1.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
2.
Pegatron
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Pegatrons principal executive offices and many assets are located in Taiwan. As of March 2010, Pegatron had approximately 5,646 employees stationed in Taiwan,89,521 in China,2,400 in the Czech Republic,200 in each of the United States, Mexico and Japan. Pegatron has manufacturing plants in Taiwan, the Czech Republic, Mexico, and China, as part of the corporate restructuring of ASUSTeK Computer starting in 2007, Pegatron acquired Unihan Corporation from ASUSTeK in January 2008. Since 2008, the Unihan Corporation has been a subsidiary of Pegatron Corporation that designs and manufactures computers, computer peripherals, Pegatron acquired ASRock in 2010 shortly before it was spun off. On May 18,2010, the board of directors at Pegatron unanimously approved to appropriate a sum within 0. 5% of net income every year to charity, PEGA Design and Engineering is Pegatrons design team that was originally branched off from the ASUSTeK design team. The PEGA D&E helps Pegatrons clients with product development, including research, conceptualization, product design, materials study. In addition to 3C electronic products, Pegatron designs home appliances and home decor products such as LCD TVs, LED lightings, phones and more. These non-IT products include home appliances, fashion accessories, vehicle accessories, building design and building materials, multimedia ads and marketing. In December 2014 a BBC investigation exposed poor working conditions and employee mistreatment at Pegatron factories making Apple products near Shanghai, list of companies of Taiwan http, //www. pegacasa. com/en/index. html Official website
3.
Microsoft Surface
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Microsoft Surface is a series of touchscreen Windows personal computers and interactive whiteboards designed and developed by Microsoft. The devices are manufactured by Pegatron and are designed to be devices that set examples to Windows OEMs. It comprises four generations of hybrid tablets, 2-in-1 detachable notebooks, a convertible desktop all-in-one, an interactive whiteboard, with the exception of the first-generation Surface and Surface 2, all Surface PCs use Intel processors and are compatible with Microsofts Windows 10 operating system. The Surface family features five lines of devices, The Surface line of hybrid tablets, with optional detachable keyboard accessories. The latest model, the Surface 3, uses an Intel Atom SoC processor, the Surface Pro line of professional hybrid tablets, use similar optional detachable keyboard accessories. The latest Surface Pro 4 uses a 6th generation Intel Core i Series processors, the Surface Book, a notebook with a detachable screen. The base is configurable with/without discrete graphics and an independently operable screen with support for the included stylus, the Surface Studio, a 28-inch all-in-one desktop that adjusts into a digital drafting table with stylus and on-screen Surface Dial support. The Surface Hub, a screen interactive whiteboard designed for collaboration. The 2012 Surface tablet launched alongside the general availability release of Windows 8 on October 26,2012, Surface Pro became available on February 9,2013. Surface devices were available only at Microsoft Stores and online. According to then Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer, the spot for the bulk of the PC market was $300 to $800. On October 16, the pricing was revealed for the Surface, in November 2012, Steve Ballmer described the distribution approach to Surface as modest. On November 29,2012, Microsoft revealed the pricing for the two versions of Surface with Windows 8 Pro, the tablet would go on sale on February 9,2013, in the United States and Canada. A launch event was set to be held on February 8,2013, the 128GB version of the tablet sold out on the same day as its release. There was less demand for the 64GB version, because of the smaller available storage capacity. On September 23,2013, Microsoft announced the Surface 2 and Surface Pro 2, the Surface 2 launched October 22,2013, alongside the Surface Pro 2, four days after the general availability of Windows 8.1. Later, Microsoft launched a variation of the Surface 2 with LTE connectivity for the AT&T network on March 18,2014, Microsoft then announced the redesigned Surface Pro 3 on May 20,2014, which went on sale on June 20,2014. The following year, on March 30,2015, it announced the Surface 3, a more compact version of the Surface Pro 3
4.
2-in-1 PC
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A 2-in-1 PC, also known as a 2-in-1 tablet, 2-in-1 laptop, 2-in-1 detachable, laplet, or simply 2-in-1, is a portable computer that shares characteristics of both tablets and laptops. Before the emergence of 2-in-1s, the convertible and hybrid were already in use by technology journalists. Both convertibles and hybrids are crossover devices, combining features of both a tablet and a laptop, 2-in-1 PCs, consisting of portable PC components within light and thin chassis, are examples of technological convergence. The devices are convenient for consumption and non-intensive tasks in tablet mode yet well-suited to content production in laptop mode. 2-in-1 convertibles are tablets with the ability to rotate, fold, on most devices, the hinge is situated at the display and keyboard junction. However, the Dell XPS Duo is unique in that the display sits in a frame that allows the screen to be spun, 2-in-1 detachables are devices with detachable keyboards. In most cases, the part provides few, if any. However, the keyboards of some detachables provide additional features similar to those of a station such as additional I/O-ports. For instance, the Surface Book can leverage the discrete GPU in the keyboard upon the keyboards connection, when connected to the keyboard, the display of the detachable can either be free-standing on the hinge or require external support, often in the form of a kickstand. Novel ways of providing support include the bending frame and locking mechanism of the HP Spectre x2. Though the keyboard is usually bundled with the purchase of a 2-in-1 detachable, in such cases the 2-in-1 detachable is often displayed with its complementary keyboard in advertisements and promotional materials. This is true for all devices of the Surface and Surface Pro lines, the most prominent element is the keyboard that allows the 2-in-1 to provide the ergonomic typing experience of a laptop. While 2-in-1s fall in a distinct from laptops, they loosely parallel the traits of the Ultrabook device category, having light and thin chassis, power-efficient CPUs. They are distinguished from traditional Ultrabooks by the inclusion of a touchscreen display, the earliest device that can be considered a 2-in-1 detachable is the Compaq TC1000 from 2002. It comes preinstalled with Windows XP Tablet PC Edition and features a 1 GHz Transmeta Crusoe CPU, Nvidia GeForce 2 Go GPU, detachable keyboard, and stylus. Microsoft started its own line of 2-in-1s with the introduction of the Surface Pro series and it had a 10. 6-inch display, Intel Core i5 CPU, and detachable keyboard that doubled as a protective screen cover. A number of prominent laptop manufacturers, such as Lenovo, Dell, Samsung, Acer, HP, Sony, Apple, although some Linux distributions do support some touch features of 2-in-1s, they are generally unsupported by hardware vendors
5.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
6.
Windows 8.1
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Windows 8.1 is an upgrade for Windows 8, a computer operating system released by Microsoft. Windows 8.1 is available free of charge for copies of Windows 8. However, unlike previous service packs, Windows 8.1 cannot be acquired via Windows Update, Windows 8.1 also added support for such emerging technologies as high-resolution displays, 3D printing, Wi-Fi Direct, and Miracast streaming, as well as the ReFS file system. Despite these improvements, Windows 8.1 was still criticized for not addressing all digressions of Windows 8, as of March 2017, the market share of Windows 8.1 is 6. 66%. com, and SkyDrive. Lending credibility to the reports, Foley noted that a Microsoft staff member had listed experience with Windows Blue on his LinkedIn profile, a post-RTM build of Windows 8, build 9364, was leaked in March 2013. Shortly afterward on March 26,2013, corporate president of corporate communications Frank X. In early May, press reports announcing the upcoming version in Financial Times, the theme was then echoed and debated in the computer press. Shaw rejected this criticism as extreme, adding that he saw a comparison with Diet Coke as more appropriate, on May 14, Microsoft officially announced that Blue would be named Windows 8.1. Following a keynote presentation focusing on this version, the beta of Windows 8.1 was released on June 26,2013 during Build. Build 9600 of Windows 8.1 was released to OEM hardware partners on August 27,2013, however, after criticism, Microsoft reversed its decision and released the RTM build on MSDN and TechNet on September 9,2013. Prior to the release of Windows 8.1, Microsoft premiered a new television commercial in late-September 2013 that focused on its changes as part of the Windows Everywhere campaign, shortly after its release, Windows RT8. On October 21,2013, Microsoft confirmed that the bug was limited to the original Surface tablet, the company released recovery media and instructions which could be used to repair the device, and restored access to Windows RT8.1 the next day. It was also found changes to screen resolution handling on Windows 8. Users also found the issues to be pronounced when using gaming mice with high resolution and/or polling rates. Microsoft released a patch to fix the bug on certain games in November 2013, on April 8,2014, Microsoft released the Windows 8.1 Update, which included all past updates plus new features. It was unveiled by Microsoft vice president Joe Belfiore at Mobile World Congress on February 23,2014, and detailed in full at Microsofts Build conference on April 2. Belfiore noted that the update would lower the minimum requirements for Windows. Unlike Windows 8.1 itself, this update is distributed through Windows Update
7.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
8.
Gigabyte
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The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote 1073741824 bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of 1024. With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity. The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either 10003 bytes or 10243 bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 is approximately 1000, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST and this is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are an example of this usage in software. The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte. Since the first disk drive, the IBM350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as 500 GB. The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as 1000000000bytes. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example,400 GB might be reported by the operating system as 372 GB, meaning 372 GiB. The JEDEC memory standards use IEEE100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as 1073741824bytes and this means that a 300 GB hard disk might be indicated variously as 300 GB,279 GB or 279 GiB, depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity
9.
Secure Digital
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Secure Digital is a non-volatile memory card format developed by the SD Card Association for use in portable devices. The standard was introduced in August 1999 by joint efforts between SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba as an improvement over MultiMediaCards, and has become the industry standard. The three companies formed SD-3C, LLC, a company that licenses and enforces intellectual property rights associated with SD memory cards and SD host, the companies also formed the SD Association, a non-profit organization, in January 2000 to promote and create SD Card standards. SDA today has about 1,000 member companies, the SDA uses several trademarked logos owned and licensed by SD-3C to enforce compliance with its specifications and assure users of compatibility. There are many combinations of factors and device families, although as of 2016. Secure Digital includes four card families available in three different sizes, the four families are the original Standard-Capacity, the High-Capacity, the eXtended-Capacity, and the SDIO, which combines input/output functions with data storage. The three form factors are the size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card. The SD cards small footprint is a storage medium for smaller, thinner. The second-generation Secure Digital card was developed to improve on the MultiMediaCard standard, which continued to evolve, Secure Digital changed the MMC design in several ways, Asymmetrical slots in the sides of the SD card prevent inserting it upside down. Most SD cards are 2.1 mm thick, compared to 1.4 mm for MMCs. The SD specification defines a card called Thin SD with a thickness of 1.4 mm, the cards electrical contacts are recessed beneath the surface of the card, protecting them from contact with a users fingers. The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, for a comparison table, see below. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates. The SD card added Content Protection for Recordable Media security circuitry for digital rights management content-protection, full-size SD cards do not fit into the slimmer MMC slots, and other issues also affect the ability to use one format in a host device designed for the other. The Secure Digital High Capacity format, announced in January 2006 and defined in version 2.0 of the SD specification, the SDHC trademark is licensed to ensure compatibility. SDHC cards are physically and electrically identical to standard-capacity SD cards, Version 2.0 also introduces a High-speed bus mode for both SDSC and SDHC cards, which doubles the original Standard Speed clock to produce 25 MB/s. SDHC host devices are required to accept older SD cards, however, older host devices do not recognize SDHC or SDXC memory cards, although some devices can do so through a firmware upgrade
10.
DisplayPort
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DisplayPort is a digital display interface developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association. The interface is used to connect a video source to a display device such as a computer monitor, though it can also be used to carry audio, USB. VESA designed it to replace VGA, DVI, and FPD-Link, DisplayPort is backwards compatible with VGA, DVI and HDMI through the use of passive and active adapters. DisplayPort is the first display interface to rely on packetized data transmission, a form of communication found in technologies including Ethernet, USB. The use of data packets also allows DisplayPort to be extensible, DisplayPort can be used to transmit audio and video simultaneously, but each one is optional and can be transmitted without the other. A bi-directional, half-duplex auxiliary channel carries device management and device control data for the Main Link, such as VESA EDID, MCCS, in addition, the interface is capable of carrying bi-directional USB signals. The DisplayPort LVDS signal protocol is not compatible with DVI or HDMI, analog VGA and dual-link DVI require powered active adapters to convert the protocol and signal levels and do not rely on dual mode. VGA adapters are powered by the DisplayPort connector, while dual-link DVI adapters may rely on a power source. The first version,1.0, was approved by VESA on 3 May 2006, version 1. 1a was ratified on 2 April 2007. DisplayPort 1.0 allows a maximum of 8.64 Gbit/s data rate over a 2-meter cable and it also includes HDCP in addition to DisplayPort Content Protection. The DisplayPort 1. 1a specification can be downloaded for free from the VESA website, DisplayPort version 1.2 was approved on 22 December 2009. Also Apple Inc. s Mini DisplayPort connector, which is smaller and designed for laptop computers. DisplayPort version 1. 2a may optionally include VESAs Adaptive Sync, aMDs FreeSync utilizes the DisplayPort Adaptive-Sync feature for operation. 2a. As it is a feature, support for Adaptive-Sync is not required for a display to be DisplayPort 1. 2a-compliant. DisplayPort version 1.3 was approved on 15 September 2014 and this bandwidth is enough for a 4K UHD display at 120 Hz, a 5K display at 60 Hz, or an 8K UHD display at 30 Hz, with 24-bit RGB color. Using Multi-Stream Transport, it can support two 4K UHD displays at 60 Hz, or up to four WQXGA displays at 60 Hz in 24-bit RGB mode. The new standard includes mandatory Dual-mode support for DVI and HDMI adapters, with support for the HDMI2.0 standard and HDCP2.2 content protection. The Thunderbolt 3 connection standard was originally to support for DisplayPort 1.3
11.
ClearType
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ClearType is Microsofts implementation of subpixel rendering technology in rendering text in a font system. ClearType attempts to improve the appearance of text on certain types of display screens by sacrificing color fidelity for additional intensity variation. This trade-off is asserted to work well on LCD flat panel monitors, ClearType was first announced at the November 1998 COMDEX exhibition. The technology was first introduced in software in January 2000 as a feature of Microsoft Reader. ClearType was significantly changed with the introduction of DirectWrite in Windows 7, Word 2013 stopped using ClearType, because There is a problem with ClearType, it depends critically on the color of the background pixels. ClearType uses spatial anti-aliasing at the level to reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear smoother. ClearType also uses very heavy font hinting to force the font to fit into the pixel grid and this increases edge contrast and readability of small fonts at the expense of font rendering fidelity and has been criticized by graphic designers for making different fonts look similar. Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType involves a compromise, the compromise can improve text appearance when luminance detail is more important than chrominance. Only user and system applications render the application of ClearType, ClearType does not alter other graphic display elements. For example, ClearType enhancement renders text on the screen in Microsoft Word, in theory, the method can enhance the anti-aliasing of any digital image. ClearType is not used when printing text, most printers already use such small pixels that aliasing is rarely a problem, and they dont have the addressable fixed subpixels ClearType requires. Nor does ClearType affect text stored in files, ClearType only applies any processing to the text while it is being rendered onto the screen. ClearType was invented in the Microsoft e-Books team by Bert Keely and it was then analyzed by researchers in the company, and signal processing expert John Platt designed an improved version of the algorithm. Dick Brass, a Vice President at Microsoft from 1997 to 2004, however, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent subpixels, each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, if the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. For example, if a line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit, if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit
12.
Aspect ratio
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The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side – the ratio of width to height. The aspect ratio is expressed as two separated by a colon. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, as an example,8,5,16,10 and 1.6,1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. The term is most commonly used reference to, Graphic / image Image aspect ratio Display aspect ratio. A square has the smallest possible ratio of 1,1. An ellipse with a ratio of 1,1 is a circle. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1, a square has a DWAR of sqrt. The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio of a set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1, a circle has a CVAR of sqrt. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt = sqrt, if the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x, y, in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the Display Aspect Ratio and the Storage Aspect Ratio, see Distinctions. Ratio Equidimensional ratios in 3D List of film formats Squeeze mapping Vertical orientation
13.
Intel HD and Iris Graphics
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Intel HD Graphics is a series of integrated graphics processors introduced by Intel in 2010 that are manufactured on the same package or die as the central processing unit. Intel Iris Graphics and Intel Iris Pro Graphics are the IGP series introduced in 2013 with some models of Haswell processors as the versions of HD Graphics. Iris Pro Graphics was the first in the series to incorporate embedded DRAM, in the fourth quarter of 2013, Intel integrated graphics represented, in units, 65% of all PC graphics processor shipments. However, this percentage does not represent actual adoption as a number of these shipped units end up in systems outfitted with discrete graphics cards, before the introduction of Intel HD Graphics, Intel integrated graphics were built into the motherboards northbridge, as part of the Intels Hub Architecture. They were known as Intel Extreme Graphics and Intel GMA, as part of the Platform Controller Hub design, the northbridge was eliminated and graphics processing was moved to the same die as the central processing unit. The performance increases brought by Intels HD Graphics made the products competitive with integrated graphics adapters made by its rivals, Nvidia, Intel HD and Iris Graphics are divided into generations, and within each generation are divided into tiers of increasing performance, denominated by the GTx label. In January 2010, Clarkdale and Arrandale processors with Ironlake graphics were released, there was only one specification,12 execution units, up to 43.2 GFLOPS at 900 MHz. In January 2011, the Sandy Bridge processors were released, introducing the second generation HD Graphics, Celeron and Pentium have Intel HD, while Core i3, HD Graphics 2000 and 3000 include hardware video encoding and HD postprocessing effects. On 24 April 2012, Ivy Bridge was released, introducing the third generation of Intels HD graphics, Celeron and Pentium have Intel HD, while Core i3, HD Graphics 2500 and 4000 include hardware video encoding and HD postprocessing effects. For some low-power mobile CPUs there is limited video decoding support, Intel refers to this as a Level 4 cache, available to both CPU and GPU, naming it Crystalwell. Linux support for this eDRAM is expected in kernel version 3.12, by making the drm/i915 driver aware and it was also included on the late-201321. 5-inch iMac. In November 2013, it was announced that Broadwell-K desktop processors will also carry Iris Pro Graphics.4, the following models of integrated GPU are available or announced for the Skylake processors, New Features, fast 4K UHD, VP9 and more H. Previously there was a technology called Protected Audio Video Path. Intel Quick Sync Video is Intels hardware video encoding and decoding technology, the name Quick Sync refers to the use case of quickly transcoding a video from, for example, a DVD or Blu-ray Disc to a format appropriate to, for example, a smartphone. Quick Sync was introduced with the Sandy Bridge CPU microarchitecture on 9 January 2011, Graphics Virtualization Technology was announced 1 January 2014 and is supported by Iris Pro GPUs. Active adapters that contain additional logic to convert the DisplayPort signal to other format count as a DisplayPort connection. By using two non-DisplayPort connections of the connection type and the same clock frequency, so that a single unique pixel clock can be shared between both connections. Using the Embedded DisplayPort on a mobile CPU along with any two other outputs, aSRock Z87- and H87-based motherboards support three displays simultaneously
14.
Stereophonic sound
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Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective. Thus the term applies to so-called quadraphonic and surround-sound systems as well as the more common two-channel. It is often contrasted with monophonic, or mono sound, where audio is heard as coming from one position, in the 2000s, stereo sound is common in entertainment systems such as broadcast radio and TV, recorded music and the cinema. The word stereophonic derives from the Greek στερεός, firm, solid + φωνή, sound, tone, voice and it was coined in 1927 by Western Electric, the signal is then reproduced over multiple loudspeakers to recreate, as closely as possible, the live sound. Secondly artificial or pan-pot stereo, in which a sound is reproduced over multiple loudspeakers. By varying the amplitude of the signal sent to each speaker an artificial direction can be suggested. The control which is used to vary this relative amplitude of the signal is known as a pan-pot, by combining multiple pan-potted mono signals together, a complete, yet entirely artificial, sound field can be created. In technical usage, true stereo sound recording and sound reproduction that uses stereographic projection to encode the relative positions of objects and events recorded. During two-channel stereo recording, two microphones are placed in strategically chosen locations relative to the source, with both recording simultaneously. The two recorded channels will be similar, but each will have distinct time-of-arrival and sound-pressure-level information, during playback, the listeners brain uses those subtle differences in timing and sound level to triangulate the positions of the recorded objects. Stereo recordings often cannot be played on systems without a significant loss of fidelity. This phenomenon is known as phase cancellation and this two-channel telephonic process was commercialized in France from 1890 to 1932 as the Théâtrophone, and in England from 1895 to 1925 as the Electrophone. Both were services available by coin-operated receivers at hotels and cafés, modern stereophonic technology was invented in the 1930s by British engineer Alan Blumlein at EMI, who patented stereo records, stereo films, and also surround sound. In early 1931, Blumlein and his wife were at a local cinema, Blumlein declared to his wife that he had found a way to make the sound follow the actor across the screen. The genesis of ideas is uncertain, but he explained them to Isaac Shoenberg in the late summer of 1931. His earliest notes on the subject are dated 25 September 1931, the application was dated 14 December 1931, and was accepted on 14 June 1933 as UK patent number 394,325. The patent covered many ideas in stereo, some of which are used today and these discs used the two walls of the groove at right angles in order to carry the two channels. Much of the development work on this system for cinematic use did not reach completion until 1935, in Blumleins short test films, his original intent of having the sound follow the actor was fully realised
15.
Multi-touch
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In computing, multi-touch is technology that enables a surface to recognize the presence of more than one or more than two points of contact with the surface. The origins of multitouch began at CERN, MIT, University of Toronto, Carnegie Mellon University, the term multi-touch was popularized in 2007 by Apple, though it was in use as early as 1985. This plural-point awareness may be used to implement additional functionality, such as pinch to zoom or to activate certain subroutines attached to predefined gestures, the use of touchscreen technology to control electronic devices pre-dates multi-touch technology and the personal computer. Early synthesizer and electronic instrument builders like Hugh Le Caine and Robert Moog experimented with using touch-sensitive capacitance sensors to control the sounds made by their instruments, early touchscreens only registered one point of touch at a time. On-screen keyboards were thus awkward to use, because key-rollover and holding down a key while typing another were not possible. An exception was a multi-touch reconfigurable touchscreen keyboard/display developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1970s and this technology was used to develop a new type of human machine interface for the control room of the Super Proton Synchrotron particle accelerator. In a handwritten note dated 11 March 1972, Stumpe presented his proposed solution – a capacitive touch screen with a number of programmable buttons presented on a display. The capacitors were to consist of fine lines etched in copper on a sheet of glass – fine enough, in the final device, a simple lacquer coating prevented the fingers from actually touching the capacitors. In 1976, MIT described a keyboard with variable graphics capable of multi-touch detection, in the early 1980s, The University of Torontos Input Research Group were among the earliest to explore the software side of multi-touch input systems. A1982 system at the University of Toronto used a panel with a camera placed behind the glass. When a finger or several fingers pressed on the glass, the camera would detect the action as one or more spots on an otherwise white background. Since the size of a dot was dependent on pressure, the system was somewhat pressure-sensitive as well, of note, this system was input only and not able to display graphics. In 1983, Bell Labs at Murray Hill published a discussion of touch-screen based interfaces. By 1984, both Bell Labs and Carnegie Mellon University had working multi-touch-screen prototypes – both input and graphics – that could respond interactively in response to multiple finger inputs, the Bell Labs system was based on capacitive coupling of fingers, whereas the CMU system was optical. In 1985, the canonical multitouch pinch-to-zoom gesture was demonstrated, with coordinated graphics, an advance occurred in 1991, when Pierre Wellner published a paper on his multi-touch Digital Desk, which supported multi-finger and pinching motions. Various companies expanded upon these inventions in the beginning of the twenty-first century, the company Fingerworks developed various multi-touch technologies between 1999 and 2005, including Touchstream keyboards and the iGesture Pad. Several studies of technology were published in the early 2000s by Alan Hedge, professor of human factors. Apple acquired Fingerworks and its technology in 2005
16.
Touchscreen
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A touchscreen is a input and output device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. A user can give input or control the processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus and/or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus/pen, the user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and to control how it is displayed, for example, zooming to increase the text size. The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather using a mouse, touchpad. Touchscreens are common in such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of sale systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals and they also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants and some e-readers. The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable. The application of technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN, developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, then manufactured by CERN, it was put to use in 1973. A resistive touchscreen was developed by American inventor George Samuel Hurst, the first version was produced in 1982. This arrangement can sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen, a similar touchscreen was used on the HP-150 starting in 1983, this was one of the worlds earliest commercial touchscreen computers. HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9 Sony Cathode Ray Tube, in 1984, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16, to deal with the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics. In 1985, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG-1000 video game console and it consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where the pen presses are detected. It was used primarily for a software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI Computer in 1986, touch-sensitive Control-Display Units were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early 1980s. In 1985, the University of Toronto group including Bill Buxton developed a tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems. In 1986, the first graphical point of sale software was demonstrated on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer and it featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface. In 1987, Casio launched the Casio PB-1000 pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4x4 matrix, until 1988 touchscreens had the bad reputation of being imprecise
17.
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks. Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, the IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, a manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices, the development of the short-link radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE9202239, issued 1992-07-24, Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund, the specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers, at the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtssons historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, the Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes and, Haralds initials. Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels, each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping enabled, Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying modulation was the modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2. 0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices, devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, the combination of these modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. Bluetooth is a protocol with a master-slave structure
18.
Active pen
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The active pen marketplace has long been dominated by N-trig and Wacom, but newer firms Atmel and Synaptics also offer active pen designs. Active pens are used for note taking, on-screen drawing/painting and electronic document annotation, as well as accurate object selection. Most active pens feature one or more buttons that can be used in place of a mouse or keyboard. An input device known as a passive stylus can also be used to directly onto the screen. The typical passive stylus also has a tip made of rubber or conductive foam in order to emulate a users finger, rather than the more accurate ballpoint pen-like tip used in the active pen. Active pen devices support most modern operating systems, including Googles Android, digital pen Pen computing Stylus Graphics tablet Tablet computer
19.
Touchpad
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Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants, wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories. Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing, the most common technology used as of 2010 entails sensing the capacitive virtual ground effect of a finger, or the capacitance between sensors. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar implement, gloved fingers may also be problematic. While touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size, hardware buttons equivalent to a standard mouses left and right buttons are positioned below, above, or beside the touchpad. Some touchpads and associated device driver software may interpret tapping the pad as a click, Tactile touchpads allow for clicking and dragging by incorporating button functionality into the surface of the touchpad itself. To select, one presses down on the touchpad instead of a physical button, to drag, instead performing the click-and-a-half technique, one presses down while on the object, drags without releasing pressure and lets go when done. Touchpad drivers can also allow the use of fingers to facilitate the other mouse buttons. Some touchpads have hotspots, locations on the used for functionality beyond a mouse. Many touchpads use two-finger dragging for scrolling, also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the device driver software. By 1982 Apollo desktop computers were equipped with a touchpad on the side of the keyboard. Introduced a year later, the Gavilan SC included a touchpad above its keyboard, a touchpad was first developed for Psions MC 200/400/600/WORD Series in 1989. Olivetti and Triumph-Adler introduced the first laptops with touchpad in 1992. Cirque introduced the first widely available touchpad, branded as GlidePoint, in 1994. Apple Inc introduced touchpads to the laptop in the PowerBook series in 1994, using Cirque’s GlidePoint technology. Another early adopter of the GlidePoint pointing device was Sharp, later, Synaptics introduced their touchpad into the marketplace, branded the TouchPad. Epson was an early adopter of this product, as touchpads began to be introduced in laptops in the 1990s, there was often confusion as to what the product should be called. No consistent term was used, and references varied, such as, glidepoint, touch sensitive input device, touchpad, trackpad, users were often presented the option to purchase a pointing stick, touchpad, or trackball
20.
Microphone
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A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice. The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres. In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end. German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of 1876 – the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution. These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US. Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid-1877, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries. Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of 1886 and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in 1910. In 1916, E. C. Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in 1923, the first practical moving coil microphone was built. The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. J. Round, was the standard for BBC studios in London and this was improved in 1930 by Alan Blumlein and Herbert Holman who released the HB1A and was the best standard of the day. Also in 1923, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Olson. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in 1963. During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in 1999 with the DM-1001. The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers
21.
Low-key lighting
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Low-key lighting is a style of lighting for photography, film or television. It is an element in creating a chiaroscuro effect. Traditional photographic lighting, three-point lighting uses a key light, a light. Low-key lighting often uses only one key light, optionally controlled with a light or a simple reflector. Low key light accentuates the contours of an object by throwing areas into shade while a light or reflector may illuminate the shadow areas to control contrast. The relative strength of key-to-fill, known as the lighting ratio, low key lighting has a higher lighting ratio, e. g.8,1, than high-key lighting, which can approach 1,1. The term low key is used in cinematography to refer to any scene with a lighting ratio. It tends to heighten the sense of alienation felt by the viewer, hence is used in film noir. In film, low-key lighting is associated with German Expressionism and later film noir
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