1.
Dinner
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Dinner usually refers to the most significant and important meal of the day, which can be the noon or the evening meal. However, the term dinner can have different meanings depending on the culture. Historically, it referred to the first meal of the day, eaten around noon, the meaning as the evening meal, generally the largest of the day, is becoming a standard in many parts of the English-speaking world. The word is from the Old French disner, meaning dine, from the stem of Gallo-Romance desjunare, from Latin dis- + Late Latin ieiunare, the Romanian word dejun and the French déjeuner retain this etymology and to some extent the meaning. Eventually, the term shifted to referring to the main meal of the day. In many modern usages, the term refers to the evening meal. When this meaning is used, the meals are usually referred to as breakfast, lunch. The divide between different meanings of dinner is not cut-and-dried based on geography or socioeconomic class. However, the use of the dinner for the midday meal is strongest among working-class people, especially in the English Midlands, North of England. At such a dinner the people who dine together may be formally dressed and these dinners are often divided into three or more courses. Appetizers consisting of such as soup, salad etc. precede the main course. A survey by Jacobs Creek, an Australian winemaker, found the evening meal time in the U. K. to be 7. A dinner party is a gathering at which people congregate to eat dinner. During the times of Ancient Rome, a party was referred to as a convivia. The Romans often ate and were very fond of fish sauce called liquamen during said parties. In greater London, England, dinner parties were sometimes formal occasions that included printed invitations, the food served at these parties ranged from large, extravagant food displays and several meal courses to more simple fare and food service. Activities sometimes included singing and poetry reciting, among others, dinner definition from Cambridge. org Wikibooks Cookbook BBC article on history of dinner
2.
Supper (album)
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Supper is Bill Callahans tenth album, released in March 2003 on Domino Records in Europe and on Drag City in North America under his then-alias. It was recorded by Jeremy Lemos from August to September 2002, in 2004, the track Vessel in Vain appeared on the soundtrack of Shane Meadows acclaimed British thriller Dead Mans Shoes. Also, in 2005, the track A Guiding Light appeared on the soundtrack of Winter Passing, in 2012, the track Our Anniversary appeared on the soundtrack of Smashed and is played over the films closing credits. All songs written by Bill Callahan
3.
Meal
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A meal is an eating occasion that takes place at a certain time and includes specific, prepared food, or the food eaten on that occasion. The names used for meals in English vary greatly, depending on the speakers culture. Meals occur primarily at homes, restaurants, and cafeterias, regular meals occur on a daily basis, typically several times a day. Special meals are held in conjunction with such occasions as birthdays, weddings, anniversaries. A meal is different from a snack in that meals are generally larger, more varied, the type of meal served or eaten at any given time varies by custom and location. In most modern cultures, three meals are eaten, in the morning, early afternoon, and evening. Further, the names of meals are often interchangeable by custom as well, some serve dinner as the main meal at midday, with supper as the late afternoon/early evening meal, while others may call their midday meal lunch and their early evening meal supper. Except for breakfast, these names can vary from region to region or even family to family. A study in 2016 by Toluna found that 47% of parents share fewer meals with their families than when growing up, breakfast is the first meal of a day, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the days work. Some believe it to be the most important meal of the day, among English speakers, breakfast can be used to refer to this meal or to refer to a meal composed of traditional breakfast foods served at any time of day. The word literally refers to breaking the fasting period of the prior night, a full breakfast is a breakfast meal, usually including bacon, sausages, eggs, and a variety of other cooked foods, with a beverage such as coffee or tea. It is especially popular in the UK and Ireland, to the extent that many cafés and it is also popular in other English-speaking countries. In England it is referred to as a full English breakfast or fry-up. Other regional names and variants include the full Scottish, full Welsh, full Irish, the full breakfast is among the most internationally recognised British dishes, along with such staples as bangers & mash, shepherds pie, fish and chips and the Christmas dinner. A full breakfast is often contrasted with the alternative of a Continental breakfast, traditionally consisting of tea, milk or coffee and fruit juices with bread, croissants. Instant breakfast typically refers to breakfast food products that are manufactured in a powdered form, some instant breakfasts are produced and marketed in liquid form, being pre-mixed. The target market for instant breakfast products includes consumers who tend to be busy, a champagne breakfast is a breakfast served with champagne or sparkling wine. It is a new concept in some countries and is not typical of the role of a breakfast and it may be part of any day or outing considered particularly luxurious or indulgent
4.
Breakfast
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Breakfast is the first meal of a day, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the days work. Among English speakers, breakfast can be used to refer to meal or to refer to a meal composed of traditional breakfast foods served at any time of day. The word literally refers to breaking the fasting period of the prior night, the meal has managed to generate a vast variety of popular restaurant chains dedicated to serving breakfast, namely, IHOP and Dennys. While current professional opinions are largely in favor of eating breakfast, the influence of breakfast on managing body weight is unclear. The Old English word for dinner, disner, means to break a fast, in Burma the traditional breakfast is htamin jaw, fried rice with boiled peas, and yei nway jan, especially among the poor. Glutinous rice or kao hnyin is steamed and wrapped in banana leaf often served with peas as kao hnyin baung with a sprinkle of crushed and salted toasted sesame. Equally popular is the variety of rice known as nga cheik which is cooked the same way. Si damin is sticky rice cooked with turmeric and onions in oil which is served with crushed and salted toasted sesame. Assorted fritters such as baya jaw are often served as a complement, nan bya or naan again with pè byouk or simply buttered, is served with Indian tea or coffee. Fried chapati, blistered like nan bya but crispy, with pè byouk, a hundred layers, is flaky multi-layered fried paratha served with either pè byouk or a sprinkle of sugar. Eeja gway with Indian tea or coffee is another favourite, add fritters such as split chickpea, urad dal or gourd, boiled egg and fried fish cake. As China is made up of many distinct provinces each with their own unique cuisine, in general, basic choices include sweet or salty pancakes, soup, deep fried bread sticks or doughnuts, buns, porridge, and fried or soup-based noodles. These options are accompanied by tea or sweetened soy bean milk. However, condiments for porridge and the soup base tend to vary between provinces and regions, the types of teas that are served and spices that are used can also differ significantly between the provinces. Cha Chaan Teng breakfasts often include Hong Kong style milk tea, pan fried egg, bread, each dish is designed to be sampled and diners can go through a large selection of dim sum quickly accompanied by a generous amount of good tea. Iron Buddha tea is the most common accompaniment, but other such as puer. Fried and rice-based noodles and cakes are also popular, in modern times, dim sum is commonly prepared and served in Yum Cha restaurants rather than home because of the skill and efforts involved in the preparation. Breakfast in modern Japanese households comes in two variations, Japanese style and Western style
5.
Brunch
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Brunch is a combination of breakfast and lunch eaten usually during the late morning to early afternoon, generally served from 9 am up to 11 am. The word is a portmanteau of breakfast and lunch, Brunch originated in England in the late 19th century and became popular in the United States in the 1930s. Some colleges and hostels serve brunch, such brunches are often serve-yourself buffets, but menu-ordered meals may be available instead of, or with, the buffet. The meal usually involves standard breakfast foods such as eggs, sausages, bacon, ham, fruits, pastries, pancakes, scones, the United States military often serves weekend brunch in the dining facilities. They offer both breakfast and lunch options and are open from about 09, 00-13,00, the dim sum brunch is popular in Chinese restaurants worldwide. It consists of a variety of stuffed buns, dumplings, and other savory or sweet food items that have been steamed, deep-fried, customers pick small portions from passing carts, as the kitchen continuously produces and sends out more freshly prepared dishes. Dim sum is usually eaten at a mid-morning, midday, or mid-afternoon teatime, Brunch is prepared by restaurants and hotels for special occasions, such as weddings, Valentines Day, Mothers Day, or Easter Sunday. The Office québécois de la langue française accepts brunch as a valid word, note that, however, in Quebec, déjeuner alone means breakfast. In Quebec, the word—when Francized—is pronounced, german-speaking countries readily adopt Anglicisms, and brunch is no exception, defining it as a combination of breakfast and lunch. Chinese word “早午饭” is defined as brunch, “早饭” means breakfast, the combination of “早饭” and “午饭” is “早午饭”, as known as brunch. Friday Brunch is considered something of an institution in Dubai, in many regions of Canada, in particular in Southern Ontario, brunch is popular on Sundays when families will often host relatives or friends in their dining room. The typical brunch can last a few hours and go late into the afternoon, montreal-style bagels may be served alongside egg dishes, waffles or crepes, smoked meat or fish, fruit, salads, cheese, and dessert. Often, champagne or wine will be served and following the meal tea or coffee is usually consumed, in Canada, brunch is served in private homes using homemade foods and in restaurants. Brunches may also include foods not typically associated with breakfast, such as roasted meats, quiche, soup, smoked salmon, restaurant brunches may also be served from a menu, in which guests select specific items which are served to them by waitstaff. Restaurant brunch meals range from relatively inexpensive brunches available at diners and family restaurants to expensive brunches served at high-end restaurants, in South Africa, brunch is a favourite activity of many families. It is globally-distinctive in that only pancakes and fruit are consumed, the Birth of Brunch, Where Did This Meal Come From Anyway
6.
Lunch
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Lunch, the abbreviation for luncheon, is a light meal typically eaten at midday. The origin of the lunch and luncheon relate to a small snack originally eaten at any time of the day or night. During the 20th century the meaning gradually narrowed to a small or mid-sized meal eaten at midday, lunch is commonly the second meal of the day, after breakfast. The meal varies in size depending on the culture, and significant variations exist in different areas of the world, the abbreviation lunch is taken from the more formal Northern English word luncheon, which is derived from the word nuncheon, meaning light snack. The term has been in use since 1823, the Oxford English Dictionary reports usage of the words beginning in 1580 to describe a meal that was eaten between more substantial meals. It may also mean a piece of cheese or bread, meals have become ingrained in each society as being natural and logical. What one society eats may seem extraordinary to another, the same is true of what was eaten long ago in history as food tastes, menu items and meal periods have changed greatly over time. The word supper means bread and soup, dinner comes from the French word disner which originates from the Latin word disjejeunare which meant to break fast and was a meal eaten in the morning, not the end of the day. In general, during the Middle Ages the main meal for almost everyone took place at midday when there was no need for artificial lighting, a formal evening meal, artificially lit by candles, sometimes with entertainment, was a supper party as late as the Regency era. Up until the early 19th century, luncheon was generally reserved for the ladies, lunch was a ladies light meal, when the Prince of Wales stopped to eat a dainty luncheon with lady friends, he was laughed at for this effeminacy. Beginning in the 1840s, afternoon tea supplemented this luncheon at four oclock, if a substantial meal is desired, rump-steaks or mutton chops may be served, as also veal cutlets, kidneys. In families where there is a nursery, the mistress of the house often partakes of the meal with the children, and makes it her luncheon. In the summer, a few dishes of fresh fruit should be added to the luncheon, or, instead of this, a compote of fruit or fruit tart, or pudding. With the onset of industrialization in the 19th century, male workers began to long shifts at the factory. Stalls and later chop houses near the factories began to provide mass-produced food for the class. In many countries and regions lunch is the dinner or main meal, prescribed lunchtimes allow workers to return to their homes to eat with their families. Consequently, where lunch is the main meal of the day. Among Christians, the meal on Sunday, whether at a restaurant or at home, is called Sunday dinner
7.
Tea (meal)
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Tea has long been used as an umbrella term for several different meals. Teatime is the time at which the tea meal is usually eaten, Tea as a meal is associated with Britain, Ireland, and some Commonwealth countries. Afternoon tea is a meal typically eaten between 3. 30pm and 6pm. Observance of the custom originated amongst the classes in England in the 1840s. Anna Maria Russell, Duchess of Bedford, is credited as transforming afternoon tea in England into a late-afternoon meal whilst visiting Belvoir Castle. By the end of the century, afternoon tea developed to its current form and was observed by both the upper and middle classes. For the more privileged, afternoon tea was accompanied by delicate savouries, bread and butter, possibly scones, the sandwiches usually have the crusts removed, and are cut into small segments, either as triangles or fingers. Nowadays, an afternoon tea is more of a special occasion. The food is served on a tiered stand, there may be no sandwiches. Afternoon tea as a treat may be supplemented with a glass of Champagne or an alcoholic drink. A less formal establishment is known as a tearoom, similar to a coffee shop and these used to be common in the UK, but these establishments have declined in popularity since World War II. Tea shops and Lyons Corner Houses were successful chains of such establishments, a list of significant tea houses in Britain gives more examples. This snack is associated with the West Country, i. e. Cornwall and it usually consists of scones, clotted cream, strawberry jam, plus of course, tea to drink. Some venues will provide butter instead of clotted cream, Tea is one name for the evening meal. It is associated with the class and is typically eaten between 5 pm and 7 pm. This differentiation in usage is one of the classic social markers of British English, high tea typically consists of a hot dish, followed by cakes and bread, butter and jam. Occasionally there would be cold cuts of meat, such as ham salad, the term was first used around 1825, and high is used in the sense of well-advanced to signify that it was taken later in the day than afternoon tea. A stereotypical expression Youll have had your tea is used to people from Edinburgh as being rather shortcoming with hospitality
8.
Snack
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A snack is a portion of food, smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged foods and other processed foods. Traditionally, snacks are prepared from ingredients commonly available in the home, often cold cuts, fruits, leftovers, nuts, sandwiches, and the like are used as snacks. The Dagwood sandwich was originally the result of a cartoon characters desire for large snacks. With the spread of convenience stores, packaged snack foods became a significant business, snack foods are typically designed to be portable, quick, and satisfying. Processed snack foods, as one form of food, are designed to be less perishable, more durable. They often contain amounts of sweeteners, preservatives, and appealing ingredients such as chocolate, peanuts. Beverages, such as coffee, are not generally considered snacks though they may be consumed along with or in lieu of snack foods, a snack eaten shortly before going to bed or during the night may be called a night snack. In the United States, the first snack food was the peanut, peanuts first arrived from South America via slave ships, and became incorporated into African-inspired cooking on southern plantations. After the Civil War, the taste for peanuts spread north, along with popcorn, snacks bore the stigma of being sold by unhygienic street vendors. The middle-class etiquette of the Victorian era categorized any food that did not require proper usage of utensils as lower-class, pretzels were introduced to North America by the Dutch via New Amsterdam in the 17th century. In the 1860s, the snack was still associated with immigrants, unhygienic street vendors, due to loss of business during the Prohibition era, pretzels underwent rebranding to make them more appealing to the public. Packaging revolutionized snack foods, allowing sellers to reduce contamination risk while making it easy to advertise brands with a logo, pretzels boomed in popularity, bringing many other types of snack foods with it. By the 1950s, snacking had become a pastime, becoming an internationally recognized emblem of middle American life. Healthy snacks include those that have significant vitamins, are low in saturated fat and added sugars, a 2010 study showed that children in the United States snacked on average six times per day, approximately twice as often as American children in the 1970s. This represents consumption of roughly 570 calories more per day than U. S. children consumed in the 1970s, America, just one long snack bar. Wikibooks Cookbook – A collection of recipes from around the world
9.
Full course dinner
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A full course dinner is a dinner consisting of multiple dishes, or courses. In its simplest form, it can consist of three or four courses, such as appetizers, fish course, entrée, main course and dessert. In formal dining, a full course dinner can consist of 5,6,8,10,12, or 16 courses, in these more formalized dining events, the courses are carefully planned to complement each other gastronomically. The courses are smaller and spread out over a long evening and they follow conventions of menu planning that have been established over many years. Most courses in the most formal full course dinners are usually paired with a different wine, beer, liqueur, in service à la russe, courses are brought to the table in sequence. Only empty plates are set in front of each guest, courses are served on platters, and guests make selections from a variety of dishes and fill their own plate. Food presentation is focused on the platters. A filled plate is never placed in front of a guest because that would imply limited portions, guests are expected to choose whatever they like and to eat as much as they want. In service à la française, food is served family-style, with all courses on the table at the same time, guests serve themselves so that all dishes are not served at their optimum temperatures. Alternatively, buffet style is a variation of the French service where all food is available at the temperature in a serving space other than the dining table. Guests commute to the buffet to be served or sometimes serve themselves, in an American formal dining course, each course is served sequentially. Guests are served plates already filled with food in individual portions, often, guests have an opportunity to choose between vegetarian or meat entrées. There is no opportunity to request something different or to ask for more than a single serving, since there are no platters, food presentation is focused on individual portions, skillfully decorated to look like art in which each plate is a masterpiece. In this scheme, when diners are served the first course, an alternative scheme arranges the place setting so that only the implements needed for the first one or two courses appear in the table setting. As the dinner progresses and new courses arrive, used implements are removed with the dishes and this scheme is commonly used when dinners are offered à la carte, so that the most appropriate implement is selected for a given course. For example, some diners may order clear, thin soups and others may order thick, as each of these soups has its own unique spoon, it would be considered improper and impractical to lay out a spoon that may not be needed. The first class aboard the ill-fated ocean liner R. M. S
10.
Amuse-bouche
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An amuse-bouche or amuse-gueule is a single, bite-sized hors d’œuvre. Amuse-bouches are different from appetizers in that they are not ordered from a menu by patrons and these, often accompanied by a complementing wine, are served both to prepare the guest for the meal and to offer a glimpse into the chefs approach to the art of cuisine. The term is French, literally translated as mouth amuser, the plural form is amuse-bouche or amuse-bouches. In French, bouche refers to the mouth, while gueule refers to the mouth or snout of an animal. The amuse-bouche emerged as a course during the nouvelle cuisine movement. It differs from other hors dœuvres in that it is small, the functional role of the amuse-bouche could be played by rather simple offerings, such as a plate of olives or a crock of tapenade. It often becomes a showcase, however, due to the artistry and showmanship of the chef, at some point, the amuse-bouche transformed from an unexpected bonus to a de rigueur offering at Michelin Guide-starred restaurants and those aspiring to that category. This often requires a separate cooking station devoted solely to producing the course quickly as well as a large, interesting plates, demitasse cups, and large Asian-style soup spoons are popular choices. In addition, the kitchen must try to accommodate guests that have an aversion or allergy to ingredients in the amuse
11.
Hors d'oeuvre
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An hors doeuvre, appetizer, or starter is a small dish served before a meal. Some hors doeuvres are served cold, others hot, Hors doeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal, or they may be served before seating. Formerly, hors doeuvres were also served between courses, typically smaller than a main dish, it is often designed to be eaten by hand. Hors doeuvre in French means outside the work—that is, not part of the set of courses in a meal. Appetizer is a synonym for hors doeuvre, starter is sometimes used to denote an hors doeuvre, sometimes to denote more substantial courses, known in Europe and North America as entrées. A small number of historians believe that the tradition may have begun in Russia. However, it may be that the custom originated in China, possibly coming through Steppes, into Russia, Scandinavia, France, the tradition may have reached Italy, Greece and the Balkan nations through Russia or Persia. Many national customs are related, including the Swedish smörgåsbord, Russian zakuska, Lebanese mezze, during the Roman Period the meal practice was to have two main courses which were supplemented before the meal with small amounts of fish, vegetables, cheeses, olives and even stuffed dormice. These would be served at the start of the known as either gustatio or promulsis. The Greeks called the appetizer course propoma, during the Middle Ages formal French meals were served with entremets between the serving of plates. These secondary dishes could be either actual food dishes, or elaborate displays, in the 14th century, recipes for entremets were mostly made with meat, fish, pork and vegetables. Along with this came elaborate silver and ceramic table displays as well as pièces montées, the entremets were placed between the other dishes within the main work of the meal. At about this time in the 17th century, smaller dishes began to be served by being placed outside the work of symmetrically placed dishes. These were known as hors doeuvre, Hors doeuvres were originally served as a canapé of small toasted bread with a savoury topping before a meal. In the French publication Les plaisirs de la table, Edouard Nignon stated that hors doeuvres originated in Asia and he went on to state that the French considered hors-doeuvres to be superfluous to a well cooked meal. Service à la française continued in Europe until the early 19th century, after the 19th century the entremet would become almost exclusively a sweet dish or dessert with the British custom of the savoury being the only remaining tradition of the savoury entremet. The style of formal dining changed drastically in the 19th century, some traditional hors doeuvres would remain on the table throughout the meal. These included olives, nuts, celery and radishes, the changing, contemporary hors doeuvres, sometimes called dainty dishes became more complicated in preparation
12.
Soup
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Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot, that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock, juice, water, or another liquid. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, traditionally, soups are classified into two main groups, clear soups and thick soups. The established French classifications of clear soups are bouillon and consommé, other ingredients commonly used to thicken soups and broths include egg, rice, lentils, flour, and grains, many popular soups also include carrots and potatoes. Soups are similar to stews, and in some there may not be a clear distinction between the two, however, soups generally have more liquid than stews. Evidence of the existence of soup can be found as far back as about 20,000 BC, boiling was not a common cooking technique until the invention of waterproof containers. Animal hides and watertight baskets of bark or reeds were used before this, to boil the water hot rocks were used. This method was used to cook acorns and other plants. The word soup comes from French soupe, which comes through Vulgar Latin suppa from a Germanic source, from which comes the word sop. In 1765, a Parisian entrepreneur opened a shop specializing in such soups and this prompted the use of the modern word restaurant for the eating establishments. A1772 cookbook, The Frugal Housewife, contained a chapter on the topic. English cooking dominated early colonial cooking, but as new immigrants arrived from other countries, in particular, German immigrants living in Pennsylvania were famous for their potato soups. In 1794, Jean Baptiste Gilbert Payplat dis Julien, a refugee from the French Revolution, opened an establishment in Boston called The Restorator. The first American cooking pamphlet dedicated to soup recipes was written in 1882 by Emma Ewing, Soups, portable soup was devised in the 18th century by boiling seasoned meat until a thick, resinous syrup was left that could be dried and stored for months at a time. Commercial soup became popular with the invention of canning in the 19th century, doctor John T. Dorrance, a chemist with the Campbell Soup Company, invented condensed soup in 1897. Today, Campbells Tomato, Cream of Mushroom, and Chicken Noodle Soup are three of the most popular soups in America, americans consume approximately 2.5 billion bowls of these three soups alone each year. Canned soup can be condensed, in case it is prepared by adding water, or it can be ready-to-eat. Canned soup can be prepared by heating in a pan, on the stovetop or in the microwave, such soups can be used as a base for homemade soups, with the consumer adding anything from a few vegetables to eggs, meat, cream or pasta. Condensing soup allows soup to be packaged into a smaller can, the soup is usually doubled in volume by adding a can full of water or milk
13.
Roasting
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Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air envelops the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least 150 °C from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance flavor through caramelization and Maillard browning on the surface of the food, Roasting uses indirect, diffused heat, and is suitable for slower cooking of meat in a larger, whole piece. Meats and most root and bulb vegetables can be roasted, any piece of meat, especially red meat, that has been cooked in this fashion is called a roast. A roast joint of meat can take one, two, even three hours to cook—the resulting meat is tender, also, meats and vegetables prepared in this way are described as roasted, e. g. roasted chicken or roasted squash. For roasting, the food may be placed on a rack, in a pan or, to ensure even application of heat. If a pan is used, the juice can be retained for use in gravy, Yorkshire pudding, during oven roasting, hot air circulates around the meat, cooking all sides evenly. There are several plans for roasting meat, low-temperature cooking, high-temperature cooking, each method can be suitable, depending on the food and the tastes of the people. A low-temperature oven,95 °C to 160 °C, is best when cooking with large cuts of meat, turkey and this is not technically roasting temperature, but it is called slow-roasting. The benefit of slow-roasting an item is less moisture loss and a tender product. More of the collagen that makes meat tough is dissolved in slow cooking, at true roasting temperatures,200 °C or more, the water inside the muscle is lost at a high rate. Cooking at high temperatures is beneficial if the cut is tender enough—as in filet mignon or strip loin—to be finished cooking before the juices escape. A reason for high temperature roasting is to brown the outside of the food, fast cooking gives more variety of flavor, because the outside is brown while the center is much less done. The combination method uses high heat just at either the beginning or the end of the cooking process, searing and then turning down to low is also beneficial when a dark crust and caramelized flavor is desired for the finished product. The objective in any case is to retain as much moisture as possible, while providing the texture, as meat cooks, the structure and especially the collagen breaks down, allowing juice to come out of the meat. So meat is juiciest at about medium rare while the juice is coming out, during roasting, meats and vegetables are frequently basted on the surface with butter, lard, or oil to reduce the loss of moisture by evaporation. In recent times, plastic bags have become popular for roasts. These cut cooking times and reduce the loss of moisture during roasting and they are particularly popular for turkeys. Until the late 19th century, roasting by dry heat in an oven was called baking, Roasting originally meant turning meat or a bird on a spit in front of a fire
14.
Main course
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The main course is the featured or primary dish in a meal consisting of several courses. It usually follows the entrée course, in the United States and parts of Canada, it may be called entrée. The main dish is usually the heaviest, heartiest, and most complex or substantial dish on a menu, the main ingredient is usually meat, fish or another protein source. It is most often preceded by an appetizer, soup or salad, for those reasons the main course is sometimes referred to as the meat course. In formal dining, a main course can function as a sort of gastronomic apex or climax. The courses following the course then calm the palate and the stomach
15.
Salad
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A salad is a dish consisting of a mixture of small pieces of food, which may be mixed with a sauce or salad dressing. They are typically served cold, although some, such as south German potato salad, are served warm, salads may contain vegetables, fruits, cheese, cooked meat, eggs, grains and nuts. Garden salads use a base of leafy greens like lettuce, arugula, kale or spinach, other types include bean salad, tuna salad, fattoush, Greek salad, and Japanese sōmen salad. The sauce used to flavor a salad is commonly called a salad dressing, well-known types include ranch, Thousand Island, vinaigrette comes in many varieties, one version is a mixture of olive oil, balsamic vinegar, herbs, and seasonings. Salads may be served at any point during a meal, such as, Appetizer salads, light, side salads, to accompany the main course as a side dish. Main course salads, usually containing a portion of heartier fare, such as chicken breast, dessert salads, sweet versions containing fruit, gelatin, sweeteners or whipped cream, or just fruit, which is called a fruit salad. The word salad comes from the French salade of the meaning, from the Latin salata. In English, the word first appears as salad or sallet in the 14th century, salt is associated with salad because vegetables were seasoned with brine or salty oil-and-vinegar dressings during Roman times. The Romans and ancient Greeks ate mixed greens with dressing, in his 1699 book, Acetaria, A Discourse on Sallets, John Evelyn attempted with little success to encourage his fellow Britons to eat fresh salad greens. Mary, Queen of Scots, ate boiled celery root over greens covered with creamy mustard dressing, truffles, chervil, oil used on salads can be found in the 17th century colony of New Netherland. Curaçao Papers page 234 In a 1653 inventory in New Netherland dressing can be found, council Minutes Volume V, page 78 The United States popularized mixed greens salads in the late 19th century. Salads including layered and dressed salads were popular in Europe since Greek imperial, several other regions of the world adopted salads throughout the second half of the 20th century. From Europe and the Americas to China, Japan, and Australia, salads are sold in supermarkets, at restaurants, in the US market, restaurants will often have a Salad Bar laid out with salad-making ingredients, which the customers will use to put together their salad. Salad restaurants were earning more than $300 million in 2014, a green salad or garden salad is most often composed of leafy vegetables such as lettuce varieties, spinach, or rocket. The salad leaves may be cut or torn into bite-sized fragments and tossed together and they are often adorned with garnishes such as nuts or croutons. A wedge salad is made from a head of lettuce halved or quartered, vegetables other than greens may be used in a salad. Common raw vegetables used in a salad include cucumbers, peppers, tomatoes, onions, spring onions, red onions, carrots, celery, a bound salad can be composed or tossed. They are assembled with thick sauces such as mayonnaise, one portion of a true bound salad will hold its shape when placed on a plate with an ice-cream scoop
16.
Side dish
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A side dish, sometimes referred to as a side order, side item, or simply a side, is a food item that accompanies the entrée or main course at a meal. Side dishes such as salad, potatoes and bread are used with main courses throughout many countries of the western world. New side orders introduced within the past decade, such as rice and couscous, have grown to be popular throughout Europe. When used as an adjective qualifying the name of a dish, for example, a side salad usually served in a small bowl or salad plate, in contrast to a large dinner-plate-sized entrée salad. A typical American meal with a main dish might include one vegetable side dish, sometimes in the form of a salad. Some common side dishes include, Some restaurants offer a selection of side dishes which are included with the price of the entrée as a combination meal. In contrast, sometimes side dishes are ordered separately from an a la carte menu, the term may or may not imply that the dish can only be ordered with other food. French fries are the most common dish served at fast-food restaurants. The related phrase on the side may be synonymous with side dish – as in French fries on the side – or may refer to a sauce or condiment served in a separate dish. For example, a diner may request a salad be served with its dressing on the side, banchan, Korean side dishes Food pyramid In a basket Platter Greene, Janet, et al. Family Living, Simply Delicious Side Dishes
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Entremet
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An entremet or entremets is in modern French cuisine a small dish served between courses or simply a dessert. Originally it was a form of entertainment dish common among the nobility and upper middle class in Europe during the later part of the Middle Ages. By the end of the Middle Ages, it had evolved almost entirely into dinner entertainment in the form of inedible ornaments or acted performances, often packed with symbolism of power, in English it was more commonly known as a subtlety and did not include acted entertainment. For modern pastry chefs, an entremet is a multi-layered mousse-based cake with various complementary flavors, dishes that were intended to be eaten as well as entertain can be traced back at least to the early Roman Empire. In his Satyricon, the Roman writer Petronius describes a dish consisting of a rabbit dressed to look like the mythical horse Pegasus, the function of the entremet was to mark the end of a course, met, of which there could be several at a banquet. It punctuated each stage of a banquet, prepared the diners for the next serving, the earliest recipe for an entremet can be found in an edition of Le Viandier, a medieval recipe collection from the early 14th century. An even simpler dish, like millet boiled in milk and seasoned with saffron, was considered to be an entremet. The most noticeable trait of the early entremets was the focus on vivid colors, elaborate models of castles made from edible material was a popular theme. In the 14th century entremets began to not just eye-catching displays of amusing haute cuisine. In 1306, the knighting of the son of Edward I included performances of chansons de geste in what has been assumed to be part of the entremets. During the course of the 14th century they would take on the character of theatrical displays, complete with props. At a banquet held in 1378 by Charles V of France in honor of Emperor Charles IV, actors portraying the crusader Godfrey of Bouillon and his knights then sailed into the hall on a miniature ship and reenacted the capture of Jerusalem in 1099. From the late 14th century on in England, entremets are referred to as subtleties and this English term was derived from an older meaning of subtle as clever or surprising. The meaning of subtlety did not include entertainment involving actors, those were referred to as pageants. The four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie, in the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence, has its genesis in an entremet presented to amuse banquet guests in the 14th century and this extravaganza of hospitality was related by an Italian cook of the era. “Live birds were slipped into a pie shell through a hole cut in its bottom. ”The unwary guest would release the flapping birds once the upper crust was cut into. Chiquart, cook to Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy, described an entremet entitled Castle of Love in his 15th-century culinary treatise Du fait de cuisine and it consisted of a giant castle model with four towers, carried in by four men. The battlements of the castle were adorned with the banners of the Duke and his guests, manned by miniature archers, and inside the castle there was a fountain that gushed rosewater and spiced wine
18.
Dessert
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Dessert is a confectionery course that concludes a main meal. The course usually consists of foods and beverages, such as dessert wine or liqueurs. In some parts of the world, such as much of central and western Africa, the term dessert can apply to many confections, such as cakes, tarts, cookies, biscuits, gelatins, pastries, ice creams, pies, puddings, custards, and sweet soups. Fruit is also found in dessert courses because of its naturally occurring sweetness. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly savory to create desserts, the word dessert originated from the French word desservir, meaning to clear the table. Its first known use was in 1600, in a health education manual entitled Naturall and artificial Directions for Health, in his A History of Dessert, Michael Krondl explains it refers to the fact dessert was served after the table had been cleared of other dishes. Alternatives such as sweets or afters are also used in the United Kingdom and some other Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong, sweets were fed to the gods in ancient Mesopotamia and India and other ancient civilizations. Dried fruit and honey were probably the first sweeteners used in most of the world, sugarcane was grown and refined in India before 500 BCE and was crystallized, making it easy to transport, by 500 CE. Sugar and sugarcane were traded, making available to Macedonia by 300 BCE. In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar has been a staple of cooking, sugarcane and sugar were little known and rare in Europe until the twelfth century or later, when the Crusades and then colonialization spread its use. Europeans began to manufacture sugar in the Middle Ages, and more sweet desserts became available, even then sugar was so expensive usually only the wealthy could indulge on special occasions. The first apple pie recipe was published in 1381, the earliest documentation of the term cupcake was in Seventy-five Receipts for Pastry, Cakes, and Sweetmeats in 1828 in Eliza Leslies Receipts cookbook. The Industrial Revolution in America and Europe caused desserts to be mass-produced, processed, preserved, canned, frozen foods, including desserts, became very popular starting in the 1920s when freezing emerged. These processed foods became a part of diets in many industrialized nations. Many countries have desserts and foods distinctive to their nations or region, sweet desserts usually contain cane sugar, palm sugar, honey or some types of syrup such as molasses, maple syrup, treacle, or corn syrup. The proportions of ingredients, along with the preparation methods, play a major part in the consistency, texture. Sugars contribute moisture and tenderness to baked goods, flour or starch components serves as a protein and gives the dessert structure. Fats contribute moisture and can enable the development of layers in pastries
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Meal preparation
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Meal preparation, sometimes called meal prep, is the process of planning and preparing meals. Sometimes meal preparation involves preparing meals ahead of time for a short or extended period of time and this practice may occur among people who desire to lose weight or maintain a healthy lifestyle. Advance preparation can serve to standardize food portions, sometimes meals are fully cooked, other times they are not. Meals may be prepared in small containers such as tupperware, and are sometimes labeled, planning Related to Meal Preparation Space Allowances for Meal Preparation and Service in the Southern Rural Home A Value-Added Approach to Household Production, The Special Case of Meal Preparation. The Effect of Homemakers Employment on Meal Preparation Time, Meals at Home, consumers convenience orientation towards meal preparation, conceptualization and measurement
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Banquet
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A banquet is a large meal or feast, complete with main courses and desserts, always served with ad libitum alcoholic beverages, such as wine or beer. A banquet usually serves a purpose such as a gathering, a ceremony, or a celebration. In the majority of banquets, the gathering is seated at tables with around 8-10 people per table. Overall, there is a debate of when feasting began. During these feasts, luxury foods were offered to their guest, what these luxury goods were are still up to debate. However, Hayden argues that meat and rice are some of these luxury goods because they were domesticated despite their difficulty in doing so. The term banquet, however, termed from a different time period, the idea of banqueting is ancient. In the 16th century, a banquet was very different from our modern perception, after dinner, the guests would stand and drink sweet wine and spices while the table was cleared, or ‘voided’. During the 16th century, guests would no longer stand in the chamber whilst the table was cleared and the room prepared for entertainment. As the idea of banqueting developed, it could place at any time during the day and have much more in common with the later practice of taking tea. Banqueting rooms varied greatly from house to house, but were generally on an intimate scale, today, banquets serve many purposes from training sessions, to formal business dinners. Business banquets are a way to strengthen bonds between businessmen and their partners. It is common that a banquet is organized at the end of an academic conference, a luau is one variety of banquet originally used in Hawaii. The Nei Mongol provincial government in China levies a tax on banquets, banquet hall Beefsteak Feast Albala, Ken. The banquet, Dining in the Great Courts of late Renaissance Europe, board of Trustees, University of Illinois
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Buffet
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A buffet is a system of serving meals in which food is placed in a public area where the diners generally serve themselves. Buffets are offered at various places including hotels, restaurants and many social events, Buffet restaurants normally offer all-you-can-eat food for a set price. Buffets usually have some hot dishes, so the term cold buffet has been developed to describe formats lacking hot food, buffets are effective for serving large numbers of people at once, and are often seen in institutional settings, such as business conventions or large parties. Since a buffet involves diners serving themselves, it has in the past been considered a form of dining. In recent years, however, buffet meals are increasingly popular among hosts of home dinner parties, the buffet table originates from the brännvinsbord table from the middle of 16th century. This custom had its prime during the early 18th century, and was developed into the more modern buffet around the beginning of 19th century, the smörgåsbord buffet did not increase in popularity until the expansion of the railroads throughout Europe. The smörgåsbord table was originally a meal where guests gathered before dinner for a pre-dinner drink, the smörgåsbord buffet was often held in separate rooms for men and women before the dinner was served. The term buffet originally referred to the French sideboard furniture where the food was served, the word buffet became popular in the English-speaking world in the second half of the 20th century after the Swedes had popularized the smorgasbord in New York. The word is now accepted into the English language. In England such a buffet was called a court cupboard, prodigal displays of plate were probably first revived at the fashionable court of Burgundy and adopted in France. During the 18th century more subtle demonstrations of wealth were preferred, in a 1922 housekeeping book entitled How to Prepare and Serve a Meal, Lillian B. Lansdown wrote, The informal luncheon at small tables calls for service by a number of maids, there are many different ways of offering diners a selection of foods which are called buffet style meals. Some buffets are single pass only, but most buffets allow a diner to first take small samples of unfamiliar foods, to avoid misunderstandings in commercial eating establishments, the rules and charges are often posted on signs near the buffet serving tables. One form of buffet is to have a counter or table filled with plates containing fixed portions of food. The food display may either be staffed, or the customers may pick up the plates themselves. This form is most commonly seen in cafeterias, another derivative of this type of buffet occurs where patrons choose food from a buffet style layout and then pay based on what was chosen. A variation occurs in a dim sum house, where seated patrons make their selections from wheeled carts containing different plates of food which the staff circulate through the restaurant. Another variation is a conveyor belt sushi restaurant, where seated patrons select dishes from a conveyor belt carrying a variety of foods
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Cuisine
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A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. A cuisine is influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws, such as Hindu, Islamic and Jewish dietary laws, regional food preparation traditions, customs and ingredients often combine to create dishes unique to a particular region. Some factors that have an influence on a regions cuisine include the areas climate, for example a Tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish. The areas climate in large measure determines the native foods that are available, in addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, the trade among different countries also largely affects a regions cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago. Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws, Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. Rome was known for its cuisine, wealthy families would dine in the Triclinium on a variety of dishes, their diet consisted of eggs, cheese, bread, meat, cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. Molecular gastronomy, is a style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines. The term was coined in 1988 by late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti and it is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines, a global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats. Regional cuisines may vary based upon food availability and trade, cooking traditions and practices, for example, in Central and South America, corn, both fresh and dried, is a staple food. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta, china likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, the vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use of spices is characteristic, coconuts, african cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd, in much of tropical Africa, however, cows milk is rare and cannot be produced locally
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Drink
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A drink or beverage is a liquid intended for human consumption. In addition to their function of satisfying thirst, drinks play important roles in human culture. Common types of drinks include plain water, milk, juices, coffee, tea, in addition, alcoholic drinks such as wine, beer, and liquor, which contain the drug ethanol, have been part of human culture and development for 8,000 years. Non-alcoholic drinks often signify drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer, the category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. When the human body becomes dehydrated it experiences the sensation of thirst and this craving of fluids results in an instinctive need to drink. Thirst is regulated by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the bodys electrolyte levels. The complete elimination of drinks, i. e. water, Water and milk have been basic drinks throughout history. As water is essential for life, it has also been the carrier of many diseases, as mankind evolved, new techniques were discovered to create drinks from the plants that were native to their areas. The earliest archaeological evidence of wine production yet found has been at sites in Georgia, beer may have been known in Neolithic Europe as far back as 3000 BCE, and was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The invention of beer has been argued to be responsible for humanitys ability to develop technology, tea likely originated in Yunnan, China during the Shang Dynasty as a medicinal drink. Drinking has been a part of socialising throughout the centuries. In Ancient Greece, a gathering for the purpose of drinking was known as a symposium. The purpose of these gatherings could be anything from serious discussions to direct indulgence, in Ancient Rome, a similar concept of a convivium took place regularly. Many early societies considered alcohol a gift from the gods, leading to the creation of such as Dionysus. Other religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic drinks for various reasons, in some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic drinks is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. Toasting is a method of honouring a person or wishing good will by taking a drink, another tradition is that of the loving cup, at weddings or other celebrations such as sports victories a group will share a drink in a large receptacle, shared by everyone until empty. In East Africa and Yemen, coffee was used in religious ceremonies. As these ceremonies conflicted with the beliefs of the Christian church, the drink was also banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe
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Eating
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Eating is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Fungi digest organic matter outside of their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies, for humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake and this may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting. Many homes have an eating room or outside kitchen area devoted to preparation of meals and food. Some trains have a dining car, most societies also have restaurants, food courts, and food vendors so that people may eat when away from home, when lacking time to prepare food, or as a social occasion. At their highest level of sophistication, these places become theatrical spectacles of global cosmopolitanism, at picnics, potlucks, and food festivals, eating is in fact the primary purpose of a social gathering. At many social events, food and beverages are available to attendees. Dishware, silverware, drinkware, and cookware come in an array of forms. People usually have two or three meals a day regularly, snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Some propose not snacking, instead advocating three meals a day with four to six hours between, having three well-balanced meals will then account to some 1800–2000 kcal, which is the average requirement for a regular person. The issue of healthy eating has long been an important concern to individuals, among other practices, fasting, dieting, and vegetarianism are all techniques employed by individuals and encouraged by societies to increase longevity and health. Some religions promote vegetarianism, considering it wrong to consume animals, Eating can also be a way of making money. In jurisdictions under sharia law, it may be proscribed for Muslim adults during the hours of Ramadan. Newborn babies do not eat adult foods and they survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to infants as young as two or three months old, but most infants do not eat adult food until they are between six and eight months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth, between 8 and 12 months of age, the digestive system improves, and many babies begin eating finger foods. Their diet is limited, however, because most babies lack molars or canines at this age. By 18 months, babies often have teeth and a sufficiently mature digestive system to eat the same foods as adults
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Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
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History of breakfast
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Breakfast is the first meal taken after rising from a nights sleep, most often eaten in the early morning before undertaking the days work. The Old English word for dinner, disner, means to break a fast, from archeological evidence at Neolithic sites we know that there was an early reliance on cereal grains once agriculture had begun. Neolithic peoples used quern-stones to grind the grains, then boiled them to make a kind of porridge. The domesticating of crops is thought to have begun in the Fertile Crescent around 7000 BC, three of the eight so-called founder crops are cereals – emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley. Rye and oats were cultivated in Europe starting in the early Neolithic in Anatolia before spreading to the rest of Europe in the Iron age and Bronze Age. Peasants ate a meal, most likely in the morning, consisting of beer, bread. In Greek literature, Homer makes numerous mentions of ariston, a meal taken not long after sunrise, the Iliad notes this meal with regard to a labor-weary woodsman eager for a light repast to start his day, preparing it even as he is aching with exhaustion. The opening prose of the 16th book of The Odyssey mentions breakfast as the meal being prepared in the morning before attending to one’s chores, eventually ariston was moved to around noon, and a new morning meal was introduced. In the post-Homeric classical period of Greece, a meal called akratisma was typically consumed immediately after rising in the morning, akratisma or consisted of barley bread dipped in wine, sometimes complemented by figs or olives. They also made pancakes called τηγανίτης, ταγηνίτης or ταγηνίας, all deriving from τάγηνον. The earliest attested references on tagenias are in the works of the 5th-century BC poets Cratinus, another kind of pancake was σταιτίτης, from σταίτινος, of flour or dough of spelt, derived from σταῖς, flour of spelt. Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae mentions staititas topped with honey, sesame and it was usually composed of everyday staples like bread, cheese, olives, salad, nuts, raisins, and cold meat left over from the night before. They also drank wine-based drinks such as mulsum, a mixture of wine, honey, and aromatic spices. First-century Latin poet Martial said that jetaculum was eaten at 3,00 or 4,00 in the morning and it seems unlikely that any fixed time was truly assigned for this meal. Roman soldiers woke up to a breakfast of pulmentus, porridge similar to the Italian polenta, in the European Middle Ages, breakfast was not usually considered a necessary and important meal, and was practically nonexistent during the earlier medieval period. Monarchs and their entourages would spend lots of time around a table for meals, only two formal meals were eaten per day—one at mid-day and one in the evening. The exact times varied by period and region, but this system remained consistent throughout the Middle Ages. The literal definition of breakfast is ‘breaking the fast’ of nighttime slumber, Breakfast was under Catholic theological criticism
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Table manners
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Table manners are the rules used while eating, which may also include the appropriate use of utensils. Different cultures observe different rules for table manners, each family or group sets its own standards for how strictly these rules are to be enforced. Traditionally in Western Europe, the host or hostess takes the first bite unless he or she instructs otherwise, the host begins after all food for that course has been served and everyone is seated. In religious households, a meal may commence with saying Grace, or at dinner parties the guests might begin the meal by offering some favourable comments on the food. In a group dining situation it is considered impolite to begin eating before all the group have been served their food and are ready to start, napkins should be placed on the lap and not tucked into clothing. The fork is held with the hand and the knife held with the right. The fork is held generally with the tines down, using the knife to cut food or help guide food on to the fork, when no knife is being used, the fork can be held with the tines up. With the tines up, the balances on the side of the index finger, held in place with the thumb. Under no circumstances should the fork be held like a shovel, a single mouthful of food should be lifted on the fork and you should not chew or bite food from the fork. The knife should be held with the base into the palm of the hand, the knife must never enter the mouth or be licked. When eating soup, the spoon is held in the right hand, the soup spoon should never be put into the mouth, and soup should be sipped from the side of the spoon, not the end. Food should always be chewed with the mouth closed, talking with food in ones mouth is seen as very rude. Licking ones fingers and eating slowly can also be considered impolite, food should always be tasted before salt and pepper are added. Applying condiments or seasoning before the food is tasted is viewed as an insult to the cook, as it shows a lack of faith in the cooks ability to prepare a meal. Butter should be cut, not scraped, from the dish using a butter knife or side plate knife and put it onto a side plate. This prevents the butter in the dish from gathering bread crumbs as it is passed around, bread rolls should be torn with the hands into mouth-sized pieces and buttered individually, from the butter placed on the side plate, using a knife. Bread should not be used to dip into soup or sauces, as with butter, cheese should be cut and placed on your plate before eating. Only white wine or rosé is held by the stem of the glass, pouring ones own drink when eating with other people is acceptable, but it is more polite to offer to pour drinks to the people sitting on either side
28.
Swiss French
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Swiss French is the variety of French spoken in the French-speaking area of Switzerland known as Romandy. French is one of the four languages of Switzerland, the others being German, Italian. As of 2012, around 1.8 million people in the country spoke French as their primary language, the French language spoken in Switzerland differs very little from that of France or Belgium, with minor and mostly lexical differences. While Standard French is taught in schools and used in government, media and this is exemplified by the usage of borrowed terms from German in regions bordering German-speaking communities to their complete absence by the French border area around Geneva. Many differences between Swiss French and French are due to the different administrative and political systems between Switzerland and France, in France, a post office box is called a boite postale, whereas in Switzerland, it is called a case postale. Swiss German Swiss Italian Linguistic geography of Switzerland
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Belgian French
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Belgian French is the variety of French spoken mainly among the French Community of Belgium, alongside related Oïl languages of the region such as Walloon, Picard, Champenois and Lorrain. The French language spoken in Belgium differs very little from that of France or Switzerland and it is characterized by the use of some terms that are considered archaic in France, as well as loanwords from languages such as Walloon, Picard and Dutch. French is one of the three languages of Belgium alongside Dutch and German. It is spoken natively by around 39% of the population, primarily in the region of Wallonia. While a number of Oïl languages have traditionally spoken in different areas of Wallonia. This was a result of heavy French cultural influence on the region over the past few centuries. Owing to the diversity of languages, the French language in Wallonia was influenced by them, with words from Walloon, Picard, Champenois. Until the 20th century, Walloon was the majority language of Wallonia, while the French spoken in Wallonia was influenced by local languages, the variant spoken in Brussels was influenced by Dutch, specifically the local Brabantian dialect. The city, geographically located within the Flanders region, was originally just a Dutch-speaking city, however, a gradual Frenchification took place beginning in the 19th century and intensifying towards the end of that and continuing throughout the next century. Today, many Dutch idioms or expressions have been translated into French and are used as such in the Brussels area, regional accents however, can vary from city to city, but on the whole they may vary more according to ones social class and education. Within the French community of Belgium, standard French pronunciation is taught to students, the following differences vary among speakers, depending on their level of education, age, and the region they come from. Major phonological differences include, Lack of the approximant /ɥ/, The combination /ɥi/ is replaced by /wi/, thus for most Belgian speakers, the words enfuir and enfouir are homophones. The nasal vowels are pronounced like in French of France, the distinction between the nasal vowels /ɛ̃/ and /œ̃/ is upheld in Belgian French, whereas in many regions of France, these two sounds have merged. Thus, in Parisian French brin and brun are pronounced the same way, the distinction between the vowels /ɛ/ and /ɛː/ is upheld, whereas in France, these two sounds have merged. The words mettre and maître are pronounced differently in Belgian French, a stronger distinction exists between long and short vowels. While long vowels are constrained to closed syllables in French of France, Belgian French also has them in absolute final position, ⟨ée⟩, ⟨aie⟩ #, ⟨ue⟩ #, ⟨ie⟩ #, ⟨oue⟩ # and ⟨eue⟩ #. As a result, almost all feminine adjectives are distinct from their masculine counterparts for Belgians. The marginal phoneme /ɑ/ is most of the time rendered as a version of /a/
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Scandinavian languages
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The language group is sometimes referred to as the Nordic languages, a direct translation of the most common term used among Danish, Swedish and Norwegian scholars and laypeople. Approximately 20 million people in the Nordic countries have a Scandinavian language as their native language, languages belonging to the North Germanic language tree are spoken commonly on Greenland and, to a lesser extent, by immigrants in North America. Dialects with the assigned to the northern group formed from the Proto-Germanic language in the late Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe. At last around the year 200 AD, speakers of the North Germanic branch became distinguishable from the other Germanic language speakers, the early development of this language branch is attested through runic inscriptions. The original vowel remained when nasalised *ōn and when before /z/, Proto-Germanic *geƀō ‘gift’ > Northwest Germanic *geƀu >, North Germanic *gjavu > with u-umlaut *gjǫvu > ON gjǫf, and West Germanic *gebu > OE giefu, cf. Goth giba. Proto-Germanic *tungōn ‘tongue’ > late Northwest Germanic *tungā > *tunga > ON tunga, OHG zunga, OE tunge, vs. Goth tuggō. *geƀōz ‘of a gift’ > late Northwest Germanic *geƀāz >, North Germanic *gjavaz > ON gjafar, the rhotacism of /z/ to /r/, with presumably a rhotic fricative of some kind as an earlier stage. This change probably affected West Germanic much earlier and then spread from there to North Germanic and this is confirmed by an intermediate stage ʀ, clearly attested in late runic East Norse at a time when West Germanic had long merged the sound with /r/. The development of the demonstrative pronoun ancestral to English this, Germanic *sa, sō, þat ‘this, that’ + proximal *si ‘here’, Runic Norse, nom. sg. þeim-si, etc. with declension of the 1st part, fixed form with declension on the 2nd part, ON sjá, þessi m. Some innovations are not found in West and East Germanic such as, Sharpening of geminate /jj/ and /ww/ according to Holtzmanns law Occurred also in East Germanic, Proto-Germanic *twajjôN > Old Norse tveggja, Gothic twaddjē, but > Old High German zweiio Word-final devoicing of stop consonants. Proto-Germanic *nahtuN > *nāttu > *nǭttu > Old Norse nótt /ɑi̯/ > /ɑː/ before /r/ Proto-Germanic *sairaz > *sāraz > *sārz > Old Norse sárr, with original /z/ Proto-Germanic *gaizaz > *geizz > Old Norse geirr. General loss of word-final /n/, following the loss of short vowels. Proto-Germanic *bindanaN > *bindan > Old Norse binda, but > Old English bindan and this also affected stressed syllables, Proto-Germanic *in > Old Norse í Vowel breaking of /e/ to /jɑ/ except after w, j or l. The diphthong /eu/ was also affected, shifting to /jɒu/ at an early stage and this diphthong is preserved in Old Gutnish and survives in modern Gutnish. In other Norse dialects, the /j/-onset and length remained, the word *ek, which could occur both stressed and unstressed, appears varyingly as ek and jak throughout Old Norse. Loss of initial /j/, and also of /w/ before a round vowel, Proto-Germanic *wulfaz > North Germanic ulfz > Old Norse ulfr The development of u-umlaut, which rounded stressed vowels when /u/ or /w/ followed in the next syllable. This followed vowel breaking, with ja /jɑ/ being u-umlauted to jǫ /jɒ/, Norwegian settlers brought Old West Norse to Iceland and the Faroe Islands around 800
31.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
32.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
33.
Martin van Meytens
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His painting style has inspired many other painters to paint in a similar format. Martin van Meytens was born and baptised in Stockholm, Sweden and he began his artistic studies with his father, the painter Martin Meytens the Elder, who had moved from The Hague to Sweden. He went rather early on a study trip and he visited London, Paris and Vienna, then he lived and worked for a long time in Italy. At the beginning he painted little enamel miniature portraits, and he changed to oil painting only around 1730, here he became very popular as a portrait painter in the circles of the court and the aristocracy. In 1732 he became a painter, and in 1759 the director of the Viennese Academy of Fine Arts. Franz Xaver Messerschmidt was his protégé and his personal virtues, varied interests, erudition and pleasant manners were highly appreciated by his contemporaries. The Wedding Supper depicts the wedding of Princess Isabella of Parma and Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor,5 October 1760, the moment depicted is when the dessert is served, in the middle of the table is a garden made by sugar crust. Among his pupils was Giovanni Gabriele Cantone,1731, Kneeling Nun, Recto,1741, Kaiser Franz I 1745–1750, Familie der Grafen Pálffy 1750, Archduke Maximilian, 1752–1753, Fam. Grill, 1750–1755, Maria Theresia als Herrscherin,1754, Ksl, Familie,1759, Maria Theresia, Works Biography @ Austria Forum Biography @ the Web Gallery of Art Biography and more paintings @ ArtExperts. Media related to Martin van Meytens at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Princess Isabella of Parma
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Isabella of Parma was the daughter of Infante Felipe of Spain, Duke of Parma and his wife Louise Elisabeth, eldest daughter of Louis XV of France and Maria Leszczyńska. Her paternal grandparents were Philip V of Spain and his second wife and her father was the Spanish Prince Philip, who was Duke of Parma in Italy. Her mother was the 14 year old Elisabeth of France, the eldest daughter of Louis XV of France, Isabellas parents marriage was not happy, and for nearly 10 years Isabella remained an only child. Isabella was very close to her mother and was distraught when she died of smallpox in 1759, henceforth, Isabella was convinced she would die young, too. In 1760 a marriage was arranged between Isabella and Archduke Joseph of Austria, heir to the Habsburg Monarchy, after a marriage by proxy, Isabella was escorted to Austria. On 6 October 1760, at the age of 18, Isabella married Joseph II in a ceremony lasting for days, Joseph was thrilled with his new bride and overwhelmed Isabella with his love. In return, she locked herself away, so much so that shortly after their wedding. The princess spent most of her time in the Viennese court, not with her husband, but with his sister, Archduchess Maria Christina, the two women loved each other deeply. During the few years Isabella and Christina knew each other, they exchanged 200 letters and they spent so much time together that they earned the comparison with Orpheus and Eurydice. Isabel and Maria were united not only by a shared interest in music and art, every day they wrote long letters to each other in which they revealed their feelings of love. In one such letter, Isabella wrote, I am writing you again, cruel sister, I cannot bear waiting to know my fate, and to learn whether you consider me a person worthy of your love, or whether you would like to throw me into the river. I can think of nothing but that I am deeply in love, if I only knew why this is so, for you are so without mercy that one should not love you, but I cannot help myself. In a different letter she wrote, I am told that the day begins with God, I, however, begin the day by thinking of the object of my love, for I think of her incessantly. Only the letters of Isabella have been preserved, those of Maria Christina were destroyed after her death, however, as wife of the heir to the throne, Isabella knew that her duty was to give birth to a healthy heir. Despite this, the princess developed disquieted feelings toward her husband, spurred by anxieties over sexual intimacy, by late 1761, one year into the marriage, Isabella was pregnant. On March 20,1762, after nine months of mental and physical strain, Isabella remained bedridden for 6 weeks after giving birth. In August 1762 and January 1763 Isabella suffered two separate miscarriages that aggravated her mental unrest, causing her to fall into a depression that eroded her will to live, in 1763, Isabella was six months pregnant with a baby girl when she contracted smallpox. On 22 November of the year, this brought on premature labor ending in the death of the child, who was given the name Maria Christina
35.
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
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Joseph II was Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790. He was the eldest son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I and he was thus the first ruler in the Austrian dominions of the House of Lorraine, styled Habsburg-Lorraine. He has been ranked, with Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia and his policies are now known as Josephinism. He died with no sons and was succeeded by his younger brother, Joseph was born in the midst of the early upheavals of the War of the Austrian Succession. His real education was given to him through the writings of Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes and he married Princess Isabella of Parma in October 1760, a union fashioned to bolster the 1756 defensive pact between France and Austria. Joseph loved his bride, Isabella, finding her both stimulating and charming, and she sought, with care to cultivate his favor. The marriage of Joseph and Isabella resulted in the birth of a daughter, Isabella was fearful of pregnancy and early death. Her own pregnancy proved difficult as she suffered symptoms of pain, illness. She remained bedridden for six weeks after their daughters birth, almost immediately on the back of their newfound parenthood, the couple then endured two consecutive miscarriages—an ordeal particularly hard on Isabella—followed quickly by another pregnancy. Pregnancy was again provoking melancholy, fears and dread in Isabella, progressively ill with smallpox and strained by sudden childbirth and tragedy, Isabella died the following week. This marriage proved unhappy, albeit brief, as it lasted only two years. Though Maria Josepha loved her husband, she felt timid and inferior in his company, lacking common interests or pleasures, the relationship offered little for Joseph, who confessed he felt no love for her in return. He adapted by distancing himself from his wife to the point of near total avoidance, seeing her only at meals, Maria Josepha, in turn, suffered considerable misery in finding herself locked in a cold, loveless union. Four months after the anniversary of their wedding, Maria Josepha grew ill. Joseph neither visited her during her illness nor attended her funeral, though he expressed regret for not having shown her better kindness. One thing the union did provide him was the possibility of laying claim to a portion of Bavaria. In 1770, at the age of seven, Josephs only surviving child, Maria Theresa, became ill with pleurisy, the loss of his daughter was deeply traumatic for him and left him profoundly grief-stricken and scarred. He was made a member of the council of state
36.
Hofburg
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The Hofburg is the former imperial palace in the centre of Vienna, Austria. It was the principal winter residence, as Schönbrunn Palace was the summer residence. Since 1279 the Hofburg area has been the seat of government. The Hofburg has been expanded over the centuries to various residences, the imperial chapel, the imperial library, the treasury, the Burgtheater, the Spanish Riding School. The palace faces the Heldenplatz ordered under the reign of Emperor Francis Joseph I, as part of what was planned to become the Kaiserforum, the name translates as Royal Castle, which denotes its origins when it was initially constructed during the Medieval Age. Initially constructed as the seat of the Dukes of Austria in the 13th century, from 1438 to 1583 and from 1612 to 1806, it was the seat of the Habsburg kings and emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, thereafter the seat of the Emperor of Austria until 1918. It has continued its role as the seat of the head of state and is used by the Austrian Federal President. It is also the permanent conference seat of the Organization for Security, presently the Burghauptmannschaft is under the jurisdiction of the Federal Ministry of Economy. In September 1958 parts of the Hofburg were opened to the public as a convention centre, in the first ten years the Burghauptmannschaft operated the convention centre, since 1969 a private company has been managing the international congress and events center. Every year the centre hosts about 300 to 350 events with around 300,000 to 320,000 guests. Among the events are conventions and meetings as well as banquets, trade fairs, concerts, the oldest sections originate from the 13th century and were primarily constructed by the last of the Babenbergers or by Ottakar II of Bohemia. Previously the castle of the Austrian rulers had been located on the square called Am Hof, the castle had a square-shaped outline with four turrets, surrounded by a moat and a drawbridge that led to the inside. These oldest sections of the castle form the Swiss Court. There situated are a chapel, from the 15th century, and the treasury, which holds, among other objects, the imperial insignia of the Holy Roman Empire. The Court Music Chapel is located in the Court Chapel and this is where the Vienna Boys Choir traditionally sing for Sunday mass. The appearance of the Swiss Court was given during the reign of Emperor Ferdinand I during the Renaissance, the entry Swiss Gate displays the many titles of Emperor Ferdinand I and the insignia of the Order of the Golden Fleece painted on the ceiling. An adjoining section of the Swiss Wing houses the Radetzky Apartments, next to the Knights Hall is the Guard Room, where the duty officer of the Household Guards kept watch over the emperor. The lower section of this wing once accommodated the imperial kitchen, although not physically connected to the rest of the complex, the imperial mews of the Hofburg were originally built as a residence for the then crown prince Maximilian II
