1.
Pakuan Pajajaran
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Pakuan Pajajaran was the fortified capital city of Sunda kingdom. The location is roughly corresponds to modern Bogor city in West Java, Indonesia, the site is revered as the spiritual home of Sundanese people as it contains much of shared identity and history of Sundanese people. The city was settled since at least the 10th century, in 1513, the city was visited by its first European visitor, Tomé Pires, the Portuguese envoy. Pakuan Pajajaran was destroyed by the Sultanate of Banten in 1579, in Sundanese language the word Pakuan derived from the term paku which means nail, and it also could means fern plant. According to Carita Waruga Guru manuscript, the name was derived from pakujajar or rows of pakis haji or cycas plant, in Sundanese pakis haji means kings fern to refer to cycas plant. This theory was supported by K. F. Holle in his book De Batoe Toelis te Buitenzorg, mentioned that in Buitenzorg area there is a village called Cipaku, rouffaer in his book Encyclopedie van Niederlandsch Indie editie Stibbe argued that the term Pakuan should be derived from the word paku which means nail. The nail represent the king as spijker der wereld and this is in line with ancient Sundanese tradition that regarded their king as the nail or center of their realm. The tradition to refer the king as nail is also found in Javanese Surakarta Sunanate tradition that refer their king as Pakubuwono. Rouffaer further suggested that the term Pajajaran derived from the term sejajar, poerbatjaraka in his writings De Batoe-Toelis bij Buitenzorg explained that the term Pakuan derived from Old Javanese word pakwwan, which refer to camp or palace. Thus he suggested that the name Pakuan Pajajaran means aanrijen staande hoven, suggesting that the buildings, Ten Dam in his work Verkenningen Rondom Padjadjaran, argued that the term Pakuan has something to do with stone phallic symbol of lingam. This erected stone monument, which in Indic beliefs symbolized Shiva, is believed once stood near Batutulis inscription as the symbol of kings power and this is also in line with menhir stone monument — supposedly megalithic culture was still prevailed in ancient Sundanese society. Ten Dam also refer to Carita Parahyangan which mentions names of Sundanese kings, Sang Haluwesi, Ten Dam further argued that Pakuan was not a name, but it refer to hoffstad. Referring to the report of Kapiten Wikler, Ten Dam suggested that the term Pajajaran describes the position of the capital. Pajajaran derived from stem word jajar, which means parallel and this might refer to its location between two parallel rivers, Cisadane and Ciliwung. For a few kilometres in Bogor vicinity, both rivers runs parallel, and this is believed as the location of Pakuan Pajajaran, other than native sources, the account of Pakuan Pajajaran was also mentioned in European sources. The capital of Daio of Sunda kingdom, was visited by a Portuguese envoy Tomé Pires in the early 16th century, the Javanese Babad dated from Mataram Sultanate period circa 17th century, still referred the area and the kingdom of West Java as Pajajaran. The area near modern Bogor, in the valleys of Cisadane
2.
Sundanese language
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Sundanese /sʌndəˈniːz/ is the language of about 39 million people from the western third of Java or about 15% of the Indonesian population. Sundanese appears to be most Closely related to Madurese and Malay, priangan, which covers the largest area of Sunda, is the most widely spoken type of Sundanese language, taught in elementary till senior-high schools in West Java and Banten Province. Sundanese can be written in different writing systems, the Old Sundanese script and Pegon in historical times, and in times the Latin script. There are seven vowels, a /ɑ/, é /ɛ/, i /i/, o /ɔ/, u /ʊ/, e /ə/, and eu /ɤ/. The consonantal phonemes are transcribed with the p, b, t, d, k, g, c, j /d͡ʒ/, h, ng, ny /ɲ/, m, n, s /s/, w, l, r /r~ɾ/. Other consonants that appear in Indonesian loanwords are mostly transferred into native consonants, f → p, v → p, sy → s, sh → s, z → j. However, Sundanese inserts the ar infix into the stem word, if the stem word starts with l, or contains r following the infix, the infix ar becomes al. Also, as with other Sundanese infixes, if the word starts with vowel, examples, Mangga A, tarahuna haneut keneh, The plural form of tahu tofu is formed by infixing ar after the initial consonant. Barudak leutik lalumpatan, formed from budak with the ar infix and modified to barudak to create plural child, ieu kaen batik aralus sadayana, formed from alus with the infix ar that becomes a prefix because alus starts with a vowel. It denotes the adjective beautiful for the plural subject/noun, siswa sakola eta mah balageur, formed from bageur with the infix ar to denote the adjective well-behaved for plural students. However, it is reported that use of al instead of ar does not to occur if the r is in onset of a neighbouring syllable. For example, the form of the adjective curiga is caruriga and not *caluriga. The prefix can be repeated twice to denote very-, or the plural of groups, for example, bararudak denotes many, many children or many groups of children. Another example, balalageur denotes plural adjective of very well-behaved, most of active form in Sundanese verb are in their root verb like diuk or dahar. Explanation, From the above example, henteu is used for negative term, buku abdi mah sanes nu ieu. Explanation, From the above example, sanes is used for negative term, Dupi - example, saya Polite- Dupi Bapa aya di bumi. Explanation, dibantun and ngabantun The other examples, Pulpen ditambut ku abdi, soal ieu digawekeun ku abdi. example, teuas, tiis, hipu, lada, haneut, etc
3.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
4.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
5.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
6.
Sunda Wiwitan
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Sunda Wiwitan is a religious belief system of traditional Sundanese. It venerates the power of nature and the spirit of ancestors, in Carita Parahyangan this faith is called Jatisunda. Its practitioners assert that Sunda Wiwitan has been part of their way of life since ancient times, before the arrival of Hinduism, the sacred book of Sunda Wiwitan is called Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian, it is a didactic text of religious and moral guidance, rules and lessons. The text is identified as Kropak 630 by National Library of Indonesia, however, over the course of time Sunda Wiwitan has been influenced by and incorporated Hindu, and to some extent, Islamic elements. The highest spiritual power in Sunda Wiwitan is Sang Hyang Kersa or Nu Ngersakeun and this supreme being is also referred to by several names or divine titles, such as Batara Tunggal, Batara Jagat, and Batara Seda Niskala. Sang Hyang Kersa resides in the highest and most sacred realm called Buana Nyungcung, the Hindu gods are considered subordinates of Sang Hyang Kersa. According to Sunda Wiwitan ontology, the universe consists of three realms, Buana Nyungcung, the uppermost realm, the abode of the supreme highest Sang Hyang Kersa. Buana Panca Tengah, earth, the realm of human beings and animals, with five cardinal directions, east, west, north, south, Buana Larang, hell, the realm of demons and lowly spirits, the lowermost realm. Between Buana Nyungcung and Buana Panca Tengah, there are 18 layers of realms, the uppermost of these heavenly realms is called Bumi Suci Alam Padang, or according to Kropak 630, Alam Kahyangan or Mandala Hyang. This second-highest realm is the abode of Nyi Pohaci Sanghyang Asri, Sang Hyang Kersa created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered to be the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands. The value system of Sunda Wiwitan is based on written and unwritten norms, the written norms are rules and taboos that govern the way of life of adherents, while the unwritten norms are internal and individual understandings of the faith. Sunda Wiwitans basic and principle concepts are based on two things, Cara Ciri Manusia and Cara Ciri Bangsa and these two principles are mentioned by Sunda Wiwitan elders, yet are not explicitly mentioned in the Siksa Kanda-ng Karesian, the sacred text of Sunda Wiwitan. Cara Ciri Manusia comprises the elements of human life. This principle refers to the human characteristic of always being wary or suspicious of foreign or unknown influences. This reflects an inherent conservatism and resistance to change in village life. It implies that influences incompatible with tradition must be rejected, the second concept of Cara Ciri Bangsa states that people have universals or similarities in basic human traits, yet express diversity from one individual or community to another. Originally Sunda Wiwitan did not incorporate many taboos or prohibitions, the most numerous taboos are applied to those living within the most sacred place on earth—the people of Baduy Dalam that inhabit Sasaka Pusaka Buana
7.
Monarchy
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The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
8.
Sunda Kelapa
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Sunda Kelapa is the old port of Jakarta located on the estuarine of Ciliwung River. Sunda Kalapa is the name, and it was the main port of Hindu Sunda Kingdom of Pajajaran. The port is situated in Penjaringan sub-district, of North Jakarta, today the old port only accommodate pinisi, a traditional two masted wooden sailing ship serving inter-island freight service in the archipelago. Although it is now only a port, Jakarta has its origins in Sunda Kelapa. The Chinese source, Chu-fan-chi, written circa 1200, Chou Ju-kua identified the two most powerful and richest kingdoms in the Indonesian archipelago as Sriwijaya and Java. According to this source, in the early 13th Century, Sriwijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, the source identifies the port as strategic and thriving, pepper from Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden poles, however, robbers and thieves plagued the country. However it was uncertain which port of Sunda was referred to by Chou Ju-kua, it referred to the port of Banten. From the 13th to 16th century Sunda Kelapa was the port of Sunda Kingdom. The port served the capital, Pakuan Pajajaran, located about 60 km inland south, along the Ciliwung river hinterland, the port thrived on international spice trade especially pepper, the main spice produce of the Sunda kingdom. Sunda Kelapa, together with Aceh and Makassar, were one of the few Indonesian ports that maintained ties with Europe, by 1511, the Portuguese had conquered Malacca and established the earliest European colony in Southeast Asia. According to Suma Oriental, written in 1512–1515, Tomé Pires, in 1522, the Portuguese secured a politics and economic agreement with the Hindu Kingdom of Sunda, the authority of the port. In exchange for assistance against the threat of the rising Islamic Javan Sultanate of Demak, Prabu Surawisesa, king of Sunda at that time. Portuguese who were in the service of the sovereign, made their homes in Sunda Kelapa. However, in 1527, Fatahillah, on behalf of the Demak attacked the Portuguese in Sunda Kelapa and succeeded in conquering the harbour on June 22,1527, later, the port became a part of the Banten Sultanate. In 1619, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, an official working for the Dutch East India Company, seized the port of Jayakarta from the Sultanate of Banten, from the ashes of Jayakarta, the Dutch built a new city, Batavia. The new port is located 9 kilometers to the east from the old port. After the independence of the Republic of Indonesia, the Batavia old port was renamed back to its name, Sunda Kelapa
9.
Sultanate of Demak
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The Demak Sultanate was a Javanese Muslim state located on Javas north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present day city of Demak. The sultanate was the first Muslim state in Java, and once dominated most of the northern coast of Java, despite its short period, the sultanate played an important role in the establishment of Islam in Indonesia, especially on Java and neighboring area. Demak’s origins are uncertain although it was founded in the last quarter of the 15th century by a Muslim. There is evidence that he had Chinese ancestry and perhaps was named Cek Ko-po, Raden Patah’s son, or possibly his brother, led Demak’s brief domination in Java. He was known as Trenggana, and later Javanese traditions say he himself the title Sultan. It appears that Trenggana had two reigns—c 1505–1518 and c 1521–1546—between which his brother in law, Yunus of Jepara occupied the throne, before emergence of Demak, northern coast of Java was seat of many Muslim communities, both foreign merchants and Javanese. The Islamisation process gained momentum from decline of Majapahit authority, following fall of Majapahit capital to usurper from Kediri, Raden Patah declared Demak independence from Majapahit overlordship so did nearly all northern Javanese ports. Demak was a harbor with trade connection to Malacca and the Spices islands. It was located at the end of a channel that separated Java, from the 15th century until the 18th century, the channel was wide enough and important waterway for ships traveling along northern Javanese coast to the Spices islands. In the channel also located Serang river, which enabled access to rice producing interior of Java and this strategic location enabled Demak to rise as a leading trading center in Java. According to Tome Pires, Demak had more inhabitants than any port in Sunda or Java, Demak was the main exporter of rice to Malacca. And with the rise of Malacca, so did Demak rise into prominence and its supremacy also enhanced with claim of direct descent of Raden Patah to Majapahit royalty and his marriages ties with neighboring city-states. The foundation of Demak is traditionally attributed to Raden Patah, a Javanese noble related to Majapahit royalty, at least one account stated that he was the son of Kertabhumi, who reigned as king Brawijaya V of Majapahit. Demak managed consolidate its power to defeat Daha in 1527 because it is accepted as legitimate successor of Majapahit. The reason for acceptance is because Raden Patah was a direct descendant of Kertabhumi who survived the Girindrawardana invasion of Trowulan in 1478. A Chinese chronicle in a temple in Semarang states that Raden Patah founded the town of Demak in an area to the north of Semarang. After the collapse of Majapahit, its various dependencies and vassals broke free, the new state derived its income by trade, importing spices and exporting rice to Malacca and the Maluku Islands. It managed to gain hegemony over other Javanese trading ports on the northern coast of Java such as Semarang, Jepara, Tuban, and Gresik
10.
Sultanate of Banten
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The Banten Sultanate was founded in the 16th century and centred in Banten, a port city on the northwest coast of Java, the contemporary English spelling of both was Bantam. It is said to have founded by Sunan Gunungjati, who had previously founded Cirebon. Once a great trading centre in Southeast Asia, especially of pepper, its importance was overshadowed by Batavia and its core territory now forms the Indonesian province of Banten. Today, in Old Banten, the Grand Mosque of Banten is an important destination for tourists and for pilgrims from across Indonesia and it was known as Banten Girang, meaning Banten-up-the-river owing to its location. Sunan Gunungjati was an ulama, a class of Muslim legal scholars. He was educated in Middle East, and can trace his ancestry to the Kingdom of Sunda, Sharif Hidayatullah become the Sultan of Cirebon in 1479. In 1482 Sharif Hidayatullah sent a letter to King of Sunda, previously Cirebon settlement was founded in 1445 by his uncle Prince Cakrabuana. In the early 16th century, Gunungjati arrived in the town with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in this still-Hindu area. Although at first well received by Sunda authorities, after news of the Portuguese-Sunda alliance in 1522 became known, Gunungjati nevertheless asked Demak sultanate to send troops to Banten. It was likely his son, Hasanudin, who commanded this military operation in 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving of the coast at Sunda Kelapa, to capture these towns. Sunan Gunungjati had Hasanudin named king of Banten by the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, thus, a new dynasty was born at the same time as a new kingdom was created. Banten was the capital of kingdom, held as a province under Sultanate of Cirebon. From the beginning it was obviously Hasanuddin’s intention to revive the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda for his own benefit. One of his earliest decision was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had belonged to the kingdom of Sunda. Having established control over the ports and the trade, Hasanuddin decided to build a new capital. On the advice of his father, Sunan Gunungjati, he choose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbour activities, the royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters, the royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side
11.
Tarumanagara
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Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions on Java island. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project, Tarumanagara is believed was existed between 358–669 CE in Western Java region, in and around modern day Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, roughly corresponds to modern Greater Jakarta area. The earliest known records of Tarumanagara existence were inscribed in stone inscriptions. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian, numbers of stone inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period was discovered in Western Java region. In 1863, Dutch East Indies, a boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near Ciampea not far from Buitenzorg. The stone inscription was discovered on the bed of Ciaruteun river. It is today known as Ciaruteun inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters and this is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the kingdoms name Tarumanagara. The inscription reports the most famous king of Tarumanagara, located nearby is the Prasasti Kebon Kopi I, also called Telapak Gadjah stone, with an inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints. The inscription read, These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airwata, belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful, not only stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his Tarumanagara kingdom. There are also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara maintained extended trade and he reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known, but that the Brahmans flourished, and heretics too. Between the period 528 to 669, Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese court, the kingdom was mentioned in the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo has sent diplomatic mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is located far south of China, the annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys of To-lo-ma has visited the court of Tang. The name Tarumanagara was found in inscriptions in the Western Java region dated from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of Taruma, Tarumanagara means the kingdom of Taruma. The name Taruma itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java, in Sundanese language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment, according to the book Nusantara, Maharshi Rajadirajaguru Jayasingawarman founded the Tarumanagara kingdom in 358. Jayasingawarman originated from Salankayana, India that collapsed after the invasion of Samudragupta from Gupta Empire, after re-settling in Western Java, he married a Sundanese princess daughter of King Dewawarman VIII of Salakanagara. He died in 382 and was buried at the bank of Kali Gomati river and his son, Dharmayawarman ruled from 382 to 395
12.
Sultanate of Cirebon
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The Sultanate of Cirebon was an Islamic sultanate in West Java founded in the 15th century. Sunan Gunungjati also established the Sultanate of Banten and it was one of the earliest Islamic states established in Java, around the same period with the Sultanate of Demak. The sultanate court lies near the modern day city of Cirebon on West Javas north coast, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the sultanate thrived and became the regions centre of trade and commerce, as well as served as an Islamic learning and dissemination centre. The sultanate split into four houses, starting in 1677. Most of the history of Cirebon Sultanate was found in a local Javanese chronicle known as Babad, some notable chronicles that focused on the history of Cirebon are Carita Purwaka Caruban Nagari and Babad Cerbon. Foreign sources also mentioned Cirebon, such as Tomé Pires Suma Oriental, the later period of the sultanate documented from the colonial Dutch East Indies sources. There are several suggestions about the origin of the name Cirebon, another popular opinion suggested that the towns name derived from rebon the Sundanese word for small shrimp. Initially most of the peoples livelihood was fishing and collecting rebon along the coast as well as making shrimp paste, petis paste, rebon is the main ingredients on making shrimp paste. From the term of water used for shrimp paste manufacture that is called cai rebon which later became Cirebon, in addition, the Islamic Sultanate of Cirebon grew into the centre of Islam in West Java. The border of the Sunda kingdom in the west is Sunda Strait and in the east is Cipamali river, at this time Muara Jati was located around 14 kilometres north from modern Cirebon, and later known as Singapura. The transformation from small Hindu coastal fishing village into thriving Muslim port began with the rule of Ki Gedeng Tapa, Ki Gedeng Tapa was a wealthy merchant living in the village of Muara Jati. He was appointed as the master of Muara Jati fishing village by Sunda king reside in Kawali, Galuh. The Muara Jati was later called Singapura, located several kilometres north of modern Cirebon, the thriving port town attract Muslim traders. Ki Gedeng Tapa and his daughter, Nyai Subang Larang are said to be converted to Islam, Nyai Subang Larang studied at Quro pesantren in Karawang area. At that time the West Java region including Muara Jati were belongs to Sunda kingdom with its capital in Pakuan Pajajaran, although Prince Walangsungsang was the first-born son of Sunda King, the prince did not earned the right as a crown prince of Pakuan Pajajaran. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not the prameswari, another reason was probably because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother, Subang Larang whom was a Muslim woman. At that time in 16th century West Java, the religion was the Sunda Wiwitan. It was his brother, King Siliwangis son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, was chosen as crown prince
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Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
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History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is a country of 17,000 to 18000 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The countrys strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history, the area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelagos landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, the boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the Java Man, austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, for the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, in 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, by the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942–45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968 and his New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests, political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, in 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of man in Indonesia. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo erectus
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Prehistoric Indonesia
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Unlike the clear distinction between prehistoric and historical periods in Europe and the Middle East, the division is muddled in Indonesia. This is mostly because Indonesias geographical conditions as a vast archipelago caused some parts — especially the interiors of distant islands — to be isolated from the rest of the world. The Papuans on the Indonesian part of New Guinea island lived virtually in the stone age until their first contacts with modern world in early 20th century, even today living megalithic traditions still can be found on the island of Sumba and Nias. This tectonic collision created Sunda volcanic Arc that has produced chains of islands of Sumatra, Java, the active volcanic arc creating supervolcano that today become Lake Toba in Sumatra. Other notable volcanoes in Sunda Arc are Mount Tambora and Krakatau, the Indonesian archipelago nearly reached its present form in the Pleistocene period. For some periods, the Sundaland was still linked with Asian mainland, creating the landmass extension of Southeast Asia that enabled the migrations of some Asian animals and hominid species. Geologically the New Guinea island and the seas of Arafura is the northern part of Australia tectonic plate. Sundaland was submerged under shallow sea, creating Malacca Strait, South China Sea, Karimata Strait, during that period, Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the islands around them were formed. On the east, New Guinea and Aru Islands were separated from the Australia mainland, the rise of sea surface created isolated areas that separated plants, animals and hominid species, causing further evolution and specification. In 1977 another Homo erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan, in 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo Erectus. The archipelago was formed during the thaw after the latest ice age, early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, around 2000 BCE there was an expansion of seafaring Austronesian people from Asia, who spread throughout Maritime Southeast Asia to Madagascar and Oceania. Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population, Homo erectus were known to utilise simple coarse paleolithic stone tools and also shell tools, discovered in Sangiran and Ngandong.6 and 1.5 million years ago. These cut marks document the use of the first tools in Sangiran, the polished stone tools of neolithic culture, such as polished stone axes and stone hoes, were developed by the Austronesian people in the Indonesian archipelago. Also during the period, large stone structures of the megalithic culture flourished in archipelago. The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures both past and present, several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramid structure called Punden Berundak were discovered in sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi
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Java Man
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Java Man is the popular name given to early human fossils discovered on the island of Java in 1891 and 1892. Led by Eugène Dubois, the team uncovered a tooth, a skullcap. Arguing that the fossils represented the missing link between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the scientific name Anthropopithecus erectus, then renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus. Less than ten years after 1891, almost eighty books or articles had been published on Duboiss finds, despite Dubois argument, few accepted that Java Man was a transitional form between apes and humans. Some dismissed the fossils as apes and others as modern humans, in the 1930s Dubois made the claim that Pithecanthropus was built like a giant gibbon, a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the missing link. Eventually, similarities between Pithecanthropus erectus and Sinanthropus pekinensis led Ernst Mayr to rename both Homo erectus in 1950, placing them directly in the evolutionary tree. To distinguish Java Man from other Homo erectus populations, some began to regard it as a subspecies, Homo erectus erectus. Other fossils found in the first half of the century in Java at Sangiran and Mojokerto. Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,000,000 years old, at the time of their discovery the fossils of Java Man were the oldest hominin fossils ever found, the fossils of Java Man have been housed at the Naturalis in the Netherlands since 1900. Charles Darwin had argued that humanity evolved in Africa, because this is where great apes like gorillas, though Darwins claims have since been vindicated by the fossil record, they were proposed without any fossil evidence. Other scientific authorities disagreed with him, like Charles Lyell, a geologist, and Alfred Russel Wallace, Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois favored the latter theory, and sought to confirm it. In October 1887, Dubois abandoned his career and left for the Dutch East Indies to look for the fossilized ancestor of modern man. Because of his duties, it was only in July 1888 that he began to excavate caves in Sumatra. After he failed to find the fossils he was looking for on Sumatra, again assisted by convict laborers and two army sergeants, Dubois began searching along the Solo River near Trinil in August 1891. His team soon excavated a molar and a skullcap and its characteristics were a long cranium with a sagittal keel and heavy browridge. Dubois first gave them the name Anthropopithecus, or man-ape, as the chimpanzee was known at the time, in August 1892, Duboiss team found a long femur shaped like a human one, suggesting that its owner had stood upright. Believing that the three belonged to a single individual, probably a very aged female, Dubois renamed the specimen Anthropopithecus erectus. Only in late 1892, when he determined that the cranium measured about 900 cubic centimetres and this specimen has also been known as Pithecanthropus 1
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Flores Man
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Homo floresiensis is an extinct species in the genus Homo. The remains of an individual that would have stood about 3.5 feet in height were discovered in 2003 at Liang Bua on the island of Flores in Indonesia, partial skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, referred to as LB1. These remains have been the subject of research to determine whether they represent a species distinct from modern humans. This hominin had originally considered to be remarkable for its survival until relatively recent times. However, more extensive stratigraphic and chronological work has pushed the dating of the most recent evidence of their back to 50,000 years ago. Fossil teeth and a jaw from hominins assumed to be ancestral to H. floresiensis were discovered in 2014. These remains are from a site on Flores called Mata Menge and they date to about 700,000 years ago and are even smaller than the later fossils. The form of the fossils has been interpreted as suggesting that they are derived from a population of H. erectus that arrived on Flores about a million years ago and rapidly became dwarfed. Some scholars suggest that the historical H. floresiensis may be connected by folk memory to ebu gogo myths prevalent on the isle of Flores, based on previous date estimates, the discoverers also proposed that H. floresiensis lived contemporaneously with modern humans on Flores. Doubts that the remains constitute a new species were soon voiced by the Indonesian anthropologist Teuku Jacob, two studies by paleoneurologist Dean Falk and her colleagues rejected this possibility. Falk et al. has been rejected by Martin et al. and Jacob et al. but defended by Morwood and Argue, two orthopedic researches published in 2007 reported evidence to support species status for H. floresiensis. A study of three tokens of carpal bones concluded there were differences from the bones of modern humans. A study of the bones and joints of the arm, shoulder, in 2009, the publication of a cladistic analysis and a study of comparative body measurements provided further support for the hypothesis that H. floresiensis and Homo sapiens are separate species. Critics of the claim for species status continue to think that individuals are Homo sapiens with pathologies of anatomy. They were not expecting to find a new species, and were surprised at the recovery of a complete skeleton of a hominin they dubbed LB1 because it was unearthed inside the Liang Bua Cave. Subsequent excavations recovered seven additional skeletons, initially dated from 38,000 to 13,000 years ago, an arm bone provisionally assigned to H. floresiensis is about 74,000 years old. The specimens are not fossilized and have described as having the consistency of wet blotting paper, once exposed. Sophisticated stone implements of a size considered appropriate to the 3-foot-tall human are also present in the cave
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Toba catastrophe theory
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The Toba supereruption was a supervolcanic eruption that occurred about 75,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. It is one of the Earths largest known eruptions, the Toba catastrophe theory holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of 6–10 years and possibly a 1, 000-year-long cooling episode. In 1998, the theory was further developed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Both the link and global winter theories are highly controversial, the Toba event is the most closely studied supereruption. The Toba eruption or Toba event occurred at the present location of Lake Toba, in Indonesia and this eruption was the last and largest of four eruptions of Toba during the Quaternary period, and is also recognized from its diagnostic horizon of ashfall, the youngest Toba tuff. It had a volcanic explosivity index of 8, it made a sizable contribution to the 100×30 km caldera complex. Tobas erupted mass deposited an ash layer about 15 centimetres thick over the whole of South Asia, a blanket of volcanic ash was also deposited over the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Sea and South China Sea. The Toba eruption apparently coincided with the onset of the last glacial period, evidence from Greenland ice cores indicates a 1, 000-year period of low δ18O and increased dust deposition immediately following the eruption. The eruption may have caused this 1, 000-year period of cooler temperatures, according to Alan Robock, who has also published nuclear winter papers, the Toba eruption did not precipitate the last glacial period. Because the saturated adiabatic lapse rate is 4.9 °C/1,000 m for temperatures above freezing, the tree line and the snow line were around 3,000 m lower at this time. The climate recovered over a few decades, and Robock found no evidence that the 1, in contrast, Oppenheimer believes that estimates of a drop in surface temperature by 3–5 °C are probably too high, and he suggests that temperatures dropped only by 1 °C. Robock has criticized Oppenheimers analysis, arguing that it is based on simplistic T-forcing relationships and they concluded that the largest known volcanic eruption in the history of the human species did not significantly alter the climate of East Africa, attracting criticism from Richard Roberts. Lane explained, We examined smear slides at a 2-mm interval, corresponding to subdecadal resolution and we observed no obvious change in sediment composition or Fe/Ti ratio, suggesting that no thermally driven overturn of the water column occurred following the Toba supereruption. In 2015, a new study of climate of East Africa supported Lanes conclusion, according to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3, 000–10,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by genetic evidence suggesting that humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago. For example, a 10-year volcanic winter triggered by the eruption could have destroyed the food sources of humans. Τhese environmental changes may have generated population bottlenecks in many species, including hominids, therefore, the genetic differences among modern humans may reflect changes within the last 70,000 years, rather than gradual differentiation over hundreds of thousands of years. Other research has cast doubt on a link between Toba and a genetic bottleneck and this has been challenged by evidence for the presence of Neanderthals in Europe and Homo floresiensis in Southeastern Asia who survived the eruption by 50,000 and 60,000 years, respectively
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Kutai
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Kutai, is a historic region in East Kalimantan in Indonesia on Borneo and also name of the native people on the region with a language of the correlating name and their history. Today the name is preserved in the names of three regencies in East Kalimantan, the Kutai Kartanegara Regency, the West Kutai Regency and the East Kutai Regency, the major river of the region was and is the Mahakam River. The history is divided into two periods, that of the early Kutai Martadipura phase some time around 350–400 and the later Kutai Kartanegara phase beginning around 1300. The first period produced the earliest known inscriptions in Indonesia, Kutai Martadipura is a 4th-century Indianized kingdom located in the Kutai area, East Kalimantan. It is one of the earliest ancient kingdom in Indonesian history, seven stone pillars, or yūpa, have been found in Kutai, Kaman Estuary, near the Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading A gift to the Brahmin priests, the style of the script has been dated to the last half the 4th century. It is believed these religions were brought to Indonesia around the 2nd and 4th centuries, respectively, the names of three rulers are known from the inscriptions. It was Mūlawarman who let these inscriptions be made, while nothing of the military actions of his two predecessors is known, Raja Mūlawarman is stated to have conquered his neighbours in battle. He is also said to have increased the land of Kutai by a ritual called asvaredjwa. This ritual required a horse released to his land, the footsteps of the freely roaming horse were taken as evidence that this land belonged to Kutai. Mulawarman was also known for his tribute of gold to his God, the name of his kingdom is not mentioned on the inscriptions nor do any other documents in other countries relate to a kingdom at this time in this region. It is not known what became of the kingdom after these pillars had been erected and it may be possible that the name Kutai, as in Tuñjung Kute of the 1365 Javanese Majapahit poem Nāgarakṛtāgama is as ancient and reflects the original name used a thousand years earlier. Around the end of the 13th century the kingdom of Kutai Kartanegara was established in the region of Tepian Batu or Kutai Lama, the first known ruler is Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti, who is thought to have ruled from 1300 to 1325. Aji Pangeran Sinum Panji Mendapa, who ruled 1635–1650, was able to conquer the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura, attacked Makassar on the island of Sulawesi leading to the downfall of the Bugis Kingdom of Gowa. This settlement eventually developed into the town of Samarinda. Islam took hold in the region since the 17th century and Aji Muhammad Idris, after a civil war Aji Imbut, after finally becoming the ruler as Aji Muhammad Muslihuddin in 1780, moved the capital in 1782 from Pemarangan to Tepian Pandan. The name of the city eventually developed from Tangga Arung to its present form of Tenggarong. In 1844 the Dutch defeated the Sultan Aji Muhammad Salehudin, forcing him into exile, the Japanese invaded the region in 1942 and acknowledged a Kooti Kingdom, that was a subject of the Tenno
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Tarumanagara Kingdom
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Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions on Java island. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project, Tarumanagara is believed was existed between 358–669 CE in Western Java region, in and around modern day Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, roughly corresponds to modern Greater Jakarta area. The earliest known records of Tarumanagara existence were inscribed in stone inscriptions. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian, numbers of stone inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period was discovered in Western Java region. In 1863, Dutch East Indies, a boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near Ciampea not far from Buitenzorg. The stone inscription was discovered on the bed of Ciaruteun river. It is today known as Ciaruteun inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters and this is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the kingdoms name Tarumanagara. The inscription reports the most famous king of Tarumanagara, located nearby is the Prasasti Kebon Kopi I, also called Telapak Gadjah stone, with an inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints. The inscription read, These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airwata, belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful, not only stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his Tarumanagara kingdom. There are also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara maintained extended trade and he reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known, but that the Brahmans flourished, and heretics too. Between the period 528 to 669, Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese court, the kingdom was mentioned in the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo has sent diplomatic mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is located far south of China, the annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys of To-lo-ma has visited the court of Tang. The name Tarumanagara was found in inscriptions in the Western Java region dated from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of Taruma, Tarumanagara means the kingdom of Taruma. The name Taruma itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java, in Sundanese language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment, according to the book Nusantara, Maharshi Rajadirajaguru Jayasingawarman founded the Tarumanagara kingdom in 358. Jayasingawarman originated from Salankayana, India that collapsed after the invasion of Samudragupta from Gupta Empire, after re-settling in Western Java, he married a Sundanese princess daughter of King Dewawarman VIII of Salakanagara. He died in 382 and was buried at the bank of Kali Gomati river and his son, Dharmayawarman ruled from 382 to 395
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Kalingga Kingdom
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Kalingga was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai, the archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact location of kingdoms capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-day Pekalongan or Jepara, Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources, the Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived in Heling, during his stay, and with the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures. In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery, according to tradition, one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to them, the queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the princes life. Since it was the foot that touched the bag of gold. According to Carita Parahyangan, a composed in later period, Shimas great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom. Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, the Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu, parashu, kalacengkha, chakra and padma, another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century, the inscription tell about a ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom, both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Medang i Bhumi Mataram
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Melayu Kingdom
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The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians, one theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by groups in the Batanghari river area. The theory is disputed as the location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing. The origins of the word Melayu are disputed, one theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms melayu or mlayu, to describe the strong current of a river in Sumatra that today bore the name Sungai Melayu. The name was possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Another theory hold that it originates from the Tamil words Malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, an early literary appearance was in Vayu Purana where the word Malaya Dvipa was mentioned, referring to the mountainous terrain of Malay Peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by Yijing, among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the written source of monk Xuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu. In response to the Sukhothais move, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial order, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. This nation of Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly a similar nation that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo who lived during the same period, in Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named Malauir in the Malay peninsula. The Khmer recorded the nation of Melayu, however, its progeny Srivijaya, was also called Melayu, on the Amoghapasa inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura was proclaimed by Adityawarman, again referring to Dharmasraya. The word Melayu is also mentioned in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra. Here now is the story of a city called Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, in the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijings visit, which he initially called Bogha during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince, the whole country as well as the capital received the name Sribogha or Srivijaya. The following extract from Yijings work, A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, further describes his route via Bogha and Malayu, Wu Hing came to Bogha after a months sail. The king received him very favourably and respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang and he went on board the kings ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days, at the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west
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Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
24.
Sailendra
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The Shailendra dynasty was the name of a notable Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java whose reign marked a cultural renaissance in the region. The dynasty appeared to be the family of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java for some period and Srivijaya in Sumatra. The inscriptions created by Shailendras uses three languages, Old Malay, Old Javanese and Sanskrit, written either in the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script, the use of Sanskrit usually signifies the official nature and religious significance of the event written on the inscription. The Sojomerto inscription discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java, mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra, the name Selendra was another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java. The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist before converting to Mahayana Buddhism, the name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription and the Karangtengah inscription. Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be found in the Ligor inscription on the Malay peninsula and it is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya, or Ligor inscription, and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland in Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native origin of the dynasty, despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin. According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipleago originated from Kalinga in Eastern India and this opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijayas Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, in 683, the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops. In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with the Funan kingdom in Cambodia, Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding mountainlord titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no evidence for such titles in the Funan period. Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java, supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage, the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact some of Shailendras inscriptions were written in old Malay. The name Selendra was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription as Dapunta Selendra, Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban or Panangkaran to Buddhism, unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription is now missing. The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances with Srivijaya in Sumatra, for instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival, Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga
25.
Galuh Kingdom
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Galuh Kingdom was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the eastern Tatar Pasundan, Indonesia. It was established following the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century and its capital was located in Kawali, near today Ciamis city. The etymology of galuh is Old Sundanese and Old Javanese word for diamond or gemstone, most of the knowledge about this kingdom was collected from local Sundanese myth and folktales, transmitted through Pantun Sunda oral tradition. The Sundanese epic folktale of Ciung Wanara took place in this kingdom, scarce historical records include Carita Parahyangan and Wangsakerta manuscripts composed in later period. The only stone inscription was 14th century Astana Gede inscription discovered in Kawali, from all these sources, it was concluded that Galuh was a Hindu kingdom, the predecessor of later Sunda Pajajaran kingdom. It was about the period as Javanese Medang kingdom. According to the Wangsakerta manuscript, Galuh was a vassal of Tarumanagara, after the fall of Tarumanagara, its dynastic patriarch, Wretikandayun of Galuh, separated his realm from Sunda kingdom in the west. Finding himself in a position and unwilling to risk a civil war. In 670, Tarumanagara was divided into two kingdoms, the Sunda Kingdom in the west, and the Galuh Kingdom in the east, Galuh continued to exist as individual kingdom as the counterpart of Sunda until it was absorbed and incorporated within Sunda kingdom around the 10th century. Galuh and the Sunda kingdom, another Sundanese kingdom, established the United Kingdom of Sunda and its centre in Kawali become the court capital until the 15th century when Sri Baduga Maharaja shifted the capital to Pakuan Pajajaran. In later period, during the expansion of Mataram Sultanate, the menak of Eastern Priangan region, claimed to hold the legacy, cangkuang temple located in Leles, Garut Regency is estimated to have been built during Galuh kingdom era. It is the only reconstructed Hindu temple in West Java, United Kingdom of Sunda and Galuh List of monarchs of Java
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Medang Kingdom
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The Medang or Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 10th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java, established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. During most of its history, the kingdom seems to rely heavily on agricultural pursuit, especially extensive rice farming, according to foreign sources and archaeological findings, the kingdom seems to be well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom had developed a society, they had a well developed culture and had achieved a degree of sophistication. The most notable temples constructed in Medang Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur, by 850, the kingdom had become the dominant power in Java and later of its history, was a serious rival to the hegemonic Srivijaya Empire. This has spurred the archaeological studies to uncover the history of this ancient civilisation, the history of Mataram area as the capital of the Central Javanese Medang kingdom is also part of the historical Yawadvipa or Bhumijava, and the classical Javanese civilisation. The native Javanese most often refer to their lands and country simply as Jawi, the only foreign source mentioning Medang was found from the Philippines inscription, dated 822 saka. There are no written records that have survived in Java except numbers of prasasti written on stones or copper plates. These inscriptions most often recorded the political and religious deeds of the rulers, nevertheless, some local legends and historical records, written on lontar — most often dated from later period — might also provides data and source to reconstruct the historical event. The kingdom is mentioned in the myth of Dewi Sri and also Aji Saka and this is probably the remnant of native Javanese vague collective memory of the existence of an ancient kingdom called Medang. Stone inscriptions, most common are mentioning about the foundation and funding of temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings, or stating their lineage. The most notable are the Canggal, Kalasan, Shivagrha and Balitung charter, bas reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of life in the palace, village, temple, ship, marketplace and also the everyday lives of the population. The most notable are the bas reliefs found on Borobudur and Prambanan temple, native manuscripts, mentioning about the story of kings, their deeds and exploits, that somehow corrugated with accounts mentioned in stone inscriptions. The notable example is the Carita Parahyangan, reports and chronicles of foreign diplomats, traders and travellers, mainly from Chinese, Indian, and Arab sources. Initially, the kingdom was identified only through its location Yawadvipa as mentioned in Canggal inscription, the inscription mentioned Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya. This is based on the locations where numbers of candi were discovered in. The etymology of the name Mataram derived from a Sanskrit term for mother, the name Medang appear later in East Javanese inscriptions such as Anjukladang inscription and Minto Stone, Paradah inscription and some inscriptions discovered in Surabaya. As the result, historians tends to identify the Eastern Java period of this kingdom as Medang to differ it with its earlier Central Java period of Mataram
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Bali Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Bali was a series of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms that once ruled some parts of the volcanic island of Bali, in Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. 9th century to Majapahit empire in 13th to 15th centuries, the culture, language, arts and architecture of the island was influenced by Java. Javanese influences and presences grew even stronger prompted with the fall of Majapahit empire in the late 15th century. After the empire fell to its Muslim vassal of Demak Sultanate, as a result Bali became what historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar describes as the last stronghold of Indo-Javanese culture and civilisation. The Balinese Kingdom in subsequent centuries expanded their influence to neighbouring islands, since the mid-19th century, the colonial state of Dutch East Indies began its involvements in Bali, as they launched their campaign against Balinese minor kingdoms one by one. Bali has been inhabited by humans since Paleolithic times, testified by the finding of ancient tools such as hand axes in Sembiran and Trunyan villages in Bali, bronze Age period follows, from around 600 BCE to 800 CE. The historical period in Bali started c. 8th century, marked by the discovery of inscribed Buddhist votive clay tablets. These Buddhist votive tablets, found in small clay figurines called stupikas, are the first known written inscriptions in Bali. Such stupikas have been found in the regency of Gianyar, in the villages of Pejeng, Tatiapi, in the early 10th century, Sri Kesari Warmadewa created the Belanjong pillar inscription found near the southern strip of Sanur beach. It was the oldest written inscription created by a ruler found in Bali, the pillar dated according to the Indian Saka calendar, in 836 saka. According to the inscription, Sri Kesari was a Buddhist king of the Sailendra Dynasty that led a military expedition, two other inscription by Kesari are known in the interior Bali, which suggest conflicts in the mountainous interior of the island. Sri Kesari is considered as the founder as the Warmadewa dynasty, the earliest known ruler of Bali, the stone cave temple and bathing place of Goa Gajah, near Ubud in Gianyar, was made around the same period. It shows a combination of Buddhist and Hindu Shivaite iconography, several carvings of stupas, stupikas, and image of Boddhisattvas suggested that Warmadewa dynasty was the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Nevertheless, Hinduism is also practised in Bali during this period, in second half of the 10th century, Bali was ruled by king Udayana Warmadewa and his queen, Mahendradatta, a princess of Isyana dynasty form East Java. Mahendradatta was the daughter of king Sri Makutawangsawarddhana, and sister of king Dharmawangsa of Medang Kingdom, the royal Balinese couple was the parents of the famous king of Java, Airlangga. Airlanggas younger brothers Marakata and later Anak Wungçu would rose to Balinese throne, the rock-cut candi shrines of Gunung Kawi in Tampaksiring was made around the same period. It demonstrate similar temple style of Java during the late Medang period, the Warmadewa dynasty would continued to rule Bali well until the 12th century with the reign of Jayasakti and Jayapangus. Contacts with imperial China were also important during this period, Chinese coins, called kepeng were widely in use in Balinese economy
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Kahuripan
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Kahuripan was an 11th-century Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom with its capital located around the estuarine of Brantas River valley in East Java. Airlangga later in 1045 abdicated in favour of his two sons and divided the kingdom into Janggala and Panjalu, the kingdoms name derived from Old Javanese term hurip with circumfix ka- -an which means life or livelihood. Later in 14th to 15th century, the kingdom was recognised as one of Majapahits 12 provinces. Airlangga was the son of queen Mahendradatta and Udayana Warmadewa, Airlangga was born and grew up in Bali, he spend his youth in Watugaluh Palace, Medang, under the patronage of his uncle, king Dharmawangsa. Airlangga was bethroted to his cousin, one of Dharmawangsas daughter, at that time, Medang had become a powerful kingdom, allied or probably subjugated Bali, and had established a colony in West Kalimantan. Dharmawangsa aspired to ascend Medang as regional power by challenging Srivijaya Empire domination and he launched naval invasion against Srivijaya and unsuccessfully tried to capture Palembang. Srivijaya resiliently succeed on repelling Javanese Medang invaders, the Calcutta Stone inscription, describes a terrible calamity which befell the East Javanese kingdom of Isyana dynasty in the early years of the 11th century. In 1006, a rebellion incited by a vassal king Wurawari from Lwaram resulted in the destruction of the capital of Watugaluh, the reigning king, Dharmawangsa, successor to Sri Makutawangsawardhana, was murdered along with his entire family and many of his subjects. Only the young Airlangga, who was aged about 16 at the time, according to tradition the calamity, dubbed as Pralaya of Medang, took place during Airlanggas wedding ceremony in Dharmawangsa palace. Today historians strongly suggested that the invasion was actually a Srivijayan retaliation against Medang for the attacks upon the empire, Wurawari was probably an ally of Srivijaya in Java that managed to sack and burn Watugaluh Palace. Airlangga, accompanied by his guard Narottama, escaped into the jungle and he consolidated his authority, established a new kingdom and made peace with Srivijaya. The new kingdom was called the Kingdom of Kahuripan, and stretched from Pasuruan in the east to Madiun in the west, in 1025, Airlangga increased the power and influence of Kahuripan as the Srivijaya Empire began to decline. Airlangga was known for his religious tolerance, and was a patron of both the Hindu and Buddhist religions, in 1035 Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated for his queen consort Dharmaprasadottungadevi. The monastery bearing the name of Srivijaya suggests that his consort was probably a Srivijayan princess. The decline of Srivijaya due to the Chola invasion gave Airlangga opportunity to consolidate his kingdom without foreign interference, later, he extended his kingdom to Central Java and Bali. The north coast of Java, particularly the port of Hujung Galuh and Kambang Putih, although there are few surviving archaeological remains dating from his time, Airlangga is known to have been a keen patron of the arts, notably literature. In 1035, the court poet Mpu Kanwa composed the Arjuna Wiwaha text and this text told the story of Arjuna, an incarnation of Indra, but was also an allegory for Airlanggas own life. The tale of Airlanggas life was illustrated in the Belahan Temple on the flanks of Mount Penanggungan, according to Kelagen inscription Airlangga also took a keen interest on agriculture development
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Kediri Kingdom
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Kediri or Kadiri was a Hindu Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the lack of remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluhs Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmajas Smaradhana blossomed in this era, the kingdoms capital is believed to had been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency. The name Kediri or Kadiri derived from Sanskrit word Khadri which means Indian Mulberry, the bark of morinda produces a brownish-purplish dye for batik-making, while its fruit have medicinal values. Similar named city also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh, India, the kingdom was also known as Panjalu as the twin kingdom with Jenggala. During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, other than Kadiri, the kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahana, after its capital. The name Daha was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of court of Trowulan. The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlanggas Kahuripan kingdom, in 1045, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu, and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Çri Jayawarşa Digjaya Çāstaprabhu, in his inscription dated 1104, like Airlangga, he claimed himself to be the incarnation or Avatar of Vishnu. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa, the Lanchana of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, kameçvaras wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam and his formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana of his reign was Narasingha, the name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of the Mahabharata, written in 1157. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh, Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhayas reign was considered the age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a popular figure in Javanese folklore
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Singhasari
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Singhasari was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java, the kingdoms name cognate to Singosari district of Malang Regency, located several kilometres north of Malang city. Singhasari was mentioned in several Javanese manuscripts, including Pararaton and it derived from sanskrit word singha which means lion and sari or saree which in Old Javanese could means either essence or to sleep. Thus Singhasari could means the essence of lion or sleeping lion, although lion is not an endemic animal of Java, the depiction of lion as symbolism can be found in Javanese culture, especially attributed to the influence of Hindu-Buddhist symbolism. Singhasari was founded by Ken Arok, whose story is a folktale in Central. Most of Ken Aroks life story and also the history of Singhasari was taken from the Pararaton account. Ken Arok was an orphan born of a mother named Ken Endok, Ken Arok rose from being a servant of Tungul Ametung, a regional ruler in Tumapel to becoming ruler of Java from Kediri. He is considered the founder of the Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later the Majapahit line of monarchs and he was assassinated by Anusapati, in revenge for killing his father, Tunggul Ametung. Ken Aroks son Panji Tohjaya assassinated Anusapati, but he in turn reigned only a few months in 1248 before his nephews revolted and these two, Ranga Wuni and Mahisha Champaka, ruled together under the names Vishnuvardhana and Narasimhamurti. The strongest of these Malaya kingdoms was Jambi, which captured the Srivijaya capital in 1088, then the Dharmasraya kingdom, and the Temasek kingdom of Singapore and these Malayan kingdoms then pledged allegiance to the king. King Kertanegara had long wished to surpass Srivijaya as a maritime empire. The Pamalayu expedition from 1275 to 1292, from the time of Singhasari to Majapahit, is chronicled in the Javanese scroll Nagarakrtagama, Singhasari’s territory thus became Majapahit territory. In the year 1284, king Kertanegara made a hostile Pabali expedition to Bali, the king also sent troops, expeditions and envoys to other nearby kingdoms such as the Sunda-Galuh kingdom, Pahang kingdom, Balakana kingdom, and Gurun kingdom. He also established an alliance with the king of Champa, King Kertanegara totally erased any Srivijayan influence from Java and Bali in 1290. However, the expansive campaigns exhausted most of the Kingdom’s military forces, indonesia is one of the few areas that thwarted invasion by the Mongol horde by repelling a Mongol force in 1293. Moreover, Singhasari had formed an alliance with Champa, another state in the region. Both Java and Champa were worried about Mongol expansion and raids against neighbouring states, Kublai Khan then sent emissaries demanding submission and tribute from Java. In 1280, Kublai Khan sent the first emissary to King Kertanegara, demanding Singhasari’s submission, the next year in 1281, the Khan sent another envoy, demanding the same, which was refused again
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Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
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Spread of Islam in Indonesia
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The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Buddhism and Hinduism, initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. The eastern islands of Indonesia remained largely animist until the 17th and 18th centuries when Christianity became predominant in those areas, the spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam, dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies, nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamised Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta which was contracted to Jakarta. Assimilation increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, funds, both public and private, are spent on the construction of new mosques, rather than the exploration of old ones. Before Islam was established in Indonesian communities, Muslim traders had been present for several centuries, Islam is thought to have been present in Southeast Asia from early in the Islamic era. From the time of the caliph of Islam, Uthman, Muslim emissaries. It would have been through this contact that Arabic emissaries between 904 and the century are thought to have become involved in the Sumatran trading state of Srivijaya. The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, the presence of foreign Muslims in Indonesia does not, however, demonstrate a significant level of local conversion or the establishment of local Islamic states. The most reliable evidence of the spread of Islam in Indonesia comes from inscriptions on tombstones. The earliest legibly inscribed tombstone is dated AH475, although as it belongs to a non-Indonesian Muslim, the presence of the Shafii school of thought, which was to later dominate Indonesia, was reported by Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, in 1346. In his travel log, Ibn Battuta wrote that the ruler of Samudera Pasai was a Muslim who performs his religious duties with utmost zeal, the madhhab he used was Al-Shafi‘i with similar customs to those he had seen in India. Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and these Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language. This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, Zheng He, originally named Ma He, was a Hui court eunuch, mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral during Chinas early Ming dynasty. Zheng commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia and his larger ships stretched 400 feet in length. These carried hundreds of sailors on four tiers of decks, as a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing
33.
Ternate Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Ternate is one of the oldest Muslim kingdoms in Indonesia, established by Baab Mashur Malamo in 1257. It reached its Golden Age during the reign of Sultan Baabullah and encompassed most of the part of Indonesia. Ternate was a producer of cloves and a regional power from the 15th to 17th centuries. The dynasty founded by Baab Mashur Malamo continues to the present, as does the Sultanate itself, the sultanate was originally named the Kingdom of Gapi, but later change the name base of its capital, Ternate. Ternate and neighbouring Tidore were the single major producer of cloves. Much of their wealth, however, was wasted fighting each other, up until the Dutch completed the colonisation of Maluku in the 19th century, the Sultans of Ternate ruled empires that claimed at least nominal influence as far as Ambon, Sulawesi and Papua. In part as a result of its trade-dependent culture, Ternate was one of the earliest places in the region to which Islam spread, initially, the faith was restricted to Ternates small ruling family, and spread only slowly to the rest of the population. It frequently engaged in competition for control of its periphery with the nearby Sultanate of Tidore. According to historian Leonard Andaya, Ternates dualistic rivalry with Tidore is a dominant theme in the history of the Maluku Islands. The first Europeans to stay on Ternate were part of the Portuguese expedition of Francisco Serrão out of Malacca, Sultan Bayanullah of Ternate heard of their stranding and, seeing a chance to ally himself with a powerful foreign nation, he brought them to Ternate in 1512. In 1535 Sultan Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa by the Portuguese and he converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel. After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to re-assume his throne, however and he had though bequeathed the island of Ambon to his Portuguese godfather, Jordão de Freitas. Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Portuguese, Ambon became the new centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-Portuguese state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah, Spanish forces captured the former Portuguese fort from the Ternatese in 1606, deporting the Ternate Sultan and his entourage to Manila. In 1607 the Dutch came back to Ternate, where with the help of Ternateans they built a fort in Malayo, the island was divided between the two powers, the Spaniards were allied with Tidore and the Dutch with their Ternaten allies. For the Ternaten rulers, the Dutch were a useful, if not particularly welcome, presence that gave them advantages against Tidore. Particularly under Sultan Hamzah, Ternate expanded its territory and strengthened its control over the periphery, the Spaniards abandoned Maluku in 1663. By this treaty, Ternate had lost its position with the Dutch
34.
Samudera Pasai Sultanate
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The kingdom was believed to have been founded by Merah Silu, who later converted to Islam and adopted the name Malik ul Salih, in the year 1267 CE. Little evidence has been left to allow for study of the kingdom. Based on the local literature Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai, Samudera can be inferred to have come from the word Semudera, the name was given by Merah Silu when he discovered an ant as large as a cat while hunting at a high ground. Eventually, the place was cleared for the establishment of a new state, Samudera is also theorised to have been derived from Samudra meaning ocean in Sanskrit and Tamil. The literature also indicates the origin of the name Pasai which came from Si-Pasai, the dog of Sultan Malik al Salleh. The legend narrates that Sultan Malik al Salleh, while hunting with the dog, encountered a deer which was not afraid of the dogs barking but instead barked back. He was bewildered by this and thought that this might be a sign for the place to be established as a new state for his son Sultan Malik Al Tahir. The dog died after the state was established, Sultan Malik al Salleh buried the dog there and he eventually named the place after it. Pasai exported its culture, and most importantly its language — an early form of Malay written in the Jawi alphabet — to a number of islands, later, this language became the lingua franca among traders in what is now Indonesia and Malaysia. Arab and Indian Muslims had traded in Indonesia and China for many centuries, a Muslim tombstone in eastern Java bears a date corresponding to 1082. But substantial evidence of Islam in Indonesia begins only in northern Sumatra at the end of the 13th century, two small Muslim trading kingdoms existed by that time at Pasai and Peureulak or Perlak. A1297 royal tomb at Samudra is inscribed entirely in Arabic, by the 15th century several harbour kingdoms developed, all ruled by local Muslim princes, from the north coast of Java and elsewhere to as far east as Ternate and Tidore in Maluku. Marco Polo spent five months here, he had Ferlec, Basma, another famous traveller Ibn Battuta on his way to China stayed 15 days at Samudera. The establishment of the first Muslim centres in Indonesia was probably a result of commercial circumstances, northern Sumatra had a hinterland rich in gold and forest produce, and pepper was being cultivated at the beginning of the 15th century. It was accessible to all the merchants of the archipelago who wanted to meet ships from the Indian Ocean, the madhhab he observed was Imam Al-Shafi‘i. At that time Samudera Pasai was the end of Dar al-Islam for no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim ruler and he praised the kindness and hospitality demonstrated by the sultan of Samudera Pasai. Here he stayed for two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of the sultan, and then the sultan provided him with supplies. Majapahit attacked and looted the place in the middle of the 14th century, pasais economic and political power depended almost entirely on foreigners
35.
Pagaruyung Kingdom
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Pagaruyung was the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra, though little is known about it. Modern Pagaruyung is a village in Tanjung Emas subdistrict, Tanah Datar regency, located near the town of Batusangkar, Adityawarman is believed to have founded the kingdom and presided over the central Sumatra region between 1347 and 1375, most likely to control the local gold trade. The few artefacts recovered from Adityawarman’s reign include a number of stones containing inscriptions, some of these items were found at Bukit Gombak, a hill near modern Pagarruyung, and it is believed a royal palace was located there. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, collectively they were called the Kings of the Three Seats. The first European to enter the region was Thomas Dias, a Portuguese employed by the Dutch governor of Malacca. He travelled from the east coast to reach the region in 1684 and reported, probably from hearsay, that there was a palace at Pagaruyung, the primary local occupations at the time were gold panning and agriculture, he reported. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional groups, elite families. The original Pagaruyung Palace on Batu Patah Hill was burned down during a riot in Padri War back in 1804, during the conflict most of the Minangkabau royal family were killed in 1815, on the orders of Tuanku Lintau. The British controlled the west coast of Sumatra between 1795 and 1819, stamford Raffles visited Pagarruyung in 1818, reaching it from the west coast, and by then it had been burned to the ground three times. It was rebuilt after the first two fires, but abandoned after the third, and Raffles found little more than waringin trees, the Dutch returned to Padang in May 1819. As a result of a treaty with a number of penghulu and representatives of the murdered Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821
36.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei
37.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
38.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
39.
Demak Sultanate
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The Demak Sultanate was a Javanese Muslim state located on Javas north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present day city of Demak. The sultanate was the first Muslim state in Java, and once dominated most of the northern coast of Java, despite its short period, the sultanate played an important role in the establishment of Islam in Indonesia, especially on Java and neighboring area. Demak’s origins are uncertain although it was founded in the last quarter of the 15th century by a Muslim. There is evidence that he had Chinese ancestry and perhaps was named Cek Ko-po, Raden Patah’s son, or possibly his brother, led Demak’s brief domination in Java. He was known as Trenggana, and later Javanese traditions say he himself the title Sultan. It appears that Trenggana had two reigns—c 1505–1518 and c 1521–1546—between which his brother in law, Yunus of Jepara occupied the throne, before emergence of Demak, northern coast of Java was seat of many Muslim communities, both foreign merchants and Javanese. The Islamisation process gained momentum from decline of Majapahit authority, following fall of Majapahit capital to usurper from Kediri, Raden Patah declared Demak independence from Majapahit overlordship so did nearly all northern Javanese ports. Demak was a harbor with trade connection to Malacca and the Spices islands. It was located at the end of a channel that separated Java, from the 15th century until the 18th century, the channel was wide enough and important waterway for ships traveling along northern Javanese coast to the Spices islands. In the channel also located Serang river, which enabled access to rice producing interior of Java and this strategic location enabled Demak to rise as a leading trading center in Java. According to Tome Pires, Demak had more inhabitants than any port in Sunda or Java, Demak was the main exporter of rice to Malacca. And with the rise of Malacca, so did Demak rise into prominence and its supremacy also enhanced with claim of direct descent of Raden Patah to Majapahit royalty and his marriages ties with neighboring city-states. The foundation of Demak is traditionally attributed to Raden Patah, a Javanese noble related to Majapahit royalty, at least one account stated that he was the son of Kertabhumi, who reigned as king Brawijaya V of Majapahit. Demak managed consolidate its power to defeat Daha in 1527 because it is accepted as legitimate successor of Majapahit. The reason for acceptance is because Raden Patah was a direct descendant of Kertabhumi who survived the Girindrawardana invasion of Trowulan in 1478. A Chinese chronicle in a temple in Semarang states that Raden Patah founded the town of Demak in an area to the north of Semarang. After the collapse of Majapahit, its various dependencies and vassals broke free, the new state derived its income by trade, importing spices and exporting rice to Malacca and the Maluku Islands. It managed to gain hegemony over other Javanese trading ports on the northern coast of Java such as Semarang, Jepara, Tuban, and Gresik
40.
Aceh Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state
41.
Banten Sultanate
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The Banten Sultanate was founded in the 16th century and centred in Banten, a port city on the northwest coast of Java, the contemporary English spelling of both was Bantam. It is said to have founded by Sunan Gunungjati, who had previously founded Cirebon. Once a great trading centre in Southeast Asia, especially of pepper, its importance was overshadowed by Batavia and its core territory now forms the Indonesian province of Banten. Today, in Old Banten, the Grand Mosque of Banten is an important destination for tourists and for pilgrims from across Indonesia and it was known as Banten Girang, meaning Banten-up-the-river owing to its location. Sunan Gunungjati was an ulama, a class of Muslim legal scholars. He was educated in Middle East, and can trace his ancestry to the Kingdom of Sunda, Sharif Hidayatullah become the Sultan of Cirebon in 1479. In 1482 Sharif Hidayatullah sent a letter to King of Sunda, previously Cirebon settlement was founded in 1445 by his uncle Prince Cakrabuana. In the early 16th century, Gunungjati arrived in the town with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in this still-Hindu area. Although at first well received by Sunda authorities, after news of the Portuguese-Sunda alliance in 1522 became known, Gunungjati nevertheless asked Demak sultanate to send troops to Banten. It was likely his son, Hasanudin, who commanded this military operation in 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving of the coast at Sunda Kelapa, to capture these towns. Sunan Gunungjati had Hasanudin named king of Banten by the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, thus, a new dynasty was born at the same time as a new kingdom was created. Banten was the capital of kingdom, held as a province under Sultanate of Cirebon. From the beginning it was obviously Hasanuddin’s intention to revive the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda for his own benefit. One of his earliest decision was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had belonged to the kingdom of Sunda. Having established control over the ports and the trade, Hasanuddin decided to build a new capital. On the advice of his father, Sunan Gunungjati, he choose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbour activities, the royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters, the royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side
42.
Mataram Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Mataram /məˈtɑːrəm/ was the last major independent Javanese kingdom on Java before the island was colonised by the Dutch. It was the dominant political force radiating from the interior Central Java from the late 16th century until the beginning of the 18th century, Mataram reached its peak of power during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, and began to decline after his death in 1645. By the mid-18th century, Mataram lost both power and territory to the Dutch East India Company and it had become a vassal state of the company by 1749. The name Mataram itself was never the name of any polity. Mataram refers to the areas of plains south of Mount Merapi around present-day Muntilan, Sleman, Yogyakarta. More precisely, it refer to Kota Gede area, the capital of the Sultanate in the outskirt of southern Yogyakarta, there is a common practice in Java to refer their kingdom by the location of its capital, thus Mataram is their capital. Historically, there were two kingdoms that have existed in region and both are called Mataram. The later kingdom however, is called as Mataram Islam or Mataram Sultanate to distinguish it from the Hindu-Buddhist 9th-century Kingdom of Mataram. The key sources to uncover the history of Mataram Sultanate are local Javanese historical accounts called Babad, the problem with traditional Javanese Babad, are often undated, obscure and incorporates non-historic, mythological and fantastic elements. Most of this Javanese historical account are used as the tool to legitimise the authority of the ruler, the dates for events before the Siege of Batavia in the reign of Sultan Agung, third king of Mataram, are difficult to determine. There are several annals used by H. J, the Javanese sources are very selective in putting dates to events. Events such as the rise and fall of kratons, the death of important princes, great wars, again these candrasengkalas do not always match the annals. Therefore, it is suggested to follow the rule of thumb. However, by the more reliable records begin in the mid-17th century the kingdom was so large. According to Javanese records, the kings of Mataram were descended from one Ki Ageng Sela, Pajang was located near the current site of Surakarta, and Mataram was originally a vassal of Pajang. Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram, pamanahans son, Sutawijaya or Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father around 1584, and he began to released Mataram from Pajangs control. Under Sutawijaya, Mataram grew substantially through military campaigns against Matarams overlord of Pajang and Pajangs former overlord, the new Pajang Sultan, Arya Pangiri, was an unpopular ruler, and Benowo quickly rallied support to regain his throne and recruited Sutawijayas support against Pajang. Subsequently Pajang was attacked from two directions, by Prince Benowo from Jipang and by Sutawijaya from Mataram, and finally was defeated
43.
Johor Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Johor was founded by Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shahs son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered Malaccas capital in 1511, during the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau. In 1946, the British section became part of the Malayan Union, two years later, it joined the Federation of Malaya and subsequently, the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. In 1949, the Dutch section became part of Indonesia, in 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position. Based at Pekan Tua, Sungai Telur, Johor, the Johor Sultanate was founded by Raja Ali Ibni Sultan Mahmud Melaka, known as Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, with his Queen Tun Fatimah in 1528. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and it helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultans forces, a number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later and he left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II. Muzaffar Shah continued on to establish Perak while Alauddin Riayat Shah became the first sultan of Johor, the new sultan established a new capital by the Johor River and, from there, continued to harass the Portuguese in the north. He consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, on the northern part of Sumatra around the same period, Aceh Sultanate was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Straits of Malacca. With the fall of Malacca to Christian hands, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or also of Johors capital Batu Sawar, therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors. With the Portuguese and Johor frequently locking horns, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the straits, the rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor, during the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia, at that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu of Johor in May, finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese. As per the agreement with Johor struck in May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca, finally in January 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces, defeated the Portuguese at Malacca
Indonesia
