1.
Russian Air Force
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The Russian Air Force is a branch of the Russian Aerospace Forces, the latter being formed on the 1 August 2015 with the merger of the Russian Air Force and the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The modern Russian Air Force was originally established on the 7 May 1992 following Boris Yeltsins creation of the Ministry of Defence, however the air force can trace its lineage and traditions back to the Imperial Russian Air Service and the Soviet Air Forces. The Russian Navy has its own air arm, the Russian Naval Aviation, general Pyotr Deynekin, the former deputy commander-in-chief of the Soviet Air Forces, became the first commander of the new organisation on 24 August 1991. Russia received the majority of the most modern fighters and 65% of the manpower, the major commands of the former Soviet VVS – the Long Range Aviation, Military Transport Aviation and Frontal Aviation were renamed, with few changes, Russian VVS commands. However, many regiments, aircraft, and personnel were claimed by the republics they were based in, some aircraft in Belarus and Ukraine were returned to Russia, sometimes in return for debt reductions, as well as a long range aviation division based at Dolon in Kazakhstan. During the 1990s, the financial stringency felt throughout the forces made its mark on the Air Forces as well. As a result of the cutbacks, infrastructure became degraded as well, the VVS participated in the First Chechen War and the Second Chechen War. These campaigns also presented significant difficulties for the VVS including the terrain, lack of significant fixed targets and insurgents armed with Stinger, the former Soviet Air Defence Forces remained independent for several years under Russian control, only merging with the Air Forces in 1998. The decree merging the two forces was issued by President Boris Yeltsin on 16 July 1997, during 1998 altogether 580 units and formations were disbanded,134 reorganized, and over 600 given a new jurisdiction. More than 600,000 tons of material changed location and 3500 aircraft changed airfields, Military Transport Aviation planes took more than 40,000 families to new residence areas. The short-lived operational commands were abolished, two air armies, 37th Air Army and 61st Air Army, were established directly under the Supreme Command. The former frontal aviation and anti-aircraft forces were organized as Air Force Armies, there were initially four such armies with headquarters in St. Petersburg, Rostov-on-Don, Khabarovsk, and Chita. Two military districts had separate Air and Air Defence Corps, when the Transbaikal Military District and Siberian Military District were merged, the 14th Air Army was reactivated to serve as the air force formation in the area. The number of servicemen in the Air Force was reduced to about 185,000 from the combined number of 318,000. 123,500 positions were abolished, including almost 1000 colonel positions, the resignation of 3000 other servicemen included 46 generals of which 15 were colonel generals. The former Army Aviation was subsequently managed by the Chief of the Department of Army Aviation, during the 2000s, the Air Forces continued to suffer from a lack of resources for pilot training. In the 1990s Russian pilots achieved approximately 10% of the hours of the United States Air Force. In 2007, under the leadership of Vladimir Putin, the Russian Air Force resumed the Soviet-era practice of deploying its strategic bomber aircraft on long-range patrols and this ended a 15-year unilateral suspension due to fuel costs and other economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union
2.
Multirole combat aircraft
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A multirole combat aircraft is a jet-powered combat aircraft intended to perform different roles in combat. The main motivation for developing multirole aircraft is cost reduction in using a common airframe, more roles can be added, such as aerial reconnaissance, forward air control, and electronic-warfare aircraft. Attack missions include the air interdiction, suppression of enemy air defense. Multirole has also applied to one aircraft with both major roles, a primary air-to-air combat role, and a secondary role like air-to-surface attack. Some aircraft are called swing-role, to emphasize the ability of a role change, either at short notice. According to the Military Dictionary, the ability to employ a multi-role aircraft for multiple purposes during the same mission, according to BAE Systems, an aircraft that can accomplish both air-to-air and air-to-surface roles on the same mission and swing between these roles instantly offers true flexibility. This reduces cost, increases effectiveness and enhances interoperability with allied air forces, capability also offers considerable cost-of-ownership benefits to and operational commanders. Although the term multirole aircraft may be novel, certain airframes in history have proven versatile to multiple roles. The USAF F-4 Phantom II built by McDonnell-Douglas also fits the definition of an aircraft in its various configurations of the basic airframe design. The various F-4 Phantom II configurations were used in air, fighter bomber, reconnaissance. The design was aimed to replace a multitude of different types in the air forces. The project produced the Panavia Tornado, which used the basic design to undertake a variety of roles. Air superiority fighter Tactical bomber Interceptor aircraft Interdictor Fighter-bomber Attack aircraft Strike fighter Lead-in fighter trainer
3.
Sukhoi
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Sukhoi Company is a major Russian aircraft manufacturer, headquartered in Begovoy District, Northern Administrative Okrug, Moscow, and designs both civilian and military aircraft. It was founded by Pavel Sukhoi in 1939 as the Sukhoi Design Bureau, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, each of the multitude of bureaus and factories producing Sukhoi components was privatized independently. In 1996, the government re-gathered the major part of them forming Sukhoi Aviation Military Industrial Combine, in parallel, other entities, including Ulan Ude factory, Tbilisi factory, Belarus and Ukraine factories, established alternate transnational Sukhoi Attack Aircraft. The Sukhoi AIMC comprises the JSC Sukhoi Design Bureau located in Moscow, the Novosibirsk Aviation Production Association, finmeccanica owns 25% +1 share of Sukhois civil division. The Russian government merged Sukhoi with Mikoyan, Ilyushin, Irkut, Tupolev, Mikoyan and Sukhoi were placed within the same operating unit. Sukhoi is also working on what is to be Russias fifth-generation stealth fighter, the maiden flight took place on the 29 January 2010. Sukhois Su-24, Su-25, Su-27, Su-30, Su-34, Su-35 and shipborne Su-33 aircraft are in service with the Russian Air Force, the Su-25 is the oldest Sukhoi still in production. Venezuela signed contracts for the purchase of 30 Su-30 fighter jets in July 2006, more than 2,000 Sukhoi aircraft were supplied to foreign countries on export contracts. With its Su-26, Su-29 and Su-31 models Sukhoi is also a manufacturer of aerobatic aircraft, on August 4,2006, the U. S. State Department imposed sanctions on Sukhoi for allegedly supplying Iran in violation of the United States Iran Nonproliferation Act of 2000. Sukhoi was prohibited from doing business with the United States Federal Government, in November 2006, the U. S. State Department reversed its sanctions against Sukhoi. In September 2007, Sukhoi launched its first modern commercial regional airliner—the Superjet 100, the maiden flight was made on May 19,2008. Sukhoi KR-860, doubledeck superjumbo jet design, Sukhoi T-50/PAK FA, fifth generation fighter. Basic future aircraft of Russian Frontline Aviation, sukhoi/HAL FGFA, FGFA is a derivative project from the PAK FA being developed by the Sukhoi OKB and HAL for the Indian Air Force. Sukhoi S-54 Sukhoi Superjet 130 Note, The Sukhoi OKB has reused aircraft designations, for example, the Su-9 from 1946 and the later Su-9 from 1956, Sukhoi prototype designations are based on wing layout planform. Straight and swept wings are assigned the S prefix, while delta winged designs have T for a designation prefix
4.
Algerian Air Force
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The Algerian Air Force, is the aerial arm of the Algerian Peoples Military. Algerian military aviation was created to aid the fight of the People National Army against the French occupying forces. During this period, the French colonial army had started the lines of Challe and Morrice used to isolate the ALN fighters inside the country and to stop coming from Tunisia. Then came the idea to train transport and helicopter pilots to ensure supplying the national liberation army, training was one of the major preoccupations of the ALN/FLN leaders. Military aviation had a core of pilots and ASDFDASF technicians after independence, the Direction of Air was born and the first air units of independent Algeria were set up i. e. a flight of helicopters that was acquired during the revolution, and a flight of combat aircraft. The Algerians authorities sent trainees to friendly countries such Egypt, Syria, Iraq, China and USSR, during this first decade, immediately after independence, the Algerian Air Force acquired planes from the USSR, mainly MiG-15UTI and MiG-17, and some donated by Egypt. When border clashes with Morocco occurred in 1963, the Algerian government decided to reinforce the capacities of the army, MiG-17F light bomber, MiG-21 F13 interceptor, Su-7BMK fighter/bomber and some An-12 airlifters were purchased from the USSR. Mi-1 and Mi-4 helicopters were also deployed, during the Yom Kippur War, the Algerian Air Force participated in the conflict under the unified Egyptian military commandement. MiG-21F-13s and newer MiG-21PFs were mainly used to protect the Cairo region, MiG-17F and Su-7BMK aircraft also participated in the war, mostly in strafing and bombing missions. In October 1973 two Su-7BMK, one MiG-21 and a number of MiG-17Fs were lost, in 1976, Algerian Air Force planes returned from Egypt to their home bases in Algeria. The High Command dissociated the Air Defense of the territory from the Department of the Air Force, the organization is made of the following structures, A central command assisted by a general staff and an inspectorate, an arms division, a department of support and specialized offices. Air commands in the military regions, Air bases, schools, training centers, support institutions, equipment renovation enterprises and defense and control units. During this period few changes occurred in the aircraft inventory of the Algerian Air Force. Ten Su-24MK were received from the USSR and the MiG-17F was phased out, the Air Force purchased a large number of MiG-29S from Belarus and Ukraine from 1999 to 2003. At least 25 Su-24MK were also received in the same period, after the large military deal concluded with Russia during March 2006, Algeria ordered 28 Su-30MKA,16 Yak-130A and 34 MiG-29SMT. In 2008 the MiG-29 SMT contract was cancelled and the planes delivered were returned to Russia, while the current front-line fleet primarily consists of Russian-origin aircraft such as the Sukhoi Su-30 and the MiG-29, Algeria has expressed an interest in acquiring aircraft from China. Algeria has been seen as an operator of the Chinese 4th-Generation JF-17 Thunder fighter Project. The air force has two regiments of Fusiliers Commandos de lAir, primarily base defence troops but which have taken part int anti-terrorism operations
5.
Venezuelan Air Force
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The Venezuelan Air Force, officially the Venezuelan National Bolivarian Military Aviation is a professional armed body designed to defend Venezuelas sovereignty and airspace. It is a component of the National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. The organization is known as the Bolivarian National Air Force of Venezuela. Its current official name has been in use since the end of 2008 and it was previously called the Venezuelan Air Force. Most of the airbases in Venezuela were built in the 1960s as part of an expansion program. The main fighter types in those years were Venom, Vampire, bomber squadrons typically operated B-25 Mitchell aircraft. The 1970s and 1980s saw an increase in capacity, mainly because the rising oil prices enabled the FAV to re-equip most of its units. The mixture of aircraft types was maintained and Mirage IIIE and Mirage 5, VF-5A and D, T-2D, OV-10A and E. Venezuela was one of the first export customers for the F-16 which arrived in 1983 to equip the newly formed Grupo Aéreo de Caza 16 at El Libertador Airbase, in the 1992 Venezuelan coup détat attempts, elements of the Venezuelan Air Force were key instigators of the rebellion. FAV units concentrated at El Libertador Air Base under the command of Brig, General Visconti seized control of the airbase and then launched an attack on the capitol. OV-10s, AT-27 Tucanos, and Mirage III fighters under his command bombarded targets in the capitol and loyalist air bases, two loyalist pilots escaped with F-16 fighters and shot down 2 OV-10s and 1 Tucano, claiming air superiority for the government. Two more rebel OV-10s were lost to ground fire, as the tables turned on the coup attempt, General Visconti and his allies fled in two C-130s,2 Mirages,1 OV-10 Bronco, and several SA.330 helicopters. The AMV purchased 24 Sukhoi Su-30 planes from Russia in July 2006, in 2008, Venezuela was reported for a potential acquisition of a number of Su-35 fighter aircraft and a second batch of aircraft 12-24 Sukhoi Su-30 from Russia. In October 2015, Venezuela announced the purchase of 12 more Su-30MK2 from Russia for $480 million, the current organization includes an Air Group 17 with Mil Mi-17 Sitio oficial de la Aviación Militar de Venezuela U. S. Arms Sales to Venezuela from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
6.
Vietnam People's Air Force
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The Vietnam Peoples Air Force is the air force of Vietnam. It is the successor of the former North Vietnamese Air Force, the Vietnam Peoples Air Force is one of three main branches in the Vietnam Peoples Army which is a part of the Ministry of Defence. The main mission of the VPAF is the defence of Vietnamese airspace, the first aircraft in service for the Vietnamese Armed Forces were two trainers, a de Havilland Tiger Moth and a Morane-Saulnier, which were initially the private property of the emperor Bảo Đại. In 1945, Bảo Đại gave the aircraft to the Vietnamese government, on 9 March 1949, General Vo Nguyen Giap was authorised to establish the Air Force Research Committee under the General Staff to study ways to deal with the air war. The first Vietnamese service aircraft flight was made by the Tiger Moth on 15 August 1949, a small-scale training was carried out in the following years. Further development of aviation in North Vietnam began in 1956, when a number of trainees were sent to the USSR and they were organised into two groups, for pilots and mechanics, respectively, and among others, utilised the Czechoslovak Zlín Z-226 and Aero Ae-45. The first unit of the VPAF was the No.919 Transport Regiment, organised on 1 May 1959, with An-2, Li-2, Il-14 aircraft, in 1963 the Air Force and Air Defence Force were merged into the Air and Air Defence Force. The first North Vietnamese combat plane was a T-28 Trojan trainer, whose pilot defected from the Royal Lao Air Force, the T-28 was the first North Vietnamese aircraft to shoot down a US aircraft, a C-123, on 15 February 1964. On 3 February 1964, the first fighter regiment No,921, aka Red Star squadron, was formed, and on 6 August it arrived from China in North Vietnam with its MiG-17s. On 7 September, the No.923 fighter regiment, aka Yen The Squadron, in May 1965, No.16 bomber company was formed with Il-28 twin engine bombers. Only one Il-28 sortie was flown in 1972 against Royal Laotian forces, the North Vietnamese Air Forces first jet air-to-air engagement with US aircraft was on 3 April 1965. The NVAF claimed the shooting down of two US Navy F-8 Crusader, which was not confirmed by US sources, although they acknowledged having encountered MiGs, consequently,3 April became North Vietnamese Air Force Day. On 4 April the VPAF scored the first confirmed victories to be acknowledged by both sides, the US fighter community was shocked when relatively slow, post-Korean era MiG-17 fighters shot down advanced F-105 Thunderchief fighters-bombers attacking the Thanh Hóa Bridge. The two downed F-105s were carrying their heavy bomb load, and were not able to react to their attackers. In 1965, the NVAF were supplied with supersonic MiG-21s by the USSR which were used for high speed GCI controlled hit, the MiG-21 tactics became so effective, that by late 1966, an operation was mounted to especially deal with the MiG-21 threat. The result was a loss of almost half the inventory of MiG-21 interceptors, the VPAF stood down for additional training after this setback. However it did conduct limited attacks on the naval vessels. In a separate incident, MiG-17s that ventured over water were shot down by missiles fired by US warships
7.
Sukhoi Su-27
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The Sukhoi Su-27 is a twin-engine supermaneuverable fighter aircraft designed by Sukhoi. The Su-27 was designed for air superiority missions, and subsequent variants are able to perform almost all aerial warfare operations and it was designed with the Mikoyan MiG-29 as its complement. The Su-27 entered service with the Soviet Air Forces in 1985, there are several related developments of the Su-27 design. The Su-30 is a two-seat, dual-role fighter for all-weather, air-to-air, the Su-33 Flanker-D is a naval fleet defense interceptor for use on aircraft carriers. Further versions include the side-by-side two-seat Su-34 Fullback strike/fighter-bomber variant, the Shenyang J-11 is a Chinese licence-built version of the Su-27. In 1969, the Soviet Union learned of the U. S. Air Forces F-X program, the Soviet leadership soon realized that the new American fighter would represent a serious technological advantage over existing Soviet fighters. What was needed was a fighter with both good agility and sophisticated systems. In response, the Soviet General Staff issued a requirement for a Perspektivnyy Frontovoy Istrebitel, specifications were extremely ambitious, calling for long range, good short-field performance, excellent agility, Mach 2+ speed, and heavy armament. The aerodynamic design for the new aircraft was carried out by TsAGI in collaboration with the Sukhoi design bureau. When the specification proved too challenging and costly for an aircraft in the number needed. The Sukhoi design, which was altered progressively to reflect Soviet awareness of the F-15s specifications, emerged as the T-10, the aircraft had a large wing, clipped, with two separate podded engines and a twin tail. The ‘tunnel’ between the two engines, as on the F-14 Tomcat, acts both as a lifting surface and hides armament from radar. The T-10 was spotted by Western observers and assigned the NATO reporting name Flanker-A, the development of the T-10 was marked by considerable problems, leading to a fatal crash of the second prototype, the T-10-2 on 7 July 1978, due to shortcomings in the FBW control system. Extensive redesigns followed and a version of the T-10-7, now designated the T-10S. It also crashed due to problems and was replaced by T-10-12 which became T-10S-2. This one also crashed on 23 December 1981 during a high-speed test, eventually the T-10-15 demonstrator, T-10S-3, evolved into the definitive Su-27 configuration. The T-10S-3 was modified and officially designated the P-42, setting a number of records for time-to-height. The P-42 Streak Flanker was stripped of all armament, radar, the fin tips, tail-boom and the wingtip launch rails were also removed
8.
Sukhoi Su-30MKI
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The Sukhoi Su-30MKI is a twinjet multirole air superiority fighter developed by Russias Sukhoi and built under licence by Indias Hindustan Aeronautics Limited for the Indian Air Force. A variant of the Sukhoi Su-30, it is a heavy, all-weather, development of the variant started after India signed a deal with Russia in 2000 to manufacture 140 Su-30 fighter jets. The first Russian-made Su-30MKI variant was accepted into the Indian Air Force in 2002, additional MKIs have been ordered to increase the total from 272 to 314. The IAF had 230 Su-30MKIs in service as of February 2017, the Su-30MKI is expected to form the backbone of the Indian Air Forces fighter fleet to 2020 and beyond. The aircraft is tailor-made for Indian specifications and integrates Indian systems and avionics as well as French and it has abilities similar to the Sukhoi Su-35 with which it shares many features and components. The Su-30MKI was designed by Russias Sukhoi Corporation beginning in 1995, the Su-30MKI is derived from the Sukhoi Su-27 and has a fusion of technology from the Su-37 demonstrator and Su-30 program, being more advanced than the Su-30MK and the Chinese Su-30MKK/MK2. Russias Defence Ministry was impressed with the performance envelope and ordered 30 Su-30SMs. It features state of the art developed by Russia, India and Israel for display, navigation, targeting and electronic warfare, France. After two years of evaluation and negotiations, on 30 November 1996, India signed a US$1.462 billion deal with Sukhoi for 50 Russian-produced Su-30MKIs in five batches, the first batch were eight Su-30MKs, the basic version of Su-30. The second batch were to be 10 Su-30Ks with French and Israeli avionics, the third batch were to be 10 Su-30MKIs featuring canard foreplanes. The fourth batch of 12 Su-30MKIs and final batch of 10 Su-30MKIs were to have the AL-31FP turbofans, the first Nasik-built Su-30MKIs were to be delivered by 2004, with staggered production until 2017–18. In November 2002, the schedule was expedited with production to be completed by 2015. An estimated 920 AL-31FP turbofans are to be manufactured at HALs Koraput Division, while the mainframe and other accessories are to be manufactured at HALs Lucknow, final integration and test flights of the aircraft are carried out at HALs Nasik Division. Four manufacturing phases were outlined with progressively increasing Indian content, Phase I, II, III and IV. In phase I, HAL manufactured the Su-30MKIs from knocked-down kits, transitioning to semi knocked-down kits in phase II and III, in phase IV, in 2007, another order of 40 Su-30MKIs was placed. In 2009, the fleet strength was to be 230 aircraft. In 2008, Samtel HAL Display Systems, a joint venture between Samtel Display Systems and HAL, won a contract to develop and manufacture multi-function avionics displays for the MKI. A helmet mounted display, Topsight-I, based on technology from Thales, in March 2010, it was reported that India and Russia were discussing a contract for 42 more Su-30MKIs
9.
Sukhoi Su-30MKK
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The Sukhoi Su-30MKK is a modification of the Sukhoi Su-30, incorporating advanced technology from the Sukhoi Su-35 variant. Su-30MKK was developed by Sukhoi Company in 1997, as a result of a direct Request for tender between the Russian Federation and China. It is a class, all-weather, long-range strike fighter. Su-30MK2 is an improvement to Su-30MKK with upgraded avionics and maritime strike capabilities. The MKK and MK2 are currently operated by the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force, Indonesian Air Force, Vietnam Peoples Air Force, Venezuelan Air Force, the Peoples Liberation Army Air Force leadership became concerned by the United States Air Forces expanding defended-airspace-penetration and precision-strike capability during the 1990s. During a visit to the Russian Federation at the end of 1996, the type was to be designated as Su-30MKK. Final details of the agreement were settled during the Zhuhai Air Show in 1998, the official agreement was signed in Russia by the Chinese Premier Zhu Rongji in March 1999. That same month, a Bort 501 Blue prototype made its first flight at the Zhukovsky Air Base, in November 2000, Bort 502 Blue attended the Zhuhai Air Show and a month later the first batch of ten Su-30MKK was delivered. Second batch of 10 were delivered on 21 August 2001, with the batch of 18 following in December. In July 2001, Chinese President Jiang Zemin and his Russian counterpart, Vladimir Putin, in the year 2002, the two countries were negotiating on the purchase of the Su-30MK2 for the Peoples Liberation Army Naval Air Force. The variant had a weapon control system for the Kh-31A air-to-surface missile. A contract for 24 aircraft to be built by KnAAPO was signed in early 2003, according to the Sukhoi Design Bureau, Su-30MKK is the first of the Flanker family to achieve it after Su-35 /37 and Sukhoi Su-30MKI. Higher percentage of material is used for Su-30MKK in comparison to the original Su-30MK. In addition, new alloy were used to replace the old type used on Su-30MK for weight reduction. The capacity of the tanks in the wings is also increased. A twin nose landing gear of size 620 mm x 180 mm has replaced the nose landing gear of size 680 mm x 260 mm used on Su-30MK to accommodate the increased weight. The maximum take-off weight and weapon load are increased to 38 tons and 12 tons respectively and it was rumored that the Chinese pilots were not as experienced as Russian test pilots when operating at this extreme limits, which contributed to the crashes at least partially. The original K-36 ejection seat on Su-30MK is replaced by K-36M ejection seat for Su-30MKK, in addition to the newly added fuel tanks in the rudders capacity totaling 280 kg, there are four main fuel tanks
10.
Sukhoi Su-30MKM
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The Sukhoi Su-30MKM is a supermaneuverable fighter of the Royal Malaysian Air Force. It is a variant of the Su-30 series fighters, with significant improvements over the original Su-30MK export version. The Su-30MKM was developed by the Sukhoi Design Bureau and is based on the Su-30MKI of the Indian Air Force, both aircraft have common airframe, thrust vectoring engines and digital fly-by-wire system, However the MKM version differs from the MKI mainly in the composition of the onboard avionics. It can carry up to 8,000 kg/17,650 lb of weapons, in 2003, the Su-30MKM was selected by the Royal Malaysian Air Force. In August 2003, during the course of President Vladimir Putin’s official visit to Malaysia, except for Russian MiG-29s, the RMAF has previously operated aircraft of Western origin. At the time of delivery the Su-30MKMs were the most advanced, in 2003, Malaysia committed to purchase 18 Su-30MKMs. As part of the contract, Russia sent the first Malaysian cosmonaut to the International Space Station and it was a project under the government-to-government offset agreement through the purchase of Su-30MKM fighter jets for the Royal Malaysian Air Force. In August 2003, Malaysia signed a US$900 million contract with Irkut Corporation for 18 Sukhoi Su-30MKMs, Malaysia operates the F/A-18D Hornet, and was offered Boeings F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, but chose the Su-30MKM. The Su-30MKM is a variant, whose performance involves considerable improvements over Su-30MK/MKK fighters. Irkut Corporation subcontracted the task of manufacturing the canards, stabilizers, the first two aircraft were handed over to the RMAF on May 2007 at Irkuts aircraft manufacturing facility at Irkutsk, Russia. The two aircraft were delivered to RMAF Gong Kedak, Malaysia on June 2007 by an An-124-100. By December 2007, seven months after the delivery of the first two aircraft, the RMAF had taken delivery of six Su-30MKMs, the eighteenth and last aircraft arrived at RMAF Gong Kedak on August 2009 with the three other aircraft of its batch. The Su-30MKMs carry serial numbers M52-01 to M52-18, ascending by order of delivery, the Su-30MKM was developed by the Sukhoi Design Bureau and is based on the Su-30MKI. The aircraft has the same airframe, same engines with thrust vector control, the MKM version differs from the MKI mainly in the composition of the onboard avionics. Thales supplies the Head-up display, navigational forward-looking IR system NAVFLIR, the aircraft carries missile approach warning sensor and laser warning sensor manufactured by Avitronics. It can carry up to 8,000 kg/17,650 lb of weapons, the Su-30MKM can legitimately claim super-maneuverability via digital fly-by-wire, canards, and two Saturn AL-31FP engines with thrust vectoring producing 27,500 lb thrust each with afterburners. The electronic warfare systems, phased array radars, optical-location systems with laser rangefinder were all produced by leading Russian manufacturers. At that time, officers from RMAF formed a Su-30MKM Project Team which was based in Moscow, the aircraft is capable of conducting SEAD mission when equipped with two KNIRTI SAP-518 jamming pods and Kh-31P anti-radiation missiles
11.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
12.
Twinjet
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A twinjet or twin-engine jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. As of today, there are three most common configurations of twinjet aircraft, the first has a podded engine usually mounted beneath, or occasionally above or within, each wing, usually for standard narrow-body and wide-body airliners. The second has one engine mounted on each side of the fuselage, close to its empennage. The first twinjet ever to fly was the April 1941-debuted German fighter prototype Heinkel He 280, the twinjet configuration was originally suitable for the short-range narrow-body such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-9 and Boeing 737. The MD-11s long range advantage was brief as it was nullified by the Airbus A330s four-engine derivative, the Airbus A340. The Boeing 737 twinjet stands out as the most produced jet airliner, the Boeing 777 is the worlds largest twinjet, and the 777-200LR variant is the worlds longest range airliner. Other Boeing twinjets include the 767,757 and 787, competitor Airbus produces the A320 family, the A330, and the A350. Some modern commercial airplanes still use four engines like the Airbus A380 and Boeing 747-8, four engines are still used on the largest cargo aircraft capable of transporting outsize cargo, including strategic airlifters. There are plans to revive production of 6 engine giants like the Antonov An-225 Mriya, twin jets tend to be more fuel-efficient than trijet and quad-jet aircraft. As fuel efficiency in airliners is a priority, many airlines are increasingly retiring trijet and quad-jet designs in favor of twinjets since the 2000s. The trijet designs were phased out first, in due to the more complicated design. One of the reasons for the jets is cost of the engines itself which make up a significant proportion of the planes final cost. Each engine also require service, paperwork, and certificates, so fewer engines means less to repair or replace and this is also the reason why private aviation generally consists of aircraft with only 1-2 engines. The stability and fewer errors of modern engines leads naturally to as few engines as possible, when flying far from diversionary airports, the aircraft must be able to reach an alternate on the remaining engine within a specified time in case of one engine failure. When aircraft are certified according to ETOPS standards, thrust is not an issue, mostly, ETOPS certification involves maintenance and design requirements ensuring that a failure of one engine cannot make the other one fail also. The engines and related systems need to be independent and independently maintained, ETOPS/LROPS is often incorrectly thought to apply only to long overwater flights, but it applies to any flight more than a specified distances from an available diversion airport. Overwater flights near diversion airports need not be ETOPS/LROPS-compliant, in other words, a fully laden twinjet must be able to climb on one engine. Since the 1990s, airlines have increasingly turned from four-engine or three-engine airliners to twin-engine airliners to operate Transatlantic flight, on a nonstop flight from America to Asia the long-range aircraft usually follows the great circle route
13.
Supermaneuverability
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Supermaneuverability is the ability of aircraft to maintain pilot control and perform maneuvers in situations and ways exceeding those that are possible by pure aerodynamic mechanisms. The British, however, used supermaneuverability in the Harrier & Sea Harrier VTOL aircraft in the 1960s, viffing or. Vectoring in Forward Flight was used to great effect in the Falklands War. The Harrier VTOL jet is able to rotate its engine nozzles at any speed & power setting, making radically tight, in a dogfight, this can be used to out-turn an opponent despite the Harriers relatively high wing loading. In 1983, the MiG-29 and in 1996, the Sukhoi Su-27 were deployed with this capability, there has been some speculation, but the mechanism behind the supermaneuverability of the Russian-built aircraft has not been disclosed to the public. However, post-stall analyses are used in recent years to advance maneuverability via the use of thrust vectoring engine nozzles. Traditional aircraft maneuvering is accomplished by altering the flow of air passing over the surfaces of the aircraft—the ailerons, elevators, flaps, air brakes. Some of these surfaces can be combined—such as in the ruddervators of a V-tail configuration—but the basic properties are unaffected. As airflow decreases so does effectiveness of the surfaces and thus the maneuverability. On the other hand, if the angle of attack exceeds its critical value and it is therefore desirable in aerobatic maneuvering to maintain corner velocity. In a supermaneuverable aircraft, the pilot can maintain a degree of maneuverability below corner velocity. Such an aircraft is capable of maneuvers that are impossible with an aerodynamic design. There is no set of guidelines an aircraft must meet or features it must have in order to be classified as supermaneuverable. However, as supermaneuverability itself is defined, the ability of an aircraft to perform high alpha maneuvers that are impossible for most aircraft is evidence of the aircrafts supermaneuverability, such maneuvers include Pugachevs Cobra and the Herbst maneuver. Some aircraft are capable of performing Pugachevs Cobra without the aid of features that normally provide post-stall maneuvering such as thrust vectoring. Advanced fourth generation fighters such as the Su-27, MiG-29 along with their variants have been documented as capable of performing this maneuver using normal, non-thrust vectoring engines. The ability of aircraft to perform this maneuver is based in inherent instability like that of the F-16. The key difference between a pure fighter and a supermaneuverable one is generally found in its post-stall characteristics. The behavior of the aircraft in a stall is where the difference can be observed between aerodynamic maneuverability and supermaneuverability
14.
Fighter aircraft
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A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, maneuverability, many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose fighter-bombers, often aircraft that do not fulfill the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, a fighters main purpose is to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare, the word fighter did not become the official English-language term for such aircraft until after World War I. In the British Royal Flying Corps and Royal Air Force these aircraft were referred to as scouts into the early 1920s, the U. S. Army called their fighters pursuit aircraft from 1916 until the late 1940s. In most languages a fighter aircraft is known as a hunter, exceptions include Russian, where a fighter is an истребитель, meaning exterminator, and Hebrew where it is matose krav. As a part of nomenclature, a letter is often assigned to various types of aircraft to indicate their use. In Russia I was used, while the French continue to use C and this has always been the case, for instance the Sopwith Camel and other fighting scouts of World War I performed a great deal of ground-attack work. Several aircraft, such as the F-111 and F-117, have received fighter designations but had no fighter capability due to political or other reasons, the F-111B variant was originally intended for a fighter role with the U. S. Navy, but it was cancelled. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for attack or strike operations against ground targets by means of strafing or dropping small bombs, versatile multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are a less expensive option than having a range of specialized aircraft types. An interceptor is generally an aircraft intended to target bombers and so often trades maneuverability for climb rate, fighters were developed in World War I to deny enemy aircraft and dirigibles the ability to gather information by reconnaissance. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and most were built with a wooden frame, covered with fabric. As control of the airspace over armies became increasingly important all of the major powers developed fighters to support their military operations, between the wars, wood was largely replaced by steel tubing, then aluminium tubing, and finally aluminium stressed skin structures began to predominate. By World War II, most fighters were all-metal monoplanes armed with batteries of guns or cannons. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were replacing piston engines as the means of propulsion, further increasing aircraft speed. Since the weight of the engine was so less than on piston engined fighters. This in turn required the development of ejection seats so the pilot could escape, in the 1950s, radar was fitted to day fighters, since pilots could no longer see far enough ahead to prepare for any opposition. Since then, radar capabilities have grown enormously and are now the method of target acquisition
15.
Air combat manoeuvring
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Air combat manoeuvring is the tactical art of moving, turning and/or situating ones fighter aircraft in order to attain a position from which an attack can be made on another aircraft. Air combat manoeuvres rely on offensive and defensive basic fighter manoeuvring to gain an advantage over an aerial opponent, military aviation appeared in World War I where aircraft were initially used to spot enemy troop concentrations, field gun positions and movements. Early aerial combat consisted of shooting at one another with hand held weapons. The first recorded aircraft to be shot down by another aircraft, the pilot, Feldwebel Wilhelm Schlichting, was shot with a hand gun wielded by observer Louis Quenault, who was riding in a Voisin Type 3 piloted by French Sergeant Joseph Frantz. The need to stop reconnaissance that was being conducted by enemy aircraft rapidly led to the development of fighter planes, roland Garros, working with Morane Saulnier Aéroplanes, was the first to solve this problem by attaching steel deflector wedges to the propeller. He achieved three kills but was shot down by fire and landed behind German lines. As technology rapidly advanced, new and young aviators began defining the realm of combat, such as Max Immelmann, Oswald Boelcke. A flying man may be able to loop and do all the stunts imaginable and this type of combat became known as dogfighting. Oswald Boelcke, a German fighter ace during World War I, was the first to publish the rules for aerial combat manoeuvring in 1916. He advised pilots to attack from the direction of the sun, most of these rules are still as valuable today as they were a century ago. New, and additional types of manoeuvres have emerged, intending to break radar lock by minimizing the Doppler signature of ones own aircraft, or to exhaust the kinetic energy of an incoming missile. However, close fighting with infrared guided missiles and aircraft cannons still obeys the same general rules laid down in the skies over Europe in the early 20th century. The master rule is still the same, do not let your opponent get onto your six, close-range combat tactics vary considerably according to the type of aircraft being used and the number of aircraft involved. There are five things a pilot must remain aware of when contemplating aerial engagement, of which, getting sight of your opponent. In Southeast Asia, over 85% of all kills are attributed to the spotting and shooting the defender without ever being seen. Structural limitations of both the attacking and defending fighters must be taken into account, such as thrust-to-weight ratio, wing loading, variable limitations must also be considered, such as turn radius, turn rate, and the specific energy of the aircraft. Position of aircraft must quickly be assessed, including direction, angle off tail, also, the pilot must be aware of his wingman’s position, and maintain good communication. A pilot in combat attempts to conserve his aircraft’s energy through carefully timed and executed manoeuvres, a manoeuvre such as the low yo-yo trades altitude for airspeed to gain closure on an enemy, and to decrease turn radius
16.
Air interdiction
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It is a core capability of virtually all military air forces, and has been conducted in conflicts since World War I. A distinction is made between tactical and strategic air interdiction, depending on the objectives of the operation. Typical objectives in tactical interdiction are meant to affect events rapidly and locally, while strategic objectives are often broader and more long-term, with less direct attacks on enemy fighting capabilities, instead focusing on infrastructure, logistics and other supportive assets. The term deep air support, relates to air support. Close air support, as the name suggests, is directed towards targets close to ground units, as closely coordinated air-strikes. Deep air support or air interdiction is carried out further from the fighting, based more on strategic planning. Despite being more strategic than close air support, air interdiction should not be confused with strategic bombing, with air interdiction in World War I, the goal was to isolate the battlefield by strafing and bombing enemy supply lines. Favorite targets were railroad lines, bridges, and truck convoys, due to the primitive state of aircraft and weapons technology, as well as the undeveloped nature of air doctrine and tactics, air interdiction missions in World War I were of limited utility. The potential of air interdiction was clearly recognized, however, specifically, the Allies launched major air interdiction efforts in the North African, Italian, and Normandy campaigns. As a consequence of differences, the results of air interdiction also varied. The greatest success was in the terrain of North Africa. The Italian campaign, by contrast, was characterized by terrain, poor weather conditions. The diverse results of two campaigns taught air planners differing lessons. Air interdiction has continued to play a role in conflicts since World War II. Once again, differing local conditions and political restraints have had an effect on how air interdiction was conducted. In Vietnam, for example, the interdiction campaign known as Rolling Thunder was largely unsuccessful. The dense jungle terrain, poor intelligence on enemy movements, the flow of supplies and reinforcements from North Vietnam to their units in South Vietnam was not seriously affected. In contrast, coalition air interdiction efforts in the 1991 Gulf War were extremely successful in isolating front-line Iraqi units from their bases in the rear
17.
Sukhoi Su-33
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Compared with the Su-27, the Su-33 has a strengthened undercarriage and structure, folding wings and stabilators, all for carrier operations. The Su-33 has canards and its wings are larger than the Su-27 for increased lift, the Su-33 has upgraded engines and a twin nose wheel, and is air refuelable. First used in operations in 1995 aboard the carrier Admiral Kuznetsov, following the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent downsizing of the Russian Navy, only 24 aircraft were produced. Attempted sales to China and India fell through, with plans to retire the Su-33 once they reach the end of their service life, the Russian Navy ordered the MiG-29K as a replacement in 2009. It was decided to develop a bigger and more potent carrier capable of operating STOL aircraft, during the assessment period, a number of carriers were studied, the Project 1160 carrier would have been able to operate the MiG-23s and Su-24s, but was abandoned due to budget constraints. Design efforts were concentrated on the Project 1153 carrier, which would have accommodated the Su-25s. Sufficient funding was not secured, and the Navy looked at the possibility of a fifth, and larger, Project 1143 carrier, modified to allow for Yak-141, MiG-29K and Su-27K operations. To prepare for the operations of the Su-27K and the rival MiG-29K on-board the new carrier, work proceeded on the development of the catapult, arresting gear, optical. The pilots were trained at a new establishment in Crimea, named NITKA, for Aviation Research, a takeoff ramp was installed at the complex, where takeoffs would be executed to ensure that the Su-27Ks and MiG-29Ks would be able to operate from carriers. Both Sukhoi and Mikoyan modified their prototypes to validate the takeoff ramp, three Sukhoi T10s, along with an Su-27UB, were used for takeoffs from the simulated ramp. The first of these tests were undertaken by Nikolai Sadovnikov on 28 August 1982, flight tests indicated the need for a change in ramp design, and it was modified to a ski-jump profile. Conceptual designs of the Su-27K commenced in 1978, on 18 April 1984, the Soviet government instructed Sukhoi to develop an air defence fighter, Mikoyan was ordered to build a lighter multirole fighter. Full-scale design of the Su-27K soon started as the T-10K under the guidance of Konstantin Marbyshev, Nikolai Sadovnikov was appointed the design bureaus Chief Test Pilot for the programme. By November 1984, conceptual design had passed its critical design review, the two prototypes were constructed in conjunction with KnAAPO in 1986–1987. The first Su-27K prototype, piloted by Viktor Pugachyov, made its flight on 17 August 1987 at the NITKA facility. Flight tests continued at NITKA, where Su-27Ks and MiG-29Ks demonstrated and validated the feasibility of ski-jump operations, the pilots also practised no-flare landings before making an actual landing on a carrier deck. It was another two years before the Tbilisi, subsequently renamed Admiral Kuznetsov, left the shipyard, Viktor Pugachyov, piloting the second Su-27K, became the first Russian to conventionally land aboard an aircraft carrier on 1 November 1989. It was found that the jet blast deflectors were too close to the engine nozzles when raised at an angle of 60°
18.
Sukhoi Su-34
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The Sukhoi Su-34 is a Russian twin-engine, twin-seat strike fighter. It is intended to replace the Sukhoi Su-24, the Su-34 had a muddied and protracted beginning. In the mid-1980s, Sukhoi began developing a new multirole combat aircraft to replace the swing-wing Su-24. The bureau thus selected the Su-27, which excelled in maneuverability and range, more specifically, the aircraft was developed from T10KM-2, the naval trainer derivative of the Sukhoi Su-27K. In August 1990, a photograph taken by a TASS officer showed an aircraft making an approach towards the aircraft carrier Tbilisi. The aircraft, subsequently and erroneously labelled Su-27KU by Western intelligence, converted from an Su-27UB with the new distinctive nose, while retaining the main undercarriage of previous Su-27s, it was a prototype for the Su-27IB. It was developed in parallel with the naval trainer, the Su-27KUB. However, contrary to reports, the two aircraft are not directly related. Flight tests continued throughout 1990 and into 1991, in 1992, the Su-27IB was displayed to the public at the MosAeroshow, where it demonstrated aerial refuelling with an Il-78, and performed an aerobatic display. The aircraft was unveiled on 13 February 1992 at Machulishi, where Russian President Boris Yeltsin. The following year the Su-27IB was again displayed at the MAKS Airshow, the next prototype, and first pre-production aircraft, T10V-2, first flew on 18 December 1993, with Igor Votintsev and Yevgeniy Revoonov at the controls. The first aircraft built to production standard made its first flight on 28 December 1994 and it was fitted with a fire-control system, at the heart of which was the Leninets OKB-designed V004 passive electronically scanned array radar. It was different enough from the versions that it was re-designated the Su-34. However, at the 1995 Paris Air Show, the Su-34 was allocated the Su-32FN designation, Sukhoi also promoted the Su-34 as the Su-32MF. Budget restrictions caused the programme to stall repeatedly, nevertheless, flight testing continued, albeit at a slow pace. The third pre-production aircraft first flew in late 1996, plane is in great demand in our armed forces, and it has a great future. An initial batch of eight aircraft was completed by the Novosibirsk factory in 2004, in March 2006, Russias Minister of Defence Sergei Ivanov announced the purchase of the first 5 pre-production Su-34s for the Russian Air Force. In late 2008, a contract was signed for delivery of 32 aircraft by 2015
19.
Sukhoi Su-35
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The Sukhoi Su-35 is a designation for two separate, heavily upgraded derivatives of the Su-27 Flanker jet plane. They are single-seat, twin-engine, supermaneuverable multirole fighters, designed by Sukhoi, the first variant was designed during the 1980s, when Sukhoi sought to upgrade its high-performance Su-27, and was initially known as the Su-27M. Later re-designated Su-35, this derivative incorporated aerodynamic refinements with increased manoeuvrability, enhanced avionics, longer range, the first Su-35 prototype, converted from a Su-27, made its maiden flight in June 1988. More than a dozen of these were built, some of which were used by the Russian Knights aerobatic demonstration team, the first Su-35 design was later modified into the Su-37, which possessed thrust vectoring engines and was used as a technology demonstrator. A sole Su-35UB two-seat trainer was built in the late 1990s that strongly resembled the Su-30MK family and this derivative, while omitting the canards and air brake, incorporates a reinforced airframe, improved avionics and radar, thrust-vectoring engines, and a reduced frontal radar signature. In 2008 the revamped variant, erroneously named the Su-35BM in the media, began its flight test programme that would involve four prototypes, the Russian Air Force has ordered 98 production units, designated Su-35S, of the newly revamped Su-35. Both Su-35 models were marketed to many countries, including Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Indonesia expressed an intent to buy between 8-10 Su-35s in 2015, but has yet to sign a final purchase contract. Other countries have either purchased other aircraft or lost interest in the Su-35. In the early 1980s, while the Su-27 was entering service with the Soviet Air Forces and it was also to carry more armament to improve its Air-to-ground weaponry capabilities. High-strength composites and Aluminium-lithium alloys were used to weight and boost internal fuel volume. One of the features of this early design were the canards. These canards were governed by a new digital fly-by-wire flight-control system, the aircraft was fitted with the Luylka AL-31FM turbofan engine which is larger, more reliable and, with a thrust of 125 kN, more powerful than those found on the Su-27. Also new was the system, at the heart of which is the N011 pulse-Doppler radar. The tail stinger houses the Phazotron N-012 rear-facing radar, the aircraft could carry various bombs and both air-to-air and air-to-surface missiles, and had two additional underwing pylons. The cockpit was modernized, equipped with multi-function colour LCD screens, range was increased to 4,000 km, the adoption of an aerial refuelling probe enables further range extension. The aircraft was characterized by its nose wheel – as a result of higher payload –. The Su-27M prototype first flew on 28 June 1988 piloted by Sukhoi chief test pilot Oleg Tsoi, designated T10M-1 to T10M-10, the first ten prototypes were built by Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association in conjunction with Sukhoi. They differed slightly, as four were converted from Su-27s, the second prototype started flying in January 1989, while the third followed in mid-1992
20.
Sukhoi Su-37
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The Sukhoi Su-37 is an experimental single-seat, supermaneuverable multirole jet fighter, designed by Sukhoi. A further development of the original Su-27 Flanker, it was modified from the first-generation Su-35 prototypes, the Su-37 features an upgraded avionic suite and fire-control system but its most notable additions are the thrust vectoring nozzles, only two prototypes were converted. The first Su-37, converted from the eleventh Su-35, made its flight in April 1996 at Zhukovsky. It was joined by a prototype in 1998. The earliest records on thrust vectoring technology research within Sukhoi began in 1983, the design bureau studied two-dimensional vector nozzle, which was believed by the West to be the best way of controlling thrust. Sukhoi modified an Su-27UB-PS twin-seater with a 2D nozzle to verify the feasibility of this kind of nozzle, however, the design bureaus General Designer, Mikhail Simonov, believed asymmetrical nozzles to be more suitable. At the request of Sukhoi, experiments on both types of nozzles were carried out by the Siberian Aeronautical Research Institute, meanwhile, Sukhoi was busy with the T10M program, which was a comprehensive upgrade over the Su-27. The T10M would incorporate aerodynamic modifications, improved avionics and armament, the first Su-27M prototype made its maiden flight on 28 June 1988. Changes from the Su-27 include canards, upgraded engines, new radar, later Su-35 prototypes featured glass cockpits and modified vertical stabilizers. The Su-35s construction made significant use of composites, including aluminium-lithium alloy, in 1995, the eleventh T10M prototype, T10M-11, was delivered to Sukhois experimental workshop to be outfitted with exclusive systems. Built by KnAAPO, its structure has increased carbon-fibre and Al-Li content, installed was the 2D thrust-vectoring Lyulka AL-31FP, an interim measure pending the availability of the AL-37FU. The 3D thrust-vectoring Lyulka AL-37FU was still in development, the Al-31FP, in fact, is a hybrid version combining the Al-31F and the vectoring nozzle of the Al-37FU. Being fitted with a 2D vector nozzle, the Al-31FP is only variable in pitch, the fire-control system was also improved. An upgraded N-011M BARS Passive electronically scanned array radar was fitted and it can capable of tracking 15 aerial targets and guiding four air-to-air missiles. In the aircrafts tail sting is an N-012 rearward facing radar, the Su-37 also features an upgraded electronic warfare support measures package. It can carry air-to-air and air-to-surface weapons on 12 hardpoints, the vast range of weapons, of which the Su-37 can carry 8,000 kg, is supplemented by the 150-round 30 mm GSh-301 cannon. Instead of traditional instruments, the cockpit has four T-form Sextan Avionique LCD multi-function displays. These display air data/navigation, systems status, weapons/systems selection and tactical situation information, the pilot, who is provided with a head-up display, sits on the K-36DM ejection seat inclined 30° to help counter the effects of high g-forces
21.
Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Plant
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Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association, based in Komsomolsk-on-Amur in the Russian Far East, is the largest aircraft-manufacturing company in Russia. The company currently produces Su-27SM/SKM fighters, Su-30MK2 multirole fighters, Su-33 and Su-27KUB shipborne fighters, the assembly line for all versions of the new Sukhoi Superjet 100 is located at the companys facilities. Together with Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association, the company is expected to produce 70 Superjet airframes by 2012, the company is among Khabarovsk Krais most successful enterprises, and for years has been the largest taxpayer of the territory. Shareholders of KnAAPO, United Aircraft Corporation “Sukhoi Company“ JSC KnAAPO owns 5. 41% of the shares of Sukhoi Design Bureau The companys English website
22.
Irkut Corporation
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Irkut Corporation is a Russian aircraft manufacturer, member of the United Aircraft Corporation. It is best known as being the manufacturer of the Sukhoi Su-30 family of interceptor/ground-attack aircraft, the company was founded in 1932 in the Transbaykal region in the Russian Federation. Irkut has its office in Aeroport District, Northern Administrative Okrug. Irkut produces Sukhoi Su-27 and Sukhoi Su-30 fighters and amphibious planes in the Be family, the company includes the Irkutsk Aviation Plant, Beriev Aircraft Company, Yakovlev Design Bureau, and BETA AIR. It is also working on the design and series production of the MC-21 passenger jet, the company employs over 14,000 people. In 2006, the Russian government merged Irkut with Ilyushin, Mikoyan, Sukhoi, Irkut has also entered into a joint venture with Indian military aircraft manufacturer HAL to manufacture the UAC/HAL Il-214, which will be designed by Ilyushin. In 2008, Irkut earned net income equivalent to US$34.8 million, the companys revenue was the equivalent to US$1.25 billion, 25% more than in 2007
23.
Radar
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, Radio waves from the transmitter reflect off the object and return to the receiver, giving information about the objects location and speed. Radar was developed secretly for military use by several nations in the period before, the term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging or RAdio Direction And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and other languages as a common noun, high tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing, machine learning and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is lidar, which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasers rather than radio waves, as early as 1886, German physicist Heinrich Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected from solid objects. In 1895, Alexander Popov, an instructor at the Imperial Russian Navy school in Kronstadt. The next year, he added a spark-gap transmitter, in 1897, while testing this equipment for communicating between two ships in the Baltic Sea, he took note of an interference beat caused by the passage of a third vessel. In his report, Popov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for detecting objects, the German inventor Christian Hülsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect the presence of distant metallic objects. In 1904, he demonstrated the feasibility of detecting a ship in dense fog and he obtained a patent for his detection device in April 1904 and later a patent for a related amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. He also got a British patent on September 23,1904 for a radar system. It operated on a 50 cm wavelength and the radar signal was created via a spark-gap. In 1915, Robert Watson-Watt used radio technology to advance warning to airmen. Watson-Watt became an expert on the use of direction finding as part of his lightning experiments. As part of ongoing experiments, he asked the new boy, Arnold Frederic Wilkins, Wilkins made an extensive study of available units before selecting a receiver model from the General Post Office. Its instruction manual noted that there was fading when aircraft flew by, in 1922, A. Hoyt Taylor and Leo C. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect the presence of ships in low visibility, eight years later, Lawrence A. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa followed prewar Great Britain, and Hungary had similar developments during the war. Hugon, began developing a radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on the liner Normandie in 1935
24.
Canard (aeronautics)
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A canard is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the main wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. The term canard may be used to describe the aircraft itself, despite the use of a canard surface on the first powered aeroplane, the Wright Flyer of 1903, canard designs were not built in quantity until the appearance of the Saab Viggen jet fighter in 1967. The aerodynamics of the configuration are complex and require careful analysis. Canard foreplanes, whether used in a canard or three-surface configuration, have important consequences on the aircraft’s longitudinal equilibrium, the term “canard” arose from the appearance of the Santos-Dumont 14-bis of 1906, which was said to be reminiscent of a duck with its neck stretched out in flight. The Wright Brothers began experimenting with the foreplane configuration around 1900 and their first kite included a front surface for pitch control and they adopted this configuration for their first Flyer. They were suspicious of the aft tail because Otto Lilienthal had been killed in a glider with one, the Wrights realised that a foreplane would tend to destabilise an aeroplane but expected it to be a better control surface, in addition to being visible to the pilot in flight. They believed it impossible to provide control and stability in a single design, and opted for control. Many pioneers initially followed the Wrights lead, the Fabre Hydravion of 1910 was the first floatplane to fly and had a foreplane. But canard behaviour was not properly understood and other European pioneers—among them, Louis Blériot—were establishing the tailplane as the safer, some, including the Wrights, experimented with both fore and aft planes on the same aircraft, now known as the three surface configuration. After 1911, few canard types would be produced for many decades, in 1914 W. E. Evans commented that the Canard type model has practically received its death-blow so far as scientific models are concerned. Experiments continued sporadically for several decades, in 1917 de Bruyère constructed his C1 biplane fighter, having a canard foreplane and rear-mounted pusher propellor. First flown in 1927, the experimental Focke-Wulf F19 Ente was more successful, two examples were built and one of them continued flying until 1931. Immediately before and during World War II several experimental canard fighters were flown, including the Ambrosini SS.4, Curtiss-Wright XP-55 Ascender and Kyūshū J7W1 Shinden. These were attempts at using the configuration to give advantages in areas such as performance, armament disposition or pilot view. The Shinden was ordered into production off the board but hostilities ceased before any other than prototypes had flown. But the stability and control problems encountered prevented widespread adoption, in 1963 the Swedish company Saab patented a delta-winged design which overcame the earlier problems, in what has become known as the close-coupled canard. It was built as the Saab 37 Viggen and in 1967 became the first modern aircraft to enter production. The success of this aircraft spurred many designers, and canard surfaces sprouted on a number of derived from the popular Dassault Mirage delta-winged jet fighter
25.
Air supremacy
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Air supremacy is a position in war where a side holds complete control of air warfare and air power over opposing forces. It is defined by NATO and the United States Department of Defense as the degree of air superiority wherein the opposing air force is incapable of effective interference. There are three levels of control of the air, Air supremacy is the highest level, where a side holds complete control of the skies, Air superiority is the second level, where a side is in a more favorable position than the opponent. It is defined in the NATO glossary as the degree of dominance in air battle and that permits the conduct of operations by and its related land, sea and air forces at a given time and place without prohibitive interference by opposing air forces. Air parity is the lowest level of control, where a side only holds control of skies above friendly troop positions, the degree of a forces air control is a zero-sum game with its opponents, increasing control by one corresponds to decreasing control by the other. Air power has become a powerful element of military campaigns. Air supremacy allows increased bombing efforts, tactical air support for forces, paratroop assaults, airdrops and simple cargo plane transfers. Air power is a function of the degree of air superiority and numbers or types of aircraft, during the First World War, air superiority on the Western Front changed hands between the Germans and the Allies several times. Periods of German air superiority included the Fokker Scourge of late 1915 to early 1916, the Italian Corpo Aeronautico Militare established air superiority over the Austro-Hungarian Imperial and Royal Aviation Troops at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. The defeat suffered by Austria-Hungary in the battle caused the dissolution of the empire, in 1921, Italian aerial warfare theorist Giulio Douhet published The Command of the Air, a book positing that future wars would be decided in the skies. At the time, mainstream military theory did not see air power as a war-winning tactic, Douhets idea that air power could be a decisive force and be used to avoid the long and costly War of Attrition was influential although later events proved him wrong in many details. That would terrorize citizens into pressuring their government into immediate surrender, at the beginning of World War II, Douhets ideas were dismissed by some, but it became apparent that his theories on the importance of aircraft were supported by events as the war continued. In 1925, the Royal Air Force tested the ability of air supremacy in isolation from other warfare forms during their first independent action in Waziristan, American general Billy Mitchell was another influential air power theorist of the inter-war period. After World War I, then-Assistant Chief of Air Service in the United States Army Air Service, the first of these was Project B in 1921, in which the captured German World War I battleship, SMS Ostfriesland, was sunk by a flight of bombers in 22 minutes. He would also go on to air power advocates such as Russian-American Alexander P. Roosevelt in support of long-range bombing. At the beginning of World War II, the sides took different views on the importance of air power. Adolf Hitler saw it as a tool to support the German Army. The Allies saw it, specifically long-range strategic bombing, as being an important part of warfare which they believed capable of crippling Germanys industrial centers
26.
McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle
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The McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle is an American all-weather multirole strike fighter derived from the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. The F-15E was designed in the 1980s for long-range, high speed interdiction without relying on escort or electronic-warfare aircraft, United States Air Force F-15E Strike Eagles can be distinguished from other U. S. Eagle variants by darker aircraft camouflage and conformal fuel tanks mounted along the engine intake ramps, the Strike Eagle has been deployed for military operations in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Libya, among others. During these operations the F-15E has carried out strikes against high-value targets, combat air patrols. It has also exported to several countries. The McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle had been introduced by the United States Air Force as a replacement for its fleet of McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs. In service, the F-15 has been a successful fighter, with over 100 aerial combat victories. Despite a lack of official interest, McDonnell Douglas quietly worked on an F-15-derived interdictor fighter, the company envisaged the aircraft as a replacement for the General Dynamics F-111 and the remaining F-4s, as well as to augment the existing F-15s. In 1978, the USAF initiated the Tactical All-Weather Requirement Study which looked at McDonnell Douglass proposal, TAWRS recommended the F-15E as the USAFs future strike platform. In 1979, McDonnell Douglas and Hughes began a collaboration on the development of the F-15Es air-to-ground capabilities. To assist in the F-15Es development, McDonnell Douglas modified the second TF-15A prototype, AF serial number 71-0291, the aircraft, known as the Advanced Fighter Capability Demonstrator, first flew on 8 July 1980. It was previously used to trial conformal fuel tanks, initially designed for the F-15 under the designation FAST Pack, with FAST standing for Fuel and Sensor and it was subsequently fitted with a Pave Tack laser designator targeting pod to allow the independent delivery of guided bombs. The demonstrator was displayed at the 1980 Farnborough Airshow, in March 1981, the USAF announced the Enhanced Tactical Fighter program to procure a replacement for the F-111. The program was renamed the Dual-Role Fighter competition. The concept envisioned an aircraft capable of launching deep air interdiction missions without requiring additional support by fighter escort or jamming, General Dynamics submitted the F-16XL, while McDonnell Douglas submitted the F-15E. The USAF was initially expected to procure 400 aircraft, a later revised to 392. Construction of the first three F-15Es started in July 1985, the first of these, 86-0183, made its maiden flight on 11 December 1986. Piloted by Gary Jennings, the reached a maximum speed of Mach 0.9
27.
Soviet Air Defence Forces
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The Soviet Air Defence Forces was the air defence branch of the Soviet Armed Forces. It continued being a branch of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1998. Unlike Western air defence forces, V-PVO was a branch of the military itself, separate from the Soviet Air Force. During the Soviet period it was ranked third in importance of the Soviet services, behind the Strategic Rocket Forces. Preparations for creation of the air forces started in 1932. At the outbreak of war, air forces were in the midst of rearmament. Anti-aircraft artillery teams had few of the latest 37 mm automatic and 85 mm guns, moreover, the troops were deficient in Yak-1 s and MiG-3s, 46% of the fleet were obsolete aircraft. Increased rates of production were initiated to provide the new equipment. To this end, the formation of parts of the IA, IN, anti-aircraft machine gun, a classic example of a major political organization of defence and industrial center was the defence of Moscow. It was carried out by the 1st Air Defence Corps and the 6th Fighter Aviation Corps PVO, the presence of such large forces, skillful management organisation foiled enemy attempts to inflict massive air strikes. Only 2. 6% of the number of Axis aircraft flew in the outskirts of Moscow as a result of their efforts. Air defence forces defending Moscow destroyed 738 enemy aircraft, in addition, assaults by the 6th Fighter Aviation Corps inflicted heavy blows, destroyed 567 enemy aircraft on the ground. Overall, the Air Defence Forces destroyed 1,305 aircraft, on November 9,1941, the post of the Commander of the Air Defence Forces was created, and Major General Mikhail Gromadin was appointed. In January 1942, to improve the interaction of forces and air defence systems, in April 1942, the Moscow Air Defence Front was founded, and the Leningrad and Baku Air Defence Armies were later raised. There were the first operational formations of the Air Defence Forces, in June 1943, the Office of the Commander of Air Defence Forces of the country was disbanded. In the Far East in March 1945, three air armies were established, Maritime, Amur and Baikal. In carrying out its tasks, the PVO destroyed 7,313 German aircraft, of which 4,168 and 3,145 were targeted by the IA antiaircraft artillery, machine guns, during the war PVO formations were organised as Air Defence Fronts and Air Defence Armies. PVO Fronts normally covered airspace over several ground Army Fronts, these should not be confused with each other, in May 1954, it was established as equal to the other branches of the Soviet Armed Forces, receiving its first commander-in-chief, Marshal of the Soviet Union Leonid Govorov
28.
Thrust vectoring
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In rocketry and ballistic missiles that fly outside the atmosphere, aerodynamic control surfaces are ineffective, so thrust vectoring is the primary means of attitude control. For aircraft, the method was originally envisaged to provide vertical thrust as a means to give aircraft vertical or short takeoff. Subsequently, it was realized that using vectored thrust in combat situations enabled aircraft to perform various maneuvers not available to conventional-engined planes, in missile literature originating from Russian sources, thrust vectoring is often referred as gas-dynamic steering or gas-dynamic control. Thrust vector control is used when the system is creating thrust. At other stages of flight, separate mechanisms are required for attitude and it is possible to generate pitch and yaw moments by deflecting the main rocket thrust vector so that it does not pass through the mass center. Thrust vectoring for many liquid rockets is achieved by gimbaling the rocket engine, the Saturn V and the Space Shuttle used gimballed engines. If the liquid is injected on only one side of the missile, it modifies that side of the exhaust plume, resulting in different thrust on that side and this was the control system used on the Minuteman II and the early SLBMs of the United States Navy. A later method developed for solid propellant ballistic missiles achieves thrust vectoring by deflecting the rocket nozzle using electric servomechanisms or hydraulic cylinders, the Trident C4 and D5 systems are controlled via hydraulically actuated nozzle. The Apollo Lunar Module had an engine in the ascent stage. Attitude control was achieved by using 16 auxiliary reaction control system engines in 4 clusters mounted on the ascent stage, the descent stage engine gimbaled, but this was computer-controlled to keep the thrust vector aligned with the center of mass and attitude control was by the ascent stage RCS. The V-2 used exhaust vanes and aerodynamic vanes, as did the Redstone, some smaller sized atmospheric tactical missiles, such as the AIM-9X Sidewinder, eschew flight control surfaces and instead use mechanical vanes to deflect motor exhaust to one side. Thrust vectoring is a way to reduce a missiles minimum range, for example, anti-tank missiles such as the ERYX and the PARS3 LR use thrust vectoring for this reason. 9M96E uses a control system enables maneuver at altitudes of up to 35 km at forces of over 20g. 9K720 Iskander is controlled during the flight with gas-dynamic and aerodynamic control surfaces. Most currently operational vectored thrust aircraft use turbofans with rotating nozzles or vanes to deflect the exhaust stream and this method can successfully deflect thrust through as much as 90 degrees, relative to the aircraft centerline. However, the engine must be sized for vertical lift, rather than normal flight, afterburning is difficult to incorporate and is impractical for take-off and landing thrust vectoring, because the very hot exhaust can damage runway surfaces. Without afterburning it is hard to reach flight speeds. A PCB engine, the Bristol Siddeley BS100, was cancelled in 1965, tiltrotor aircraft vector thrust via rotating turboprop engine nacelles
29.
Passive electronically scanned array
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This contrasts with an active electronically scanned array antenna, which has a separate transmitter and/or receiver unit for each antenna element, all controlled by a computer. AESA is an advanced, sophisticated versatile second-generation version of the original PESA phased array technology. The largest use of phased arrays is in radars, most phased array radars in the world are PESA. The civilian Microwave landing system uses PESA transmit-only arrays, radar systems generally work by connecting an antenna to a powerful radio transmitter to emit a short pulse of signal. The transmitter is disconnected and the antenna is connected to a sensitive receiver which amplifies any echos from target objects. By measuring the time it takes for the signal to return, the receiver then sends the resulting output to a display of some sort. The transmitter elements were typically klystron tubes or magnetrons, which are suitable for amplifying or generating a range of frequencies to high power levels. To scan a portion of the sky, the antenna must be physically moved to point in different directions. Starting in the 1960s new solid-state devices capable of delaying the signal in a controlled way were introduced. That led to the first practical large-scale passive electronically scanned array, pESAs took a signal from a single source, split it into hundreds of paths, selectively delayed some of them, and sent them to individual antennas. The delays could be controlled electronically, allowing the beam to be steered very quickly without moving the antenna. A PESA can scan a volume of space much quicker than a mechanical system. PESAs quickly became widespread on ships and large fixed emplacements in the 1960s, followed by airborne sensors as the electronics shrank
30.
Soviet Air Forces
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The Soviet Air Forces was the official designation of one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces, the Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces assets were divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics. March of the Pilots was its anthem, the All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a Bolshevik aerial headquarters initially led by Konstantin Akashev and it became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on aircraft design became greater, from its earliest days, the force mimicked ground forces organization especially in the 1930s, by which time it was made up of air armies, aviation corps, aviation divisions, and aviation regiments. At first, the I-16 proved superior to any Luftwaffe fighters, however, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later, Bf-109s delivered to Francos Spanish Nationalist air forces secured air superiority for the Nationalists, on 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ. Between 1933 and 1938, the Soviet government planned and funded missions to break numerous world aviation records, not only did aviation records and achievements become demonstrations of the USSRs technological progress, they also served as legitimization of the socialist system. With each new success, Soviet press trumpeted victories for socialism, furthermore, Soviet media idolized record-breaking pilots, exalting them not only as role models for Soviet society, but also as symbols of progress towards the socialist-utopian future. The early 1930s saw a shift in focus away from collectivist propaganda. In the case of aviation, the government began glorifying people who utilized aviation technology instead of glorifying the technology itself. Pilots such as Valery Chkalov, Georgy Baydukov, Alexander Belyakov, in May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate the first transpolar flight in history. On 20 June 1937, the aviators landed their ANT-25 in Vancouver, a month later, Stalin ordered the departure of a second crew to push the boundaries of modern aviation technology even further. The public reaction to the flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots Bolshevik knights of culture and progress, Soviet citizens celebrated Aviation Day on 18 August with as much zeal as they celebrated the October Revolution anniversary. Literature including poems, short stories, and novels emerged celebrating the feats of the aviator-celebrities, feature films like Victory, Tales of Heroic Aviators, and Valery Chkalov reinforced the positive hero imagery, celebrating the aviators individuality within the context of a socialist government
31.
Interceptor aircraft
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An interceptor aircraft, or simply interceptor, is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to prevent successful missions by enemy aircraft, particularly bombers and reconnaissance aircraft. For daytime operations, conventional fighters normally fill the interceptor role, few aircraft can be considered dedicated daytime interceptors. Night fighters and bomber destroyers are, by definition, interceptors of the heavy type, examples of classic interceptors of this era include the F-106 Delta Dart, Sukhoi Su-15 and English Electric Lightning. Dedicated interceptor designs became rare, with the widely used examples designed after the 1960s being the Tornado F3, Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat. The first dedicated interceptor squadrons were formed up during World War I in order to defend London against attacks by Zeppelins, early units generally used aircraft withdrawn from front-line service, notably the Sopwith Pup. They were told about their targets prior to take-off from a centralized command center in the Horse Guards building. The Pup proved to have too low performance to intercept the Gotha G. IV bombers. Before Second World War started, offensive bomber speeds had improved so much that it appeared that the mission would be effectively impossible. The visual and acoustic detection had a range on the order of a few miles. This could be addressed by a cover of aircraft. The conclusion at the time was that the bomber will always get through, the introduction of radar upset this equation. Radar was able to detect aircraft at long range, on the order of 100 miles even for early systems and this provided enough time for fighters to start up, climb to altitude and chase down their targets. The introduction of jet power increased speeds from perhaps 200 miles per hour to 600 miles per hour in a single step, although radars also improved in performance, the gap between offense and defense was dramatically reduced. Large attacks could so confuse the defenses ability to communicate information to the pilots that the method of manual ground controlled interception was increasingly seen as inadequate. In the United States, this led to the introduction of the Semi-Automatic Ground Environment to computerize this task. In the 1950s, during the Cold War, an interceptor force was crucial for the great powers. Hence for a period of time they faced rapid development. Thus, the doctrine of mutually assured destruction replaced the trend of defense strengthening and their utility waned as the role became blurred into the role of the heavy air superiority fighters dominant in military thinking at the time
32.
Anatoly Kvochur
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Anatoly Kvochur, is a Russian aerobatics pilot, a test pilot, and a Hero of the Russian Federation. He is currently the Deputy Chief of the Gromov Flight Research Institute and he is widely regarded as one of the best Russian pilots. Anatoly Kvochur was born in April 16,1952 in the village of Mazurovka and he studied at the V. M. Komarov Higher Military Flying School at Yeysk, graduating in 1973. He began service as a pilot in the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany and he served for two years before he was discharged from the Soviet Armed Forces in 1977 with a recommendation for admittance to the Test Pilot School at the Zhukovsky airfield. He graduated from the school in 1978, from 1978 to 1981 he worked as a test pilot at Komsomolsk-on-Amur, testing Su-17 aircraft and its modifications. He also studied further at the Moscow Aviation Institute, from whence he graduated in 1981, since then he has appeared in numerous international air shows, showcasing Russian aircraft. In 1995 Kvochur participated in a long range flight demonstration of Su-27PD. He led a team, known as the Test Pilots Team. Kvochur was involved in an accident in June 8,1989 at the Paris Air Show. He was flying a single-seater Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum Blue 303, the latest fighter aircraft of the Soviet Union at the time. While executing a low-speed, high-angle attack portion of his routine, Kvochur immediately turned the remaining engine to full afterburner. However his speed, at 180 kilometres per hour, was too slow to maintain stability on one engine, despite his efforts, the stricken aircraft went into a steep dive. Kvochur managed to steer the MiG away from the crowd and eject 2.5 seconds before impact and he landed 30 metres away from the fireball of the crashed plane. The incident was caught on video, the aircraft Kvochur was in had a Zvezda K-36D ejection seat at that time
33.
Air brake (aeronautics)
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In aeronautics, air brakes or speedbrakes are a type of flight control surfaces used on an aircraft to increase drag or increase the angle of approach during landing. The earliest known air brake was developed in 1931 and deployed on the support struts. Not long after, air brakes located on the bottom of the trailing edge were developed. More modern gliders use airbrakes which may spoil lift as well as increase drag, often, characteristics of both spoilers and air brakes are desirable and are combined - most modern airliner jets feature combined spoiler and air brake controls. In addition, the drag created by the spoilers directly assists the braking effect. Reverse thrust is used to help slow the aircraft after landing. Virtually all jet powered aircraft have an air brake or, in the case of most airliners, many early jets used parachutes as air brakes on approach or after landing. The Blackburn Buccaneer naval strike aircraft designed in the 1950s had a cone that was split. It also helped to reduce the length of the aircraft in the space on an aircraft carrier. The F-15 Eagle, Sukhoi Su-27 and other fighters have an air brake just behind the cockpit, the deceleron is an aileron that functions normally in flight but can split in half such that the top half goes up as the bottom half goes down to brake. This technique was first used on the F-89 Scorpion and has since used by Northrop on several aircraft. The space shuttle used a similar system, the vertically-split rudder opened in clamshell fashion on landing to act as a speed brake, as shown in the accompanying photo. Dive brake Drogue parachute Spoiler Thrust reversal
34.
Fly-by-wire
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Fly-by-wire is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an aircraft with an electronic interface. Both systems often require redundant backup to deal with failures, which increases weight, both have limited ability to compensate for changing aerodynamic conditions. The term fly-by-wire implies a purely electrically signaled control system and it is used in the general sense of computer-configured controls, where a computer system is interposed between the operator and the final control actuators or surfaces. This modifies the manual inputs of the pilot in accordance with control parameters, side-sticks, centre sticks, or conventional flight control yokes can be used to fly FBW aircraft. Fly-by wire systems are complex, but their operation can be explained in simple terms. When a pilot moves the control column, a signal is sent to a computer the signal is sent through wires to ensure that the signal reaches the computer. A Triplex is when there are three channels being used, in an Analog system, the computer receives the signals, performs a calculation and adds another channel. These four Quadruplex signals are sent to the control surface actuator. Potentiometers in the actuator send a signal back to the computer reporting the position of the actuator, when the actuator reaches the desired position, the two signals cancel each other out and the actuator stops moving. The computer then commands the flight control surfaces to adopt a configuration that will achieve the flight path. Fly-by-wire control systems allow aircraft computers to perform tasks without pilot input, automatic stability systems operate in this way. Gyroscopes fitted with sensors are mounted in an aircraft to sense movement changes in the pitch, roll, any movement results in signals to the computer, which automatically moves control actuators to stabilize the aircraft. Aircraft systems may be quadruplexed to prevent loss of signals in the case of failure of one or even two channels, pre-flight safety checks of a fly-by-wire system are often performed using built-in test equipment. On programming the system, either by the pilot or groundcrew, any failure will be indicated to the crews. A FBW aircraft can be lighter than a design with conventional controls. These include the vertical and horizontal stabilizers that are at the rear of the fuselage, if these structures can be reduced in size, airframe weight is reduced. The advantages of FBW controls were first exploited by the military, the Airbus series of airliners used full-authority FBW controls beginning with their A320 series, see A320 flight control. Boeing followed with their 777 and later designs, electronic systems require less maintenance, whereas mechanical and hydraulic systems require lubrication, tension adjustments, leak checks, fluid changes, etc
35.
Pugachev's Cobra
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It uses potent engine thrust to maintain approximately constant altitude through the entire move. Some have speculated that the maneuver may have use in range combat. It is a trick to demonstrate an aircrafts pitch control authority, high angle of attack stability and engine-versus-inlet compatibility. The maneuver is named after the Soviet test pilot Viktor Pugachyov and it is claimed that a similar maneuver was performed in the 1960s, by Swedish Air Force pilots in the Saab 35 Draken. In the case of the Su-27, the pilot disengages the angle of attack limiter of the plane. This action also disengages the g limiter, after that the pilot pulls back on the stick hard. The aircraft reaches 90–120° angle of attack with a gain of altitude. When the elevator is centered, the drag at the rear of the plane causes torque, at that time the pilot adds power to compensate for the lift loss. In a properly performed Pugachevs Cobra, the plane maintains almost straight flight throughout the maneuver, while Pugachevs Cobra can be executed using only standard aerodynamic controls, it could be achieved more easily with modern thrust vectoring. In the latter case it would be an example of supermaneuverability, the Herbst maneuvering and the helicopter maneuver are other examples of the recent growing use of vectored thrust in 4.5 and fifth-generation jet fighters, manned as well as unmanned. The maneuver has never used in combat. It has been speculated that the maneuver could theoretically be useful when a combatant is being pursued closely by an opponent at a higher altitude. This may give the aircraft an opportunity for firing its weapons. Maintenance of the proper aspect can be facilitated when the aircraft employs thrust vectoring and/or canard control surfaces, the disadvantage of performing this maneuver is that it leaves the airplane in a low speed/low energy state, which can leave it vulnerable to attack from opposing aircraft. It can also be countered by maneuvers such as high yo-yo, kulbit, a more demanding combat manoeuvre Interview with Pugachev about this manoeuvre Fighter Technology of the Future USAF & NATO Report RTO-TR-015 AC/323//TP-1
36.
Tailslide
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The tailslide is an aerobatic maneuver that starts from level flight with a 1/4 loop up into a straight vertical climb until the aircraft loses momentum. A 1/4 loop recovers to level flight, tailslides will transiently reverse the airflow on many aircraft surfaces, giving abnormal forces compared with forward flight. The control surface linkages must be able to handle these forces without damage or deformation, not all airplanes capable of aerobatics are capable of tailslide maneuvers. Kvochurs Bell is a variation where the aircraft propels forward almost vertically while simultaneously braking and following the movement of its tail
37.
Doppler radar
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A Doppler radar is a specialized radar that uses the Doppler effect to produce velocity data about objects at a distance. It does this by bouncing a signal off a desired target. This variation gives direct and highly accurate measurements of the component of a targets velocity relative to the radar. Doppler radars are used in aviation, sounding satellites, meteorology, radar guns, radiology and healthcare, most modern weather radars use the pulse-doppler technique to examine the motion of precipitation, but it is only a part of the processing of their data. So, while these radars use a specialized form of doppler radar. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren approaches, passes and recedes from an observer, the received frequency is higher during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession. Imagine a baseball pitcher throwing one ball every second to a catcher, assuming the balls travel at a constant velocity and the pitcher is stationary, the catcher catches one ball every second. However, if the pitcher is jogging towards the catcher, the catcher catches balls more frequently because the balls are less spaced out, the inverse is true if the pitcher is moving away from the man. He catches balls less frequently because of the backward motion. If the pitcher moves at an angle, but at the same speed, from the point of view of the pitcher, the frequency remains constant. Since with electromagnetic radiation like microwaves frequency is proportional to wavelength. Thus, the difference in velocity between a source and an observer is what gives rise to the doppler effect. The formula for radar doppler shift is the same as that for reflection of light by a moving mirror, There is no need to invoke Einsteins theory of special relativity, because all observations are made in the same frame of reference. We can then write, f d ≈2 v f t c There are four ways of producing the Doppler effect, radars may be, Coherent pulsed, Pulse-Doppler radar, Continuous wave, or Frequency modulation. Doppler allows the use of narrow band receiver filters that reduce or eliminate signals from slow moving and this effectively eliminates false signals produced by trees, clouds, insects, birds, wind, and other environmental influences. Cheap hand held Doppler radar may produce erroneous measurements, CW doppler radar only provides a velocity output as the received signal from the target is compared in frequency with the original signal. Early doppler radars included CW, but these led to the development of frequency modulated continuous wave radar. With the advent of techniques, Pulse-Doppler radars became light enough for aircraft use
38.
Radar lock-on
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Lock-on is a feature of many radar systems that allows it to automatically follow a selected target. Lock-on was first designed for the AI Mk, IX radar in the UK, but first used extensively by US ground-based SCR-584 radar. The SCR-584 demonstrated the ability to easily track almost any airborne target, in the post-WWII era, the term became more widely used in connection to missile guidance concepts. Many modern anti-aircraft missiles use some form of semi-active radar homing, to provide a continual signal, the radar is locked-onto the target, following it throughout the missiles flight. In older radar systems, through the 1980s, lock-on was normally assisted by a change in the signal characteristics. This led to the introduction of radar warning receivers that would notice this change and provide a warning to the operator. Missile lock-on is typically indicated to the pilot or missile operator via an audible tone, active radar homing is a missile guidance method in which a missile contains a radar transceiver and the electronics necessary for it to find and track its target autonomously. NATO brevity code for an active radar homing missile launch is Fox. With a semi-active radar homing system, the launch platform acquires the target with its search radar, the missile is then powered up while the launch platforms illuminator radar lights up the target for it. The illuminator is a transmitter with a narrow, focused beam that may be separate from the search radar. When the passive radar of the guidance system is able to see/detect the radio waves reflected from the target, missile lock-on is achieved. This makes such missiles practically immune to jamming, in addition to removing the second disadvantage. Since they already have the receiver on board, this should not be a difficult feature to add. The subject of a radar lock-on may become aware of the fact that it is being targeted by virtue of the electro-magnetic emissions of the tracking system. This condition will present a threat to the target, as it indicates that a missile may be about to be fired at it. Fire-control radar Missile guidance Air-to-air missile Surface-to-air missile Radar jamming and deception Radar warning receiver
39.
Saturn AL-31
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The Saturn AL-31 is a family of military turbofan engines. It was developed by Lyulka, now NPO Saturn, of Soviet Union and it produces a thrust of 123 kN with afterburning in the AL-31F,137 kN in the AL-31FM and 145 kN in the AL-37FU variants. Currently it powers all Su-27 derivatives and the Chengdu J-10 multirole jet fighter which has developed by China. The AL-31FP and AL-37FU variants have thrust vectoring, the former is used in the Su-30MKI export version of the Su-30 for India & Sukhoi Su-30MKM for Malaysia. The AL-31FP can deflect its nozzle to a maximum of ±15° at a rate of 30°/sec, the vectoring nozzle is utilized primarily in the pitch plane. The AL-31FP is built in India by HAL at the Koraput facility under a technology transfer agreement. It can tolerate severely distorted air flow from the intake, in the twin-engined Su-27, left and right engines are interchangeable. The Mean Time Between Overhaul for the AL-31F is 1000 hours with a full-life of 3000 hours, some reports suggested that Russia was offering AL-31F to Iran to re-engine its F-14 Tomcat air fleet in the late 1990s. According to Saturns Victor Mihailovic Chepkin, chief designer of the 117 and 117S engines and this was recently confirmed by AVIC China can domestically produce most AL-31 parts for its own jet engine programs, but still import turbine blades from Russia. Intended to power the Su-35BM, the izdeliye 117S is an upgrade of the AL-31F that uses technology from the AL-41F, the engine produces 142 kN of thrust in afterburner and 86.3 kN dry. It features a fan 3% larger in diameter, advanced high- and low-pressure turbines, a digital control system. This engine will have a life of 4,000 hours. The first flight of this engine was completed in an Su-35BM on 20 February 2008, on 9 August 2010, Ufa-based company UMPO started supplying 117S engines intended for Su-35S fighters. Related to the 117S is the izdeliye 117, a highly improved AL-31F derivative designed for the Sukhoi T-50 fighter, the engine features an increased diameter fan, new high and low pressure turbines, and a digital control system. According to Sukhoi director Mikhail Pogosyan, the 117 is a new fifth generation engine built specifically for the PAK FA. Though the specifics of the 117 engine remain classified, the engines thrust was increased by 24.5 kN over the AL-31 while the weight was reduced by 150 kg. The new engine produces 147 kN of thrust in afterburner and has a dry weight of 1,420 kg, like the AL-31F, the 117 has 4 low-pressure compressor and 9 high-pressure compressor stages. The 117 is an interim engine meant for prototype and initial production batches of the T-50, the definitive second stage for the aircraft is designated izdeliye 30 and will eventually replace the 117 after 2020
40.
Afterburner
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An afterburner is a component present on some jet engines, mostly those used on military supersonic aircraft. Its purpose is to provide an increase in thrust, usually for supersonic flight, takeoff, afterburning is achieved by injecting additional fuel into the jet pipe downstream of the turbine. Pilots can activate and deactivate afterburners in-flight, and jet engines are referred to as operating wet when afterburning is being used, an engine producing maximum thrust wet is at maximum power, while an engine producing maximum thrust dry is at military power. Jet-engine thrust is governed by the principle of mass flow rate. Thrust depends on two things, the velocity of the exhaust gas and the mass of that gas, a jet engine can produce more thrust by either accelerating the gas to a higher velocity or by having a greater mass of gas exit the engine. Designing a basic turbojet engine around the second produces the turbofan engine. Turbofans are highly efficient and can deliver high thrust for long periods. To generate increased power with a compact engine for short periods. The afterburner increases thrust primarily by accelerating the exhaust gas to a higher velocity, while the mass of the fuel added to the exhaust does contribute to an increase in exhaust mass, this effect is negligible compared to the increase in exhaust velocity. This temperature is known as the Turbine Entry Temperature, one of the engine operating parameters. After passing the turbine, the gas expands at a constant entropy. The afterburner then injects fuel downstream of the turbine and reheats the gas, in conjunction with the added heat, the pressure rises in the tailpipe and the gas is ejected through the nozzle at a higher velocity. The mass flow is slightly increased by the addition of the fuel. Afterburners do produce markedly enhanced thrust as well as a large flame at the back of the engine. This exhaust flame may show shock diamonds, which are caused by shock waves formed due to differences between ambient pressure and the exhaust pressure. These imbalances cause oscillations in the exhaust jet diameter over distance and this technique was developed to give greater thrust for take-off and supersonic performance in an aircraft similar to, but of higher weight, than the Hawker Siddeley Harrier. A jet engine afterburner is an extended exhaust section containing extra fuel injectors, since the jet engine upstream will use little of the oxygen it ingests, additional fuel can be burned after the gas flow has left the turbines. When the afterburner is turned on, fuel is injected and igniters are fired, the resulting combustion process increases the afterburner exit temperature significantly, resulting in a steep increase in engine net thrust
41.
Turbofan
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The turbofan or fanjet is a type of airbreathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft propulsion. Thus, whereas all the air taken in by a turbojet passes through the turbine, a turbofan thus can be thought of as a turbojet being used to drive a ducted fan, with both of those contributing to the thrust. The ratio of the mass-flow of air bypassing the engine compared to the mass-flow of air passing through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio. Most commercial aviation jet engines in use today are of the high-bypass type, afterburners are not used on high-bypass turbofan engines but may be used on either low-bypass turbofan or turbojet engines. Other noise sources are the fan, compressor and turbine, Jet noise is reduced with chevrons, sawtooth patterns on the exhaust nozzles, on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 and General Electric GEnx engines used on the Boeing 787. Turbofans are thus the most efficient engines in the range of speeds from about 500 to 1,000 km/h, turbofans retain an efficiency edge over pure jets at low supersonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6. Modern turbofans have either a large single-stage fan or a fan with several stages. An early configuration combined a low-pressure turbine and fan in a single rear-mounted unit, early turbojet engines were not very fuel-efficient as their overall pressure ratio and turbine inlet temperature were severely limited by the technology available at the time. In 1939-1941 Soviet designer Arkhip Lyulka elaborated the design for the worlds first turbofan engine, although several prototypes were built and ready for testing, Lyulka was in 1941 forced to abandon his research and evacuate to the Urals following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. So the first turbofan to run was apparently the German Daimler-Benz DB670 with a first run date of 27 May 1943, turbomachinery testing, using an electric motor, had started on 1 April 1943. The engine was abandoned later while the war went on and problems could not be solved, the British wartime Metrovick F.2 axial flow jet was given a fan, as the Metrovick F.3 in 1943, to create the first British turbofan. The original low-bypass turbofan engines were designed to improve efficiency by reducing the exhaust velocity to a value closer to that of the aircraft. The Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, had a ratio of 0.3. Civilian turbofan engines of the 1960s, such as the Pratt & Whitney JT8D and the Rolls-Royce Spey had bypass ratios closer to 1, the first General Electric turbofan was the aft-fan CJ805-23 based on the CJ805-3 turbojet. It was followed by the aft-fan General Electric CF700 engine with a 2.0 bypass ratio and this was derived from the General Electric J85/CJ610 turbojet to power the larger Rockwell Sabreliner 75/80 model aircraft, as well as the Dassault Falcon 20 with about a 50% increase in thrust. The CF700 was the first small turbofan in the world to be certified by the Federal Aviation Administration, there were at one time over 400 CF700 aircraft in operation around the world, with an experience base of over 10 million service hours. The CF700 turbofan engine was used to train Moon-bound astronauts in Project Apollo as the powerplant for the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle. A high-specific-thrust/low-bypass-ratio turbofan normally has a fan, developing a relatively high pressure ratio and, thus
42.
Intake ramp
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An intake ramp is a rectangular, plate-like device within the air intake of a jet engine, designed to generate a number of shock waves to aid the inlet compression process at supersonic speeds. The ramp sits at an angle to deflect the intake air from the longitudinal direction. At supersonic flight speeds, the deflection of the air creates a number of oblique shock waves at each change of gradient along at the ramp. Air crossing each shock wave slows to a lower Mach number. Ideally, the first oblique shock wave should intercept the air intake lip, thus avoiding air spillage, more advanced supersonic intakes feature a ramp with a number of discrete changes of gradient in order to generate multiple oblique shock waves. In the case of Concorde, the first intake ramp is followed by a diverging ramp and this intake design thus ensures excellent pressure recovery and contributes to Concordes improved fuel efficiency whilst cruising supersonically at up to Mach 2.2. For a fixed geometry it is feasible to use curved intakes without any shocks before the normal shock. Modern fighter jets have engines so powerful that top speed is not limited by them, thus spillage at the intake is acceptable, the nacelle has a round outer lip to deflect spillage back into the longitudinal direction. Modern jets have a ramp thus spillage at least produces some lift. In the case of the F-22 the inlet has two placed in a diamond shape, thus for most Mach- and thrust-conditions spillage occurs only at the aft / lower corner of that diamond. In the case of the F-22 the leading edges of the wing become supersonic at Mach 1.8 and certainly are as large a source of wave drag as the inlet
43.
Mach number
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In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. M = u c, where, M is the Mach number, u is the flow velocity with respect to the boundaries. By definition, Mach 1 is equal to the speed of sound, Mach 0.65 is 65% of the speed of sound, and Mach 1.35 is 35% faster than the speed of sound. The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of the surrounding medium, the Mach number is primarily used to determine the approximation with which a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. The medium can be a gas or a liquid, the boundary can be the boundary of an object immersed in the medium, or of a channel such as a nozzle, diffusers or wind tunnels channeling the medium. As the Mach number is defined as the ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number, if M <0. 2–0.3 and the flow is quasi-steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and simplified incompressible flow equations can be used. The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, as the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit, the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead of 2 Mach. This is somewhat reminiscent of the modern ocean sounding unit mark, which was also unit-first. In the decade preceding faster-than-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Machs number, never Mach 1, Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar manner at a given Mach number, regardless of other variables. As modeled in the International Standard Atmosphere, dry air at sea level, standard temperature of 15 °C. For example, the atmosphere model lapses temperature to −56.5 °C at 11,000 meters altitude. In the following table, the regimes or ranges of Mach values are referred to, generally, NASA defines high hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development. Flight can be classified in six categories, For comparison. At transonic speeds, the field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M >1 flow appear around the object, in case of an airfoil, this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to only in a normal shock. As the speed increases, the zone of M >1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges
44.
Aerial refueling
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The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer, extending its range or loiter time on station. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue, alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne. Aerial refueling has also considered as a means to reduce fuel consumption on long-distance flights greater than 3,000 nautical miles. Potential fuel savings in the range of 35-40% have been estimated for long haul flights, usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the probe-and-drogue system is to be used. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity, for instance, in the Gulf War and the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the Iraq War, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The first mid-air refueling, based on the development of Alexander P. de Seversky, as the 1920s progressed, greater numbers of aviation enthusiasts vied to set new aerial long-distance records, using inflight air refueling. One such enthusiast, who would revolutionize aerial refueling was Sir Alan Cobham, member of the Royal Flying Corps in World War I, and a pioneer of long-distance aviation. During the 1920s, he made long-distance flights to places as far afield as Africa and Australia and this craft was eventually modified by Airspeed to Cobhams specification, for a non-stop flight from London to India, using in-flight refueling to extend the planes flight duration. Meanwhile, in 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. Aerial refueling remained a dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated a spill-free refueling nozzle. They exceeded the Hunters record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, the US was mainly concerned about transatlantic flights for faster postal service between Europe and America. In 1931 W. Irving Glover, the assistant postmaster, wrote an extensive article for Popular Mechanics concerning the challenges. In his article he even mentioned the use of Aerial refueling after take off as a possible solution, by 1931 they had demonstrated refueling between two Vickers Virginias, with fuel flow controlled by an automatic valve on the hose which would cut off if contact was lost. Royal Air Force officer Richard Atcherley had observed the dangerous aerial-refueling techniques in use at barnstorming events in the US and determined to create a workable system. In 1934, Cobham sold off the airline Cobham Air Routes Ltd to Olley Air Service, atcherlys system was bought up by Cobhams company, and with some refinement and continuous improvement through the late 30s, it became the first practical refueling system. Sir Alan Cobhams Grappled-line looped-hose air-to-air refueling system borrowed from techniques patented by David Nicolson and John Lord, and was publicly demonstrated for the first time in 1935. In the system the aircraft, at one time an Airspeed Courier, trailed a steel cable which was then grappled by a line shot from the tanker. The line was drawn back into the tanker where the receivers cable was connected to the refueling hose
45.
Autopilot
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An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of an aircraft without constant hands-on control by a human operator being required. The autopilot system on airplanes is sometimes referred to as George. In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the attention of a pilot in order to fly safely. As aircraft range increased allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue, an autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot. The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912, the autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevators and rudder. It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a course without a pilots attention. Lawrence Sperry demonstrated it in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris, at the contest, Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the invention by flying the aircraft with his hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers of the contest. In 1930, the Royal Aircraft Establishment in the United Kingdom developed an autopilot called a pilots assister that used a gyroscope to move the flight controls. Further development of the autopilot was performed, such as improved control algorithms, also, inclusion of additional instrumentation such as the radio-navigation aids made it possible to fly during night and in bad weather. In 1947 a US Air Force C-54 made a flight, including takeoff and landing. Bill Lear developed his F-5 automatic pilot and automatic control system. In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker J. A, moffet became the first ship to use an autopilot. Not all of the aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations, there are three levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll axis only, such autopilots are also known colloquially as wing levellers, a three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft. Autopilots in modern aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach. Autopilots exist that automate all of these phases except taxi. Landing, rollout, and taxi control to the parking position is known as CAT IIIc
46.
Terrain-following radar
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Terrain-following radar is an aerospace technology that allows a very-low-flying aircraft to automatically maintain a relatively constant altitude above ground level. It is sometimes referred-to as ground hugging or terrain hugging flight, the term nap-of-the-earth flight may also apply but is more commonly used in relation to low-flying military helicopters, which typically do not use terrain-following radar. The technology was developed by Ferranti for use with the TSR-2 aircraft. The system works by transmitting a signal towards the ground area in front of the aircraft. The radar returns can then be analysed to see how the terrain ahead varies and this technology is primarily used by military strike aircraft, to enable flight at very low altitudes and high speeds, avoiding detection by enemy radars and interception by anti-aircraft systems. Normally, this radar is used by the navigator and allows the pilot to focus on aspects of the flight besides the extremely intensive task of low flying itself. It can also enable low-altitude flight at night and in other low-visibility conditions, some aircraft such as the Tornado IDS have two separate radars, with the smaller one used for terrain-following. However more modern aircraft such as the Rafale with phased array radars can look forward and at the ground simultaneously, by electronically steering one or more beams in milliseconds. Most aircraft allow the pilot to select the ride hardness, to choose between how closely the aircraft tries to keep close to the ground and the forces exerted on the pilot. The F-111 used a switch to select for a hard, medium or a soft ride, the TFR computer will consider many factors in determining the flight path for the aircraft. These factors include, distance to the terrain, aircraft speed and velocity, angle of attack. Terrain-following radar is sometimes used by civilian aircraft that map the ground. Military helicopters may also have terrain-following radar, due to their lower speed and high maneuverability, helicopters are normally able to fly lower than fixed wing aircraft. By flying at low altitude, the aircraft can take advantage of terrain masking. The system is largely automated and can take some of the workload off the pilot. The radar emissions can be detected by enemy anti-aircraft systems with relative ease once there is no covering terrain, the use of terrain-following radar is therefore a compromise between the increased survivability due to terrain-masking and the ease with which the aircraft can be targeted if it is seen. Since the radar cannot tell what is beyond any immediate terrain, furthermore, small obstacles such as radio antennas and electricity pylons may not show up on the radar at all. The objects present collision hazards when flying at low level
47.
Final approach (aeronautics)
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A final approach is the last leg in an aircrafts approach to landing, when the aircraft is lined up with the runway and descending for landing. In aviation radio terminology, it is shortened to final. In a standard landing pattern, which is usually used under visual meteorological conditions. For instrument approaches, as well as approaches into an airfield under visual flight rules, often a straight-in final approach is used. Straight-in approaches are discouraged at non-towered airports in the US, an approach slope is the path that an airplane follows on its final approach to land on a runway. It takes its name from the fact that this path is ideally a gentle downward slope, a commonly used approach slope is 3° from the horizontal. However, certain airports have steeper approach paths based on topography, buildings, london City Airport has a 5. 5° approach, and only aircraft that can maintain such an approach are permitted to use the airport. The term glide slope is applied to mean approach slope although to be correct glide slope applies to the vertical guidance element of the Instrument Landing System. The final approach point on an instrument approach with vertical guidance is glide slope or glide path intercept at the lowest published altitude. In the US, it is called the final approach fix and marked on a NACO IAP by a lightning bolt symbol and on a Jeppesen terminal chart by the end of the glide slope path symbol. It is the point in space where the final segment begins on the instrument approach. Media related to Aircraft on final approach at Wikimedia Commons
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