1.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
2.
Christiansborg Palace
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Christiansborg Palace is a palace and government building on the islet of Slotsholmen in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It is the seat of the Danish Parliament, the Danish Prime Ministers Office, also, several parts of the palace are used by the Danish monarch, including the Royal Reception Rooms, the Palace Chapel and the Royal Stables. The palace is home to the three supreme powers, the executive power, the legislative power, and the judicial power. It is the building in the world that houses all three of a countrys branches of government. The name Christiansborg is thus also used as a metonym for the Danish political system. The present building, the third with this name, is the last in a series of castles and palaces constructed on the same site since the erection of the first castle in 1167. The palace today bears witness to three eras of Danish architecture, as the result of two serious fires, the first fire occurred in 1794 and the second in 1884. The main part of the current palace, finished in 1928, is in the historicist Neo-baroque style, the chapel dates to 1826 and is in a neoclassical style. The showgrounds were built 1738-46, in a baroque style, Christiansborg Palace is owned by the Danish state, and is run by the Palaces and Properties Agency. Several parts of the palace are open to the public, the first castle on the site was Absalons Castle. According to the Danish chronicler Saxo Grammaticus, Bishop Absalon of Roskilde built a castle in 1167 on an island outside Copenhagen Harbour. The castle was made up by a wall, encircling an enclosed courtyard with several buildings, such as the bishops palace. At the death of Absalon in 1201, possession of the castle, a few decades later, however, a bitter feud erupted between crown and church, and for almost two centuries the ownership of the castle and city was contested between kings and bishops. Furthermore, the castle was frequently under attack, for example by Wend pirates and the Hanseatic cities, in 1369, following a conflict with king Valdemar IV of Denmark, the Hanseatic League sent 40 stonemasons to demolish the castle stone by stone. The castle had long been a nuisance to the Hanseatic cities trade in the Sound. The castle had a wall and was surrounded by a moat and with a large. The castle was still the property of the Bishop of Roskilde until King Eric VII usurped the rights to the castle in 1417, from then on the castle in Copenhagen was occupied by the king. In the middle of the 15th century, the became the principal residence of the Danish kings
3.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
4.
Constitution of Denmark
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The Constitutional Act of Denmark, or simply the Constitution, forms a part of the supreme law of Kingdom of Denmark, applying equally in Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. It lays down the framework defining fundamental political principles of governance and establishes the structure, procedures, powers, later sections set out fundamental rights and the duties of citizens, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion and compulsory military service. The Kingdom is governed on the basis of this Constitutional Act but it is complemented by Royal Law, the Act of Succession and devolution arrangements in Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The government of Denmark, as described in Part One of the Constitutional Act, is a system under a constitutional monarchy. In its present form, the Constitutional Act is from 1953 and its adoption ended an absolute monarchy and introduced democracy. Denmark celebrates the adoption of the Constitution on 5 June—the date in which the Constitution was ratified—every year as Constitution Day, the Danish Parliament cannot make any laws which may be repugnant or contrary to the Constitutional Act. However, Denmark has no court, and establishing such a court would require a constitutional amendment. Changes to the Act must be confirmed by a majority in two parliamentary terms and the approval of the electorate through a national referendum. The Danish Constitution differs from all other Danish laws by virtue of its superseding status, as such, these laws are not permitted to contravene the provisions of the Constitution Act. The main principle of the Constitutional Act was to limit the Kings power and it creates a comparatively weak constitutional monarch who is dependent on Ministers for advice and Parliament to draft and pass legislation. The Constitution of 1849 established a parliament, the Rigsdag, consisting of the Landsting. The most significant change in the Constitution of 1953 was the abolishment of the Landsting, leaving the unicameral Folketing and it also enshrined fundamental civil rights, which remain in the current constitution, such as habeas corpus, private property rights and freedom of speech. The Constitutional Act has been changed very few times, but always with the consent of Danish citizens, the wording in the Act is so general that it can still be applied today, despite major changes in society and political life in the intervening years. However, since Denmark lacks a Constitutional Court, scrutiny of legislation for compatibility with the Constitution is a matter for ordinary courts, significantly this means that the actual testing of compatibility can only be instigated by a citizen or company who is affected by the question. When reading the Danish Constitution, it is important to bear in mind that the King is meant to be read as the government because of the symbolic status. This is a consequence of sections 12 and 13, by which the King executes his power through his ministers, an implication of these sections is that the monarch cannot act alone in disregard of the ministers, so the Danish monarch does not interfere in politics. The Danish Parliament is the power, enacting the laws of the country. The Cabinet is the power, formally acting out the role of the Monarch
5.
Danish language
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There are also minor Danish-speaking communities in Norway, Sweden, Spain, the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Due to immigration and language shift in urban areas, around 15–20% of the population of Greenland speak Danish as their home language. Along with the other North Germanic languages, Danish is a descendant of Old Norse, until the 16th century, Danish was a continuum of dialects spoken from Schleswig to Scania with no standard variety or spelling conventions. With the Protestant Reformation and the introduction of printing, a language was developed which was based on the educated Copenhagen dialect. It spread through use in the system and administration though German. Today, traditional Danish dialects have all but disappeared, though there are variants of the standard language. The main differences in language are between generations, with youth language being particularly innovative, Danish has a very large vowel inventory comprising 27 phonemically distinctive vowels, and its prosody is characterized by the distinctive phenomenon stød, a kind of laryngeal phonation type. The grammar is moderately inflective with strong and weak conjugations and inflections, nouns and demonstrative pronouns distinguish common and neutral gender. As in English, Danish only has remnants of a case system, particularly in the pronouns. Its syntax is V2, with the verb always occupying the second slot in the sentence. Danish is a Germanic language of the North Germanic branch, other names for this group are the Nordic or Scandinavian languages. Along with Swedish, Danish descends from the Eastern dialects of the Old Norse language, Scandinavian languages are often considered a dialect continuum, where there are no sharp dividing lines between the different vernacular languages. Like Norwegian and Swedish, Danish was significantly influenced by Low German in the Middle Ages, Danish itself can be divided into three main dialect areas, West Danish, Insular Danish, and East Danish. Danish is largely mutually intelligible with Norwegian and Swedish, both Swedes and Danes also understand Norwegian better than they understand each others languages. By the 8th century, the common Germanic language of Scandinavia, Proto-Norse, had some changes. This language was called the Danish tongue, or Norse language. Norse was written in the alphabet, first with the elder futhark. From the 7th century the common Norse language began to undergo changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, most of the changes separating East Norse from West Norse started as innovations in Denmark, that spread through Scania into Sweden and by maritime contact to southern Norway
6.
Folketing
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The Folketing, also known as the Danish Parliament in English, is the unicameral national parliament of the Kingdom of Denmark. Established in 1849, until 1953 the Folketing was the house of a bicameral parliament, called the Rigsdag. It meets in Christiansborg Palace, on the islet of Slotsholmen in central Copenhagen, the Folketing passes all laws, approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government. It is also responsible for adopting the states budgets and approving the states accounts, as set out in the Danish Constitution, the Folketing shares power with the reigning monarch. In practice, however, the role is limited to signing laws passed by the legislature. The Folketing consists of 179 representatives,175 from Denmark,2 from Greenland, general elections must be held every four years, but it is within the powers of the Prime Minister to ask the monarch to call for an election before the term has elapsed. On a vote of no confidence, the Folketing may force a single Minister or the government to resign. Members are democratically elected by proportional representation,135 by the DHondt method and 40 by the Sainte-Laguë method, the Danish political system has traditionally generated coalitions. Most post-war governments have been minority coalitions ruling with the support of non-government parties, the most recent general election took place on 18 June 2015 and the Folketing reconvened on 6 October. The first sitting of the house was attended by Queen Margrethe II, from 1849 to 1953 the Folketing was one of the two houses in the bicameral parliament known as the Rigsdag, the other house was known as the Landsting. Since both houses, in principle, had power, the terms upper house and lower house were not generally used. The difference between the houses was voter representation, the Folketing was elected by common vote among men and consisted mainly of independent farmers, traders, and merchants as well as the educated classes. From 1915 both men and women had the right of vote for both houses, and also the Landsting was elected by vote, although indirectly and with a higher age limit than for the Folketing. During the next decades, law-making mainly took place in the Folketing, in 1953, a revised constitution was adopted by popular vote. Among the changes was the elimination of the Landsting and the introduction of a unicameral parliament, Christiansborg Palace has been the domicile of parliament since 1849. The palace is located in the heart of Copenhagen, winning a seat in parliament requires only 2% of the vote. With such a low threshold, a large number of parties are represented in the chamber, making it all. No party has achieved this since 1901, all Danish governments since then have been coalitions or one-party minority governments
7.
Prime Minister of Denmark
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The Prime Minister of Denmark is the head of government in the Kingdom of Denmark. Before the creation of the office, Denmark did not initially have a head of government separate from its head of state, namely the Monarch. The Constitution of 1849 established a monarchy by limiting the powers of the Monarch. The inaugural holder of the office was Adam Wilhelm Moltke, the Prime Minister presides over a cabinet that is formally appointed by the Monarch. In practice, the appointment of the Prime Minister is determined by their support in the Folketing. Since the beginning of the 20th century no single party has held a majority in the Folketing, so the Prime Minister must head a coalition of political parties, as well as their own party. Additionally, only four coalition governments since World War II have enjoyed a majority in the Folketing, the current Prime Minister of Denmark is Lars Løkke Rasmussen. He leads a government consisting of Venstre with parliamentary support from the Danish Peoples Party, Liberal Alliance, from approximately 1699 to 1730, the highest ranking non-monarchial government official was titled the Grand Chancellor and from 1730 until 1848, this office was titled Minister of State. These titles foreshadowed the modern office of Prime Minister, however, unlike the current office, the King held executive authority as absolute ruler from 1661 until the enactment of a liberal Constitution in the early nineteenth century. The office of Prime Minister was introduced as a part of the constitutional monarchy outlined in 1848, the new Constitution established a parliamentary system by creating a new bicameral parliament and a Council Presidum, headed by a Council President. The Council Presidium is regarded as the predecessor of the modern Prime Ministers Office, the first Council President was Adam Wilhelm Moltke, who came to power on 22 March 1848. Molte and his two successors also held the title of premierminister, which translates as prime minister. From 1855 onwards the Prime Minister was known simply as the Council President, Carl Christian Hall became the first Prime Minister/Council President to lead a political party. The title of the Prime Minister changed again in 1918 under the Premiership of Carl Theodor Zahle, becoming titled the Minister of State, by the mid-nineteenth century a strong party-system had developed, with most Prime Ministers being the leader of either Venstre or Højre. However, by 1924 the Social Democrats had become the largest party, during the first years of Occupation of Denmark, the governments of Prime Ministers Vilhelm Buhl and then Erik Scavenius cooperated with the Nazi occupiers. On 29 August 1943, the Danish government resigned, refusing to grant further concessions to Nazi Germany, all government operations were assumed by the permanent secretaries of the individual departments, and this arrangement lasted until the Liberation of Denmark on 5 May 1945. Since King Christian X never accepted the resignation of the government, the twentieth century was dominated by Social Democratic Prime Ministers leading left-wing coalitions, Social Democratic Prime Ministers were in power nearly continuously from 1924 until 1982. The first Prime Minister from the Conservative Peoples Party, Poul Schlüter, the centre-right coalition ruled in 1993, last for eleven years, made it became the longest centre-right government in Denmark history since 1920s
8.
Christian V of Denmark
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Christian V was king of Denmark and Norway from 1670 until his death in 1699. As king he wanted to show his power as absolute monarch through architecture and he was the first to use the 1671 Throne Chair of Denmark, partly made for this purpose. His motto was, Pietate et Justitia, Christian was elected successor to his father in June 1650. This was not a choice, but de facto automatic hereditary succession. Escorted by his chamberlain Christoffer Parsberg, Christian went on a trip abroad, to Holland, England, France. On this trip, he saw absolutism in its most splendid achievement at the young Louis XIVs court and he returned to Denmark in August 1663. From 1664 he was allowed to attend proceedings of the State College, hereditary succession was made official by Royal Law in 1665. ChristIan was hailed as heir in Copenhagen in August 1665, in Odense and Viborg in September, only a short time before he became king, he was taken into the Council of the Realm and the Supreme Court. He became king upon his fathers death on 9 February 1670 and he was the first hereditary king of Denmark, and in honor of this, Denmark acquired costly new crown jewels and a magnificent new ceremonial sword. The war exhausted Denmarks economic resources without securing any gains, to accommodate non-aristocrats into state service, he created the new noble ranks of count and baron. One of the elevated in this way by the king was Peder Schumacher, named Count Griffenfeld by Christian V in 1670. The results of the war efforts proved politically and financially unremunerative for Denmark, the damage to the Danish economy was extensive. After the Scanian War, his sister, Princess Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark, married the Swedish king Charles XI, Christian V was also often considered dependent on his councillors by contemporary sources. The Danish monarch did nothing to dispel this notion, in his memoirs, he listed hunting, love-making, war and maritime affairs as his main interests in life. Christian V introduced Danske Lov in 1683, the first law code for all of Denmark and it was succeeded by the similar Norske Lov of 1687. He also introduced the land register of 1688, which attempted to out the land value of the united monarchy in order to create a more just taxation. During his reign, science witnessed a golden age due to the work of the astronomer Ole Rømer in spite of the king’s personal lack of scientific knowledge and he died from the after-effects of a hunting accident and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral. Christian V had eight children by his wife and six by his Maîtresse-en-titre, Sophie Amalie Moth, Sophie was the daughter of his former tutor Poul Moth
9.
1661 in Denmark
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Events from the year 1661 in Denmark. Monarch – Frederick III January 10 – The decision to introduce absolute monarchy from the previous year enters into effect, January 12 – The State College proposes a comprehensive codification of Danish law, later resulting in the Danish Code of 1683. January – The Royal Horse Guards is founded, february 14 – The Supreme Court of Denmark is established. April 16 – Joachim Gersdorff dies suddenly, giving rise to rumours that he has been poisoned and his wife Øllegaard Huitfeld and a maidservant are convicted of murder. April 24 – Auctions are first authorized in Copenhagen and a master is engaged. June 24 – The Coat of arms of Copenhagen is granted to the city by the king in appraisal of its citizens efforts in repelling the Swedish siege, an accompanying royal letter of privilege also introduced various privileges which, however remained of relatively minor importance. The city is also granted the fief Roskilde. * September – Corfitz Ulfeldt, market towns are given a monopoly on trade and crafts. Møgeltønderhus is granted to Count Hans von Schack who demolishes most of it, none known April 19 – Joachim Gersdorff, Steward of the Realm
10.
Frederick III of Denmark
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Frederick III was king of Denmark and Norway from 1648 until his death. He also governed under the name Frederick II as diocesan administrator of the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, and he instituted absolute monarchy in Denmark-Norway in 1660, confirmed by law in 1665 as the first in Western historiography. He also ordered the creation of the Throne Chair of Denmark and he was born the second-eldest son of Christian IV and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg. Frederick was only considered an heir to the throne after the death of his older brother Prince Christian in 1647, in order to be elected king after the death of his father, Frederick conceded significant influence to the nobility. As king, he fought two wars against Sweden and he was defeated in the Dano-Swedish War of 1657–1658, but attained great popularity when he weathered the 1659 Assault on Copenhagen and won the Dano-Swedish War of 1658–1660. Later that year, Frederick used his popularity to disband the elective monarchy in favour of absolute monarchy and he married Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, with whom he fathered Christian V of Denmark. Frederick was born at Haderslev in Slesvig, the son of Christian IV, in his youth and early manhood, there was no prospect of his ascending the Danish throne, as his older brother Christian was elected heir apparent in 1608. Frederick was educated at Sorø Academy and studied in the Netherlands, as a young man, he demonstrated an interest in theology, natural sciences, and Scandinavian history. He was a reserved and enigmatic prince who seldom laughed, spoke little, and wrote less, even though he lacked the impulsive and jovial qualities of his father, Frederick possessed the compensating virtues of moderation and self-control. On 1 October 1643 Frederick wed Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, the daughter of George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who had an energetic, passionate and he was an enthusiastic collector of books and his collection became the foundation for the Copenhagen Royal Library. In his youth, Frederick became the instrument of his fathers political schemes in the Holy Roman Empire and he was granted administration of the Prince-Archbishopric of Bremen, the Prince-Bishopric of Verden, and named coadjutor of the Bishopric of Halberstadt. Thus, from an age, he had considerable experience as an administrator. At the age of eighteen, he was the commandant of the Bremian fortress of Stade. During the Torstenson War of 1643–45, Frederick lost control of his possessions within the empire and he was then appointed commander in the royal shares in the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein by his father. His command was not successful, chiefly owing to his quarrels with the Earl-Marshal Anders Bille and this was Fredericks first collision with the Danish nobility, who afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his elder brother Christian in June 1647 opened the possibility for Frederick to be elected heir apparent to the Danish throne, however, this issue was still unsettled when Christian IV died on 28 February 1648. After long deliberation among the Danish Estates and in the Rigsraadet, on 6 July, Frederick received the homage of his subjects, and he was crowned on 23 November. The Haandfæstning included provisions curtailing the already diminished royal prerogative in favour of increased influence for the Rigsraadet, in the first years of his reign, the Rigsraadet was the main power center of Danish politics
11.
Christian IV of Denmark
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Christian IV, sometimes colloquially referred to as Christian Firtal in Denmark and Christian Kvart or Quart in Norway, was king of Denmark-Norway and Duke of Holstein and Schleswig from 1588 to 1648. His 59-year reign is the longest of Danish monarchs, and of Scandinavian monarchies, a member of the house of Oldenburg, Christian began his personal rule of Denmark in 1596 at the age of 19. He is frequently remembered as one of the most popular, ambitious, Christian IV obtained for his kingdom a level of stability and wealth that was virtually unmatched elsewhere in Europe. He engaged Denmark in numerous wars, most notably the Thirty Years War, which devastated much of Germany, undermined the Danish economy and he renamed the Norwegian capital Oslo as Christiania after himself, a name used until 1925. Christian was born at Frederiksborg Castle in Denmark on 12 April 1577 as the child and eldest son of King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway. He was descended, through his mothers side, from king John of Denmark, at the time, Denmark was still an elective monarchy, so in spite of being the eldest son Christian was not automatically heir to the throne. However, in 1580, at the age of 3, his father had him elected Prince-Elect, at the death of his father on 4 April 1588, Christian was 11 years old. He succeeded to the throne, but as he was still under-age a regency council was set up to serve as the trustees of the power while Christian was still growing up. It was led by chancellor Niels Kaas and consisted of the Rigsraadet council members Peder Munk, Jørgen Ottesen Rosenkrantz and his mother Queen Dowager Sophie,30 years old, had wished to play a role in the government, but was denied by the Council. At the death of Niels Kaas in 1594, Jørgen Rosenkrantz took over leadership of the regency council, Christian continued his studies at Sorø Academy and received a good education with a reputation as a headstrong and talented student. In 1595, the Council of the Realm decided that Christian would soon be old enough to assume control of the reins of government. On 17 August 1596, at the age of 19, Christian signed his haandfæstning, twelve days later, on 29 August 1596, Christian IV was crowned at the Church of Our Lady in Copenhagen by the Bishop of Zealand, Peder Jensen Vinstrup. He was crowned with a new Danish Crown Regalia which had made for him by Dirich Fyring. On 30 November 1597, he married Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, Christian took an interest in many and varied matters, including a series of domestic reforms and improving Danish national armaments. New fortresses were constructed under the direction of Dutch engineers, the Danish navy, which in 1596 had consisted of but twenty-two vessels, in 1610 rose to sixty, some of them built after Christians own designs. The formation of a national army proved more difficult, up until the early 1620s, Denmarks economy profited from general boom conditions in Europe. This inspired Christian to initiate a policy of expanding Denmarks overseas trade and he founded a number of merchant cities, and supported the building of factories. He also built a number of buildings in Dutch Renaissance style
12.
Copenhagen Castle
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Copenhagen Castle was a castle on Slotsholmen in Copenhagen, Denmark, built in the late 14th century at the site of the current Christiansborg Palace. The castle had a wall and was surrounded by a moat and with a large. The castle was still the property of the Bishop of Roskilde until King Eric of Pomerania usurped the rights to the castle in 1417, from then on the castle in Copenhagen was occupied by the king. The castle was several times. King Christian IV, for example, added a spire to the entrance tower. In the 1720s, Frederik IV entirely rebuilt the castle, but it became so heavy that the walls began to give way and to crack. It became therefore evident to Christian VI, Frederik IVs successor, immediately after his accession to the throne in 1730, the demolition of the overextended and antiquated Copenhagen Castle was commenced in 1731 to make room for the first Christiansborg Palace
13.
Christiansborg Palace (1st)
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The first Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen, Denmark was built on Slotsholmen in 1745 as a new main residence for King Christian VI of Denmark. It was built on the site as its predecessor, Copenhagen Castle. The palace only existed for just under half a century since it was almost completely destroyed by a fire in 1794. The surviving parts, which included the grounds, the court theatre. Demolition of the overextended and antiquated Copenhagen Castle began in 1731 to make room for the new palace which was named Christiansborg after its founder, the king commissioned architect Elias David Häusser to build the new palace. Construction of the magnificent new palace began in 1733, from 1736 the younger architects Lauritz de Thurah and Nicolai Eigtved were put in charge of designing the interior. In 1738 a palace commission was set up to supervise the construction, work only progressed slowly due to lack of funds and on several occasions threatened to come to a complete standstill. However, by 1740 the main wing was ready for use. When Häusser retired from the project in 1742, Eigtved was charged with completing the palace, the palace commission was dissolved on 22 February 1745. The total costs of the new palace were 2.7 million Rigsdaler, on 26 February 1794, Christiansborg Palace was devastated by a fire. It began in an overheated stove close to the Grand Hall, there was also an attached chapel located at the site of the present-day Christiansborg Chapel. It was the largest palace in Europe for a short while, the main approach to the palace was across the still existing Marble Bridge, today located on the rear side of present-day Christiansborg, and the show grounds. The main building stood 36 metres high with a copper-clad roof, the façade was covered in sandstone and lavishly decorated with vases, reliefs, sculptures and ornamental details on cornices and window frames. The interior was also in Rococo style and lavishly decorated
14.
Slotsholmen
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Slotsholmen is an island in the harbour of Copenhagen, Denmark, and part of Copenhagen Inner City. The island is dominated by the vast Christiansborg Palace which houses the Danish Parliament, the Supreme Court of Denmark, the Prime Ministers Office, the site used to consist of several small natural islands in the sound between the islands of Zealand and Amager. On the largest of these, Strandholmen, Bishop Absalon of Roskilde constructed a castle in 1167. In 1250 the castle was extended with two towers to get the appearance that is now depicted on Copenhagens Coat of Arms. The castle was conquered by the Hanseatic League 1368 and pulled down the year as part of peace terms. Shortly after Copenhagen Castle was built on the site and it became the residence for the Danish king in 1443. However, the took place in a rather haphazard way and continued during the reign of the following kings. Probably during the reign of Christian III a building was constructed on the quay of the canal in front of the castle to house the Chancellery. During the reign of Christian III and Frederick II an arsenal was constructed by the south of the castle. Under King Christian IV Slotsholmen saw considerable development, especially in the part of the island. Here a new harbour was established, surrounded on one side by an Arsenal. Other new buildings constructed were the Stock Exchange and the Brewhouse, all four of these historic buildings are still there today. By the time of the introduction of the monarchy in 1660. During the reign of King Frederick III, further lack of space in the led to the construction in 1665-1673 of an additional building between the Supply Depot and the Arsenal. This building, also still visible today, was to house the Cabinet of curiosities of the king, founded about 1650, during the reign of King Frederick IV, a magnificent administration building was constructed in 1716-21 next to the palace adjacent to the Supply Depot. This new building was to house the chancelleries, thus replacing the previous chancellery building situated by the canal, the new chancellery building was connected to the castle by an arched passageway, thus allowing the king to stay in close contact with his government. The Chancellery Building has functioned as the heart of the administration for almost 300 years. Several renovations were made, most notably by Frederick IV in 1721-29 and this rebuilding thoroughly changed the irregular appearance of the castle to a more regular shape
15.
Prince's Mansion, Copenhagen
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The Princes Mansion is a palatial Rococo-style mansion located at Frederiksholms Kanal in central Copenhagen, Denmark. It used to serve as the residence of the Crown Prince of Denmark. The original house was built in 1684 by Wigand Michelbecker, born in Marburg, he had settled in Copenhagen in 1657 and built a successful career as a merchant and ship owner. In 1685 the first reformed church in Copenhagen opened in his house, Michelbecker died in 1692 and in 1707 his house was taken over by his son-in-law Wilhelm Edinger. In 1716 it was put at the disposal of Tsar Peter the Great during his visit to Copenhagen, in 1725 Edinger sold the house to King Frederick IV who transformed it into a residence for Crown Prince Christian with the assistance of the architect Johan Cornelius Krieger. After King Christian Vs ascent to the throne, the Princes Mansion was taken over by Crown Prince Frederick and he completely altered the building from 1743 to 1744 with the assistance of Royal Master Builder Niels Eigtved. In 1757 Lauritz de Thurah, Eigtveds successor as Court Architect, carried out an expansion of the complex on the corner of Frederiksholms Kanal. For a while, the painters Jens Juel and Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard both had their studios in the building, gerhard Christoph von Krogh, the military officer who had led the Danish troops in the Battle of Isted, was a resident from 1817 until 1853. The fire of the first Christiansborg in 1794 did not only leave the family but also the Supreme Court of Denmark homeless. In 1830 it was given a new Assembly Hall at the second Christiansborg Palace, after the adoption of the new Constitution in 1849, the Princes Mansion was ceded to the Danish State. The building then came to serve as a home for the National Collections and these included the Museum of Ethnology which opened in 1849, the Royal Cabinet of Coins and Medals and the Museum of Nordic Antiquities. The latter two were headed by the historian Christian Jürgensen Thomsen who also resided in the building from 1851 until his death in 1865, the Museum of Nordic Antiquities eventually developed into the National Museum which opened in the Princes Mansion in 1892. The Princes Mansion is one of the earliest Rococo buildings in Copenhagen and it has three wings with a courtyard closed to Frederiksholms Kanal by a single-story gallery with an entrance gate in the middle. The gallery is topped by a balustrade with vases and statues, the statues together with window decorations on the garden side were saved from Kriegers building from 1726. On the opposite side, they created a colonnade along the length of the complex. It has 38 columns of granite from the island of Bornholm, the latest alterations of the building took place in 1992 to the design of Gehrdt Bornebusch. The Princes Mansion still houses the department of the National Museum. Facilities also include a restaurant and a cinema, det Kongelige Palais i Kalveboderne 1-2
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National Museum of Denmark
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The National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen is Denmark’s largest museum of cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures, alike. The museums main building is located a distance from Strøget at the center of Copenhagen. It contains exhibits from around the world, from Greenland to South America, additionally, the museum sponsors SILA - The Greenland Research Centre at the National Museum of Denmark to further archaeological and anthropological research in Greenland. Danish coins from Viking times to the present and coins from ancient Rome and Greece, as well as examples of the coinage, the National Museum keeps Denmark’s largest and most varied collection of objects from the ancient cultures of Greece and Italy, the Near East and Egypt. For example, it holds a collection of objects that were retrieved during the Danish excavation of Tell Shemshara in Iraq in 1957, the Danish pre-history section was re-opened in May 2008 after years of renovating. In 2013, an exhibition on the Vikings was opened by Queen Margrethe. It has toured to other museums, including the British Museum in London, larsen Per Kristian Madsen Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark is the title of the museums yearbook which has been published since 1928 and contains articles and other contributions. ISSN 0084-9308 Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1807 -2007
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Amalienborg
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For its Antillian namesake, see Charlotte Amalie, U. S. Virgin Islands Amalienborg is the home of the Danish royal family, and is located in Copenhagen, Denmark. Amalienborg was originally built for four families, however, when Christiansborg Palace burned on 26 February 1794. Over the years various kings and their families have resided in the four different palaces, the Frederiksstaden district was built on the former grounds of two other palaces. The first palace was called Sophie Amalienborg, other parts of the land were used for Rosenborg Castle, Nyboder, and the new Eastern fortified wall around the old city. Work on the began in 1664, and the castle was built 1669-1673. The King died in 1670, and the Queen Dowager lived there until her death on 20 February 1685, the presentation was a great success, and it was repeated a few days later on 19 April. However, immediately after the start of the performance a stage decoration caught fire, causing the theatre and the palace to burn to the ground. The King planned to rebuild the palace, whose church, Royal Household, ole Rømer headed the preparatory work for the rebuilding of Amalienborg in the early 1690s. In 1694, the King negotiated a deal with the Swedish building master Nicodemus Tessin the Younger and his drawing and model were completed in 1697. The King, however, found the plans too ambitious, and instead began tearing down the buildings that same year. The second Amalienborg was built by Frederick IV at the beginning of his reign, the second Amalienborg consisted of a summerhouse, a central pavilion with orangeries, and arcades on both side of the pavilion. On one side of the buildings was a French-style garden, the pavilion had a dining room on the groundfloor. On the upper floor was a salon with an out to the harbour, the garden. This development is thought to have been the brainchild of Danish Ambassador Plenipotentiary in Paris. Heading the project was Lord High Steward Adam Gottlob Moltke, one of the most powerful and influential men in the land, with Nicolai Eigtved as royal architect and supervisor. The project consisted of four identical mansions, built to house four distinguished families of nobility from the royal circles and these mansions form the modern palace of Amalienborg, albeit much modified over the years. The noblemen who owned them were willing to part with their mansions for promotion and money, and the Moltke and Schack Palaces were acquired in the course of a few days. A colonnade, designed by royal architect Caspar Frederik Harsdorff, was added 1794-1795 to connect the recently occupied King’s palace, Moltke Palace, with that of the Crown Prince, Schack’s Palace
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Bredgade
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Bredgade is one of the most prominent streets in Copenhagen, Denmark. It is lined with a number of mansions as well as other historic buildings. Many law firms, trade unions, fashion stores and art galleries are based in the street, the street was mainly lined by large gardens with small houses and pavilions. When the course of the Eastern Rampart was changed over the first century, at that point Bredgade was renamed Norgesgade to commemorate the Kings possessions to the north and escape the rural connotations of the old name. When Esplanaden was laid out at its far end in the 1780s, the name Norgesgade never gained popularity and in 1877 the streets official name was finally changed back to Bredgade. Ansgars Cathedral Frederiks Hospital, now the Danish Museum of Art & Design Mash Bredgade on indenforvoldene. dk
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Vestre Landsret
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The Vestre Landsret is one of Denmarks two High Courts, along with the Østre Landsret. Both High Courts function both as a civil and criminal court of first instance and a civil and criminal court for cases from the subordinate courts. The Vestre Landsret sits in Viborg but has chambers in larger western cities and it has jurisdiction over all County Courts in Jutland. A County Court decision can always be appealed to a High Court - if the claim exceeds DKK10.000. First instance civil cases may only be brought before the High Court if the claim exceeds DKK1.000.000. The Vestre Landsret has one President and 38 judges, like the Østre Landsret, it is split into chambers, each consisting of three High Court judges. Though the President of the High Court appoints a judge for each chamber, all decisions are reached by a simple majority. Vestre High Court was established in 1919, replacing the Landsoverretten for Nørrejylland, the courts main building in Viborg was built and commissioned in January 1920. It is located on Stænderpladsen in Viborg and was designed by architect Christopher Varming, in front of the main entrance to the Vestre High Court stands a bust of lawyer Anders Sandøe Ørsted. In the middle of Stænderpladsen is a statue by sculptor Anker Hoffmann, over time it became necessary to add premises elsewhere, in line with increased activity. In criminal cases by jury or Lay Assessors the court also uses courtrooms in Aalborg, Aarhus, Kolding, construction of a new courthouse in Viborg was decided by the Danish Parliament in 2010, it was inaugurated in 2014. Courts of Denmark The High Court of Western Denmark
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Courts of Denmark
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The Courts of Denmark is the ordinary court system of the Kingdom of Denmark. Part of the Courts of Denmark are also three boards, The Process Grating Board, The Sideline Employment Board and the Judicial Appointment Council, finally the Danish Court Administration is vested with the joint administration of the whole organization. The courts of Greenland and the Faeroe Islands constitute semi-autonomous parts of the Courts of Denmark and are governed by separate, in accordance with Article 3 of the Danish Constitution, all judicial authority is vested in the courts of justice. The constitution also provides that judges of the court may pass judgements. The Danish system of courts is based on a structure, in which there are no special or constitutional courts of law. As a rule, all courts of law may adjudicate disputes in legal areas such as civil, labour, administrative, the Court of Indictment and Revision handles complaints regarding procedure, disqualification of judges, etc. brought by the users of the courts, against the courts. Proceedings are oral in general and open to the public in the lower courts, media transmissions from within the court are prohibited, unless allowed by the presiding judge. The general structure of the system is inspired by the traditions of continental Europe. The Act has undergone substantial changes since its enactment in 1916, furthermore, the Danish Constitution provides for the Court of Impeachment of the Realm to hear cases brought against ministers concerning their administration. The Danish Courts exercise the powers of government and resolve related issues, including probate, bankruptcy, enforcement, land registration. Lay judges may be of any profession, except they may not be attorneys, members of the clergy, or acting civil servants, from late 2005 a gradual reform of the lower courts is under way. When passed, the reform will transform the role of the County and High Courts, the composition of the county courts varies but is regulated by law. The Copenhagen County Court has 49 judges and a President, whilst Aarhus, Odense, Aalborg, and Roskilde county courts have a President and 15,10,10,29 jurisdictions have two to four judges, whilst the last 50 jurisdictions have only one judge. At the preparatory and trial stages of civil cases only one judge presides, in criminal cases where this is not the case, the judge sits with two lay judges. Special rules regarding appointment of lay judges apply to maritime cases, in cases where lay judges sit with the judge, decisions are adopted by simple majority. In addition to their duties, county court judges act as notary public and bailiffs, as well as administrators of bankruptcy proceedings. Furthermore, they administer the land registry. In regard to the tasks, these functions may be assigned to an assessor
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Supreme Court of Albania
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The Supreme Court of Albania is the highest court of Albania and is the final court of appeal in the Albanian justice system. The Supreme Court of Albania is composed of seventeen judges, the President of the Supreme Court, the Supreme Court is the highest court in the judicial branch of the Republic of Albania with its premises located in Tirana. Its main mission is to review the decisions of lower courts upon the appeal from one of the parties. The historical context of the development of the current Supreme Court can be divided in the time periods. The Declaration of Independence marked the first steps in institution-building for the nascent Albanian state, thus on May 10,1913 The Canon of Jury was approved, this first Act constituted a cornerstone for the organization and functioning of the courts in the Albanian judicial system. According to historical data, the system was implemented only once for a trial in the Province of Elbasan. On that same day a new law was promulgated, which amended the Appeals process by establishing the Primary Appeals Court to serve as a corts of Second Instance and it was during this period that the organization and functioning of the Judiciary in Albania was consolidated and its role strengthened. During the Albanian Republic, the Judicial system was organized as follows, the decisions taken by these courts were enforced by the court execution offices included in the sub-district courts. Special Military Court - the first such court was created in the city of Shkodra and its composition involved three Officers, two Lay judges and a civil Prosecutor. In 1928, Albania transitioned from a Republican government into a Monarchy, as part of this Constitutional transformation, there were also significant changed in the organization of the Albanian Judiciary. Collegiate Courts - composed of the President of the court together with two Members, it had jurisdiction on all cases that would qualify for a sentence of imprisonment of over three years. Dictation Court - the highest court in the land, it was divided into two Departments, respectively the Department of Civil Affairs and the Department of Penal Affairs. Every Department comprised a President, four associate Members, an assistant Member, the Dictation Court also incorporated the Office of the Chief Prosecutor, who was assisted by a Deputy Chief Prosecutor, a secretary, an archivist and an assistant. The separate Departments of the Dictation Court could come together into a Unified Chamber, whose role was overseeing the distribution of justice. After the end of WWII, the newly formed Communist-controlled government reorganized the Judicial system once again, in contrast to the other Colleges, the Disciplinary College was concerned with adjudicating potential from Judges, Court Presidents, members of the Military Courts and members of the Supreme Court. The judicial panel consisted of the President and two members of the Supreme Court, or alternatively the Deputy President and two members as appointed by the President themself. For certain important cases, the Supreme Court could hear cases en banc, where the President, the Deputy Heads of the court as well as all the members of the Supreme Court would be present. With the fall of communism in Albania, a lot of changes needed to be made in the almost every area of life to adapt to the new system, all members of the Court would be elected for a term of 7 years with no right of reelection
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Supreme Court (Austria)
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The Supreme Court is one of three judicial bodies charged with final appellate jurisdiction in Austria. Whereas the Constitutional Court deals with law and the Supreme Administrative Court with public law. These three Courts are hierarchically on the level, there being no superiority or subordination between them. The Court meets in the Palace of Justice in Vienna, the Austrian Supreme Court was established in the course of the March Revolution by ministerial decree on 21 August 1848. The Court received its organisational structure by edict of Emperor Franz Joseph I in 1850 and it then had jurisdiction over all crown lands of the Austrian Empire. The Basic Law on the Judiciary stipulated the separation of administration and judiciary, from 1865 to 1891, the liberal statesman Anton von Schmerling served as court president. Important legal reforms included the criminal code of 1873 and the implementation of the Civil procedure code in 1895, the political turmoils during the inter-war period culminated in the Vienna Palace of Justice fire on 15 July 1927, whereby large parts of the building were devastated. During the Austrian Anschluss to Nazi Germany from 1938 to 1945, after World War II the Austrian sovereign statehood was restored and the Supreme Court re-established. Since 1969 its jurisdiction is exercised on the basis of the Federal Supreme Court Act. Courts in Austria Supreme Court of Justice official website
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