the Chishti Order, there are now several branches of the order, which has been the most prominent South Asian Sufi brotherhood since the 12th century. In the last century, the order has spread outside Afghanistan and Indian subcontinent, Chishti teachers have established centers in the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, Eastern and Southern Africa. The Chishti are perhaps best known for the welcome extended to seekers who belong to other religions, Chishti shrines in South Asia are open to all faiths and attract great crowds to their festivals. The Chishti shaykhs have also stressed the importance of keeping a distance from worldly power, a ruler could be a patron or a disciple, but he or she was always to be treated as just another devotee. A Chishti teacher should not attend the court or be involved in matters of state, Chishti practice is also notable for sama, evoking the divine presence Sufis use to listening to Qawwali. The Chishti, as well as some other Sufi orders, believe that Qawwali can help devotees forget self in the love of Allah. However, the order also insists that followers observe the full range of Muslim obligations, it does not dismiss them as mere legalism, the Qawwali usually heard at Chisti shrines and festivals is qawwali. The Chishtis follow five basic devotional practices and these texts are still read and respected today. Chishti also read collections of the sayings, speeches, poems and these collections, called malfūẓāt, were prepared by the shaykhs disciples. Opinions differ as to this successor, some Sufi orders trace their lineage to Abu Bakr, the first Sunni caliph, others to Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammads cousin, whom the Shia regard as the first imam. The Chishti, though Sunni, trace their lineage through Ali and this is not unusual for Sufi orders, which tend to stress devotion rather than legalism and sectarianism. Before returning to Syria, where he is now buried next to Ibn Arabi at Jabal Qasioun Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local emir, Abu Ahmad Abdal. Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad’s descendants, the Chishtiya as they are also known, the founder of the Chishti Order in South Asia was Moinuddin Chishti. He was born in the province of Silistan in eastern Persia around 536 AH, when he was only nine, he memorized the Quran, thus becoming a hafiz
Chishti Order
Chishti Order
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Mughal princess
Jahan Ara 's tomb (left),
Nizamuddin Auliya 's tomb (right) and
Jama'at Khana Masjid (background), at
Nizamuddin Dargah complex, in
Nizamuddin West,
Delhi
Chishti Order
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The passing of
Shah Jahan; attending him, his daughter Princess
Jahanara.
Chishti Order
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The
Mughal Emperor Akbar was a great patron of the Chishti Order.
44.
Gulshani
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The Gulshani is a Halvati sub-order founded by Pir Ibrahim Gulshani, a Turkmen sufi sheikh from Eastern Anatolia, who died in Egypt. His family roots reaches to Oguzata shah in Azerbaijan, when the Ottomans conquered Egypt the Gulshani order became popular with serving soldiers of the Ottoman army in Egypt. The order was carried back to Diyarbakir and Istanbul where several zawiyas or tekkes were established. One notable such tekke was that of the ancestor of Şamsettin Efendi, Pir Ikmalettin Efendi in Diyarbakir
Gulshani
