1.
Microsoft
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Its best known software products are the Microsoft Windows line of operating systems, Microsoft Office office suite, and Internet Explorer and Edge web browsers. Its flagship hardware products are the Xbox video game consoles and the Microsoft Surface tablet lineup, as of 2016, it was the worlds largest software maker by revenue, and one of the worlds most valuable companies. Microsoft was founded by Paul Allen and Bill Gates on April 4,1975, to develop and it rose to dominate the personal computer operating system market with MS-DOS in the mid-1980s, followed by Microsoft Windows. The companys 1986 initial public offering, and subsequent rise in its share price, since the 1990s, it has increasingly diversified from the operating system market and has made a number of corporate acquisitions. In May 2011, Microsoft acquired Skype Technologies for $8.5 billion, in June 2012, Microsoft entered the personal computer production market for the first time, with the launch of the Microsoft Surface, a line of tablet computers. The word Microsoft is a portmanteau of microcomputer and software, Paul Allen and Bill Gates, childhood friends with a passion for computer programming, sought to make a successful business utilizing their shared skills. In 1972 they founded their first company, named Traf-O-Data, which offered a computer that tracked and analyzed automobile traffic data. Allen went on to pursue a degree in science at Washington State University. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics featured Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systemss Altair 8800 microcomputer, Allen suggested that they could program a BASIC interpreter for the device, after a call from Gates claiming to have a working interpreter, MITS requested a demonstration. Since they didnt actually have one, Allen worked on a simulator for the Altair while Gates developed the interpreter and they officially established Microsoft on April 4,1975, with Gates as the CEO. Allen came up with the name of Micro-Soft, as recounted in a 1995 Fortune magazine article. In August 1977 the company formed an agreement with ASCII Magazine in Japan, resulting in its first international office, the company moved to a new home in Bellevue, Washington in January 1979. Microsoft entered the OS business in 1980 with its own version of Unix, however, it was MS-DOS that solidified the companys dominance. For this deal, Microsoft purchased a CP/M clone called 86-DOS from Seattle Computer Products, branding it as MS-DOS, following the release of the IBM PC in August 1981, Microsoft retained ownership of MS-DOS. Since IBM copyrighted the IBM PC BIOS, other companies had to engineer it in order for non-IBM hardware to run as IBM PC compatibles. Due to various factors, such as MS-DOSs available software selection, the company expanded into new markets with the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 1983, as well as with a publishing division named Microsoft Press. Paul Allen resigned from Microsoft in 1983 after developing Hodgkins disease, while jointly developing a new OS with IBM in 1984, OS/2, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows, a graphical extension for MS-DOS, on November 20,1985. Once Microsoft informed IBM of NT, the OS/2 partnership deteriorated, in 1990, Microsoft introduced its office suite, Microsoft Office
2.
Pegatron
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Pegatrons principal executive offices and many assets are located in Taiwan. As of March 2010, Pegatron had approximately 5,646 employees stationed in Taiwan,89,521 in China,2,400 in the Czech Republic,200 in each of the United States, Mexico and Japan. Pegatron has manufacturing plants in Taiwan, the Czech Republic, Mexico, and China, as part of the corporate restructuring of ASUSTeK Computer starting in 2007, Pegatron acquired Unihan Corporation from ASUSTeK in January 2008. Since 2008, the Unihan Corporation has been a subsidiary of Pegatron Corporation that designs and manufactures computers, computer peripherals, Pegatron acquired ASRock in 2010 shortly before it was spun off. On May 18,2010, the board of directors at Pegatron unanimously approved to appropriate a sum within 0. 5% of net income every year to charity, PEGA Design and Engineering is Pegatrons design team that was originally branched off from the ASUSTeK design team. The PEGA D&E helps Pegatrons clients with product development, including research, conceptualization, product design, materials study. In addition to 3C electronic products, Pegatron designs home appliances and home decor products such as LCD TVs, LED lightings, phones and more. These non-IT products include home appliances, fashion accessories, vehicle accessories, building design and building materials, multimedia ads and marketing. In December 2014 a BBC investigation exposed poor working conditions and employee mistreatment at Pegatron factories making Apple products near Shanghai, list of companies of Taiwan http, //www. pegacasa. com/en/index. html Official website
3.
Microsoft Surface
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Microsoft Surface is a series of touchscreen Windows personal computers and interactive whiteboards designed and developed by Microsoft. The devices are manufactured by Pegatron and are designed to be devices that set examples to Windows OEMs. It comprises four generations of hybrid tablets, 2-in-1 detachable notebooks, a convertible desktop all-in-one, an interactive whiteboard, with the exception of the first-generation Surface and Surface 2, all Surface PCs use Intel processors and are compatible with Microsofts Windows 10 operating system. The Surface family features five lines of devices, The Surface line of hybrid tablets, with optional detachable keyboard accessories. The latest model, the Surface 3, uses an Intel Atom SoC processor, the Surface Pro line of professional hybrid tablets, use similar optional detachable keyboard accessories. The latest Surface Pro 4 uses a 6th generation Intel Core i Series processors, the Surface Book, a notebook with a detachable screen. The base is configurable with/without discrete graphics and an independently operable screen with support for the included stylus, the Surface Studio, a 28-inch all-in-one desktop that adjusts into a digital drafting table with stylus and on-screen Surface Dial support. The Surface Hub, a screen interactive whiteboard designed for collaboration. The 2012 Surface tablet launched alongside the general availability release of Windows 8 on October 26,2012, Surface Pro became available on February 9,2013. Surface devices were available only at Microsoft Stores and online. According to then Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer, the spot for the bulk of the PC market was $300 to $800. On October 16, the pricing was revealed for the Surface, in November 2012, Steve Ballmer described the distribution approach to Surface as modest. On November 29,2012, Microsoft revealed the pricing for the two versions of Surface with Windows 8 Pro, the tablet would go on sale on February 9,2013, in the United States and Canada. A launch event was set to be held on February 8,2013, the 128GB version of the tablet sold out on the same day as its release. There was less demand for the 64GB version, because of the smaller available storage capacity. On September 23,2013, Microsoft announced the Surface 2 and Surface Pro 2, the Surface 2 launched October 22,2013, alongside the Surface Pro 2, four days after the general availability of Windows 8.1. Later, Microsoft launched a variation of the Surface 2 with LTE connectivity for the AT&T network on March 18,2014, Microsoft then announced the redesigned Surface Pro 3 on May 20,2014, which went on sale on June 20,2014. The following year, on March 30,2015, it announced the Surface 3, a more compact version of the Surface Pro 3
4.
2-in-1 PC
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A 2-in-1 PC, also known as a 2-in-1 tablet, 2-in-1 laptop, 2-in-1 detachable, laplet, or simply 2-in-1, is a portable computer that shares characteristics of both tablets and laptops. Before the emergence of 2-in-1s, the convertible and hybrid were already in use by technology journalists. Both convertibles and hybrids are crossover devices, combining features of both a tablet and a laptop, 2-in-1 PCs, consisting of portable PC components within light and thin chassis, are examples of technological convergence. The devices are convenient for consumption and non-intensive tasks in tablet mode yet well-suited to content production in laptop mode. 2-in-1 convertibles are tablets with the ability to rotate, fold, on most devices, the hinge is situated at the display and keyboard junction. However, the Dell XPS Duo is unique in that the display sits in a frame that allows the screen to be spun, 2-in-1 detachables are devices with detachable keyboards. In most cases, the part provides few, if any. However, the keyboards of some detachables provide additional features similar to those of a station such as additional I/O-ports. For instance, the Surface Book can leverage the discrete GPU in the keyboard upon the keyboards connection, when connected to the keyboard, the display of the detachable can either be free-standing on the hinge or require external support, often in the form of a kickstand. Novel ways of providing support include the bending frame and locking mechanism of the HP Spectre x2. Though the keyboard is usually bundled with the purchase of a 2-in-1 detachable, in such cases the 2-in-1 detachable is often displayed with its complementary keyboard in advertisements and promotional materials. This is true for all devices of the Surface and Surface Pro lines, the most prominent element is the keyboard that allows the 2-in-1 to provide the ergonomic typing experience of a laptop. While 2-in-1s fall in a distinct from laptops, they loosely parallel the traits of the Ultrabook device category, having light and thin chassis, power-efficient CPUs. They are distinguished from traditional Ultrabooks by the inclusion of a touchscreen display, the earliest device that can be considered a 2-in-1 detachable is the Compaq TC1000 from 2002. It comes preinstalled with Windows XP Tablet PC Edition and features a 1 GHz Transmeta Crusoe CPU, Nvidia GeForce 2 Go GPU, detachable keyboard, and stylus. Microsoft started its own line of 2-in-1s with the introduction of the Surface Pro series and it had a 10. 6-inch display, Intel Core i5 CPU, and detachable keyboard that doubled as a protective screen cover. A number of prominent laptop manufacturers, such as Lenovo, Dell, Samsung, Acer, HP, Sony, Apple, although some Linux distributions do support some touch features of 2-in-1s, they are generally unsupported by hardware vendors
5.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
6.
Windows 8.1
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Windows 8.1 is an upgrade for Windows 8, a computer operating system released by Microsoft. Windows 8.1 is available free of charge for copies of Windows 8. However, unlike previous service packs, Windows 8.1 cannot be acquired via Windows Update, Windows 8.1 also added support for such emerging technologies as high-resolution displays, 3D printing, Wi-Fi Direct, and Miracast streaming, as well as the ReFS file system. Despite these improvements, Windows 8.1 was still criticized for not addressing all digressions of Windows 8, as of March 2017, the market share of Windows 8.1 is 6. 66%. com, and SkyDrive. Lending credibility to the reports, Foley noted that a Microsoft staff member had listed experience with Windows Blue on his LinkedIn profile, a post-RTM build of Windows 8, build 9364, was leaked in March 2013. Shortly afterward on March 26,2013, corporate president of corporate communications Frank X. In early May, press reports announcing the upcoming version in Financial Times, the theme was then echoed and debated in the computer press. Shaw rejected this criticism as extreme, adding that he saw a comparison with Diet Coke as more appropriate, on May 14, Microsoft officially announced that Blue would be named Windows 8.1. Following a keynote presentation focusing on this version, the beta of Windows 8.1 was released on June 26,2013 during Build. Build 9600 of Windows 8.1 was released to OEM hardware partners on August 27,2013, however, after criticism, Microsoft reversed its decision and released the RTM build on MSDN and TechNet on September 9,2013. Prior to the release of Windows 8.1, Microsoft premiered a new television commercial in late-September 2013 that focused on its changes as part of the Windows Everywhere campaign, shortly after its release, Windows RT8. On October 21,2013, Microsoft confirmed that the bug was limited to the original Surface tablet, the company released recovery media and instructions which could be used to repair the device, and restored access to Windows RT8.1 the next day. It was also found changes to screen resolution handling on Windows 8. Users also found the issues to be pronounced when using gaming mice with high resolution and/or polling rates. Microsoft released a patch to fix the bug on certain games in November 2013, on April 8,2014, Microsoft released the Windows 8.1 Update, which included all past updates plus new features. It was unveiled by Microsoft vice president Joe Belfiore at Mobile World Congress on February 23,2014, and detailed in full at Microsofts Build conference on April 2. Belfiore noted that the update would lower the minimum requirements for Windows. Unlike Windows 8.1 itself, this update is distributed through Windows Update
7.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
8.
Gigabyte
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The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote 1073741824 bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of 1024. With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity. The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either 10003 bytes or 10243 bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 is approximately 1000, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST and this is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are an example of this usage in software. The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte. Since the first disk drive, the IBM350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as 500 GB. The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as 1000000000bytes. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example,400 GB might be reported by the operating system as 372 GB, meaning 372 GiB. The JEDEC memory standards use IEEE100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as 1073741824bytes and this means that a 300 GB hard disk might be indicated variously as 300 GB,279 GB or 279 GiB, depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity
9.
Secure Digital
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Secure Digital is a non-volatile memory card format developed by the SD Card Association for use in portable devices. The standard was introduced in August 1999 by joint efforts between SanDisk, Panasonic and Toshiba as an improvement over MultiMediaCards, and has become the industry standard. The three companies formed SD-3C, LLC, a company that licenses and enforces intellectual property rights associated with SD memory cards and SD host, the companies also formed the SD Association, a non-profit organization, in January 2000 to promote and create SD Card standards. SDA today has about 1,000 member companies, the SDA uses several trademarked logos owned and licensed by SD-3C to enforce compliance with its specifications and assure users of compatibility. There are many combinations of factors and device families, although as of 2016. Secure Digital includes four card families available in three different sizes, the four families are the original Standard-Capacity, the High-Capacity, the eXtended-Capacity, and the SDIO, which combines input/output functions with data storage. The three form factors are the size, the mini size, and the micro size. Electrically passive adapters allow a card to fit and function in a device built for a larger card. The SD cards small footprint is a storage medium for smaller, thinner. The second-generation Secure Digital card was developed to improve on the MultiMediaCard standard, which continued to evolve, Secure Digital changed the MMC design in several ways, Asymmetrical slots in the sides of the SD card prevent inserting it upside down. Most SD cards are 2.1 mm thick, compared to 1.4 mm for MMCs. The SD specification defines a card called Thin SD with a thickness of 1.4 mm, the cards electrical contacts are recessed beneath the surface of the card, protecting them from contact with a users fingers. The SD specification envisioned capacities and transfer rates exceeding those of MMC, for a comparison table, see below. While MMC uses a pin for data transfers, the SD card added a four-wire bus mode for higher data rates. The SD card added Content Protection for Recordable Media security circuitry for digital rights management content-protection, full-size SD cards do not fit into the slimmer MMC slots, and other issues also affect the ability to use one format in a host device designed for the other. The Secure Digital High Capacity format, announced in January 2006 and defined in version 2.0 of the SD specification, the SDHC trademark is licensed to ensure compatibility. SDHC cards are physically and electrically identical to standard-capacity SD cards, Version 2.0 also introduces a High-speed bus mode for both SDSC and SDHC cards, which doubles the original Standard Speed clock to produce 25 MB/s. SDHC host devices are required to accept older SD cards, however, older host devices do not recognize SDHC or SDXC memory cards, although some devices can do so through a firmware upgrade
10.
DisplayPort
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DisplayPort is a digital display interface developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association. The interface is used to connect a video source to a display device such as a computer monitor, though it can also be used to carry audio, USB. VESA designed it to replace VGA, DVI, and FPD-Link, DisplayPort is backwards compatible with VGA, DVI and HDMI through the use of passive and active adapters. DisplayPort is the first display interface to rely on packetized data transmission, a form of communication found in technologies including Ethernet, USB. The use of data packets also allows DisplayPort to be extensible, DisplayPort can be used to transmit audio and video simultaneously, but each one is optional and can be transmitted without the other. A bi-directional, half-duplex auxiliary channel carries device management and device control data for the Main Link, such as VESA EDID, MCCS, in addition, the interface is capable of carrying bi-directional USB signals. The DisplayPort LVDS signal protocol is not compatible with DVI or HDMI, analog VGA and dual-link DVI require powered active adapters to convert the protocol and signal levels and do not rely on dual mode. VGA adapters are powered by the DisplayPort connector, while dual-link DVI adapters may rely on a power source. The first version,1.0, was approved by VESA on 3 May 2006, version 1. 1a was ratified on 2 April 2007. DisplayPort 1.0 allows a maximum of 8.64 Gbit/s data rate over a 2-meter cable and it also includes HDCP in addition to DisplayPort Content Protection. The DisplayPort 1. 1a specification can be downloaded for free from the VESA website, DisplayPort version 1.2 was approved on 22 December 2009. Also Apple Inc. s Mini DisplayPort connector, which is smaller and designed for laptop computers. DisplayPort version 1. 2a may optionally include VESAs Adaptive Sync, aMDs FreeSync utilizes the DisplayPort Adaptive-Sync feature for operation. 2a. As it is a feature, support for Adaptive-Sync is not required for a display to be DisplayPort 1. 2a-compliant. DisplayPort version 1.3 was approved on 15 September 2014 and this bandwidth is enough for a 4K UHD display at 120 Hz, a 5K display at 60 Hz, or an 8K UHD display at 30 Hz, with 24-bit RGB color. Using Multi-Stream Transport, it can support two 4K UHD displays at 60 Hz, or up to four WQXGA displays at 60 Hz in 24-bit RGB mode. The new standard includes mandatory Dual-mode support for DVI and HDMI adapters, with support for the HDMI2.0 standard and HDCP2.2 content protection. The Thunderbolt 3 connection standard was originally to support for DisplayPort 1.3
11.
ClearType
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ClearType is Microsofts implementation of subpixel rendering technology in rendering text in a font system. ClearType attempts to improve the appearance of text on certain types of display screens by sacrificing color fidelity for additional intensity variation. This trade-off is asserted to work well on LCD flat panel monitors, ClearType was first announced at the November 1998 COMDEX exhibition. The technology was first introduced in software in January 2000 as a feature of Microsoft Reader. ClearType was significantly changed with the introduction of DirectWrite in Windows 7, Word 2013 stopped using ClearType, because There is a problem with ClearType, it depends critically on the color of the background pixels. ClearType uses spatial anti-aliasing at the level to reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear smoother. ClearType also uses very heavy font hinting to force the font to fit into the pixel grid and this increases edge contrast and readability of small fonts at the expense of font rendering fidelity and has been criticized by graphic designers for making different fonts look similar. Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType involves a compromise, the compromise can improve text appearance when luminance detail is more important than chrominance. Only user and system applications render the application of ClearType, ClearType does not alter other graphic display elements. For example, ClearType enhancement renders text on the screen in Microsoft Word, in theory, the method can enhance the anti-aliasing of any digital image. ClearType is not used when printing text, most printers already use such small pixels that aliasing is rarely a problem, and they dont have the addressable fixed subpixels ClearType requires. Nor does ClearType affect text stored in files, ClearType only applies any processing to the text while it is being rendered onto the screen. ClearType was invented in the Microsoft e-Books team by Bert Keely and it was then analyzed by researchers in the company, and signal processing expert John Platt designed an improved version of the algorithm. Dick Brass, a Vice President at Microsoft from 1997 to 2004, however, actual display hardware usually implements each pixel as a group of three adjacent, independent subpixels, each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, if the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent resolution in certain situations. For example, if a line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit, if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit
12.
Aspect ratio
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The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side – the ratio of width to height. The aspect ratio is expressed as two separated by a colon. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, as an example,8,5,16,10 and 1.6,1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. The term is most commonly used reference to, Graphic / image Image aspect ratio Display aspect ratio. A square has the smallest possible ratio of 1,1. An ellipse with a ratio of 1,1 is a circle. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1, a square has a DWAR of sqrt. The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio of a set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1, a circle has a CVAR of sqrt. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt = sqrt, if the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x, y, in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the Display Aspect Ratio and the Storage Aspect Ratio, see Distinctions. Ratio Equidimensional ratios in 3D List of film formats Squeeze mapping Vertical orientation
13.
Intel HD and Iris Graphics
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Intel HD Graphics is a series of integrated graphics processors introduced by Intel in 2010 that are manufactured on the same package or die as the central processing unit. Intel Iris Graphics and Intel Iris Pro Graphics are the IGP series introduced in 2013 with some models of Haswell processors as the versions of HD Graphics. Iris Pro Graphics was the first in the series to incorporate embedded DRAM, in the fourth quarter of 2013, Intel integrated graphics represented, in units, 65% of all PC graphics processor shipments. However, this percentage does not represent actual adoption as a number of these shipped units end up in systems outfitted with discrete graphics cards, before the introduction of Intel HD Graphics, Intel integrated graphics were built into the motherboards northbridge, as part of the Intels Hub Architecture. They were known as Intel Extreme Graphics and Intel GMA, as part of the Platform Controller Hub design, the northbridge was eliminated and graphics processing was moved to the same die as the central processing unit. The performance increases brought by Intels HD Graphics made the products competitive with integrated graphics adapters made by its rivals, Nvidia, Intel HD and Iris Graphics are divided into generations, and within each generation are divided into tiers of increasing performance, denominated by the GTx label. In January 2010, Clarkdale and Arrandale processors with Ironlake graphics were released, there was only one specification,12 execution units, up to 43.2 GFLOPS at 900 MHz. In January 2011, the Sandy Bridge processors were released, introducing the second generation HD Graphics, Celeron and Pentium have Intel HD, while Core i3, HD Graphics 2000 and 3000 include hardware video encoding and HD postprocessing effects. On 24 April 2012, Ivy Bridge was released, introducing the third generation of Intels HD graphics, Celeron and Pentium have Intel HD, while Core i3, HD Graphics 2500 and 4000 include hardware video encoding and HD postprocessing effects. For some low-power mobile CPUs there is limited video decoding support, Intel refers to this as a Level 4 cache, available to both CPU and GPU, naming it Crystalwell. Linux support for this eDRAM is expected in kernel version 3.12, by making the drm/i915 driver aware and it was also included on the late-201321. 5-inch iMac. In November 2013, it was announced that Broadwell-K desktop processors will also carry Iris Pro Graphics.4, the following models of integrated GPU are available or announced for the Skylake processors, New Features, fast 4K UHD, VP9 and more H. Previously there was a technology called Protected Audio Video Path. Intel Quick Sync Video is Intels hardware video encoding and decoding technology, the name Quick Sync refers to the use case of quickly transcoding a video from, for example, a DVD or Blu-ray Disc to a format appropriate to, for example, a smartphone. Quick Sync was introduced with the Sandy Bridge CPU microarchitecture on 9 January 2011, Graphics Virtualization Technology was announced 1 January 2014 and is supported by Iris Pro GPUs. Active adapters that contain additional logic to convert the DisplayPort signal to other format count as a DisplayPort connection. By using two non-DisplayPort connections of the connection type and the same clock frequency, so that a single unique pixel clock can be shared between both connections. Using the Embedded DisplayPort on a mobile CPU along with any two other outputs, aSRock Z87- and H87-based motherboards support three displays simultaneously
14.
Stereophonic sound
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Stereophonic sound or, more commonly, stereo, is a method of sound reproduction that creates an illusion of multi-directional audible perspective. Thus the term applies to so-called quadraphonic and surround-sound systems as well as the more common two-channel. It is often contrasted with monophonic, or mono sound, where audio is heard as coming from one position, in the 2000s, stereo sound is common in entertainment systems such as broadcast radio and TV, recorded music and the cinema. The word stereophonic derives from the Greek στερεός, firm, solid + φωνή, sound, tone, voice and it was coined in 1927 by Western Electric, the signal is then reproduced over multiple loudspeakers to recreate, as closely as possible, the live sound. Secondly artificial or pan-pot stereo, in which a sound is reproduced over multiple loudspeakers. By varying the amplitude of the signal sent to each speaker an artificial direction can be suggested. The control which is used to vary this relative amplitude of the signal is known as a pan-pot, by combining multiple pan-potted mono signals together, a complete, yet entirely artificial, sound field can be created. In technical usage, true stereo sound recording and sound reproduction that uses stereographic projection to encode the relative positions of objects and events recorded. During two-channel stereo recording, two microphones are placed in strategically chosen locations relative to the source, with both recording simultaneously. The two recorded channels will be similar, but each will have distinct time-of-arrival and sound-pressure-level information, during playback, the listeners brain uses those subtle differences in timing and sound level to triangulate the positions of the recorded objects. Stereo recordings often cannot be played on systems without a significant loss of fidelity. This phenomenon is known as phase cancellation and this two-channel telephonic process was commercialized in France from 1890 to 1932 as the Théâtrophone, and in England from 1895 to 1925 as the Electrophone. Both were services available by coin-operated receivers at hotels and cafés, modern stereophonic technology was invented in the 1930s by British engineer Alan Blumlein at EMI, who patented stereo records, stereo films, and also surround sound. In early 1931, Blumlein and his wife were at a local cinema, Blumlein declared to his wife that he had found a way to make the sound follow the actor across the screen. The genesis of ideas is uncertain, but he explained them to Isaac Shoenberg in the late summer of 1931. His earliest notes on the subject are dated 25 September 1931, the application was dated 14 December 1931, and was accepted on 14 June 1933 as UK patent number 394,325. The patent covered many ideas in stereo, some of which are used today and these discs used the two walls of the groove at right angles in order to carry the two channels. Much of the development work on this system for cinematic use did not reach completion until 1935, in Blumleins short test films, his original intent of having the sound follow the actor was fully realised
15.
Multi-touch
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In computing, multi-touch is technology that enables a surface to recognize the presence of more than one or more than two points of contact with the surface. The origins of multitouch began at CERN, MIT, University of Toronto, Carnegie Mellon University, the term multi-touch was popularized in 2007 by Apple, though it was in use as early as 1985. This plural-point awareness may be used to implement additional functionality, such as pinch to zoom or to activate certain subroutines attached to predefined gestures, the use of touchscreen technology to control electronic devices pre-dates multi-touch technology and the personal computer. Early synthesizer and electronic instrument builders like Hugh Le Caine and Robert Moog experimented with using touch-sensitive capacitance sensors to control the sounds made by their instruments, early touchscreens only registered one point of touch at a time. On-screen keyboards were thus awkward to use, because key-rollover and holding down a key while typing another were not possible. An exception was a multi-touch reconfigurable touchscreen keyboard/display developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1970s and this technology was used to develop a new type of human machine interface for the control room of the Super Proton Synchrotron particle accelerator. In a handwritten note dated 11 March 1972, Stumpe presented his proposed solution – a capacitive touch screen with a number of programmable buttons presented on a display. The capacitors were to consist of fine lines etched in copper on a sheet of glass – fine enough, in the final device, a simple lacquer coating prevented the fingers from actually touching the capacitors. In 1976, MIT described a keyboard with variable graphics capable of multi-touch detection, in the early 1980s, The University of Torontos Input Research Group were among the earliest to explore the software side of multi-touch input systems. A1982 system at the University of Toronto used a panel with a camera placed behind the glass. When a finger or several fingers pressed on the glass, the camera would detect the action as one or more spots on an otherwise white background. Since the size of a dot was dependent on pressure, the system was somewhat pressure-sensitive as well, of note, this system was input only and not able to display graphics. In 1983, Bell Labs at Murray Hill published a discussion of touch-screen based interfaces. By 1984, both Bell Labs and Carnegie Mellon University had working multi-touch-screen prototypes – both input and graphics – that could respond interactively in response to multiple finger inputs, the Bell Labs system was based on capacitive coupling of fingers, whereas the CMU system was optical. In 1985, the canonical multitouch pinch-to-zoom gesture was demonstrated, with coordinated graphics, an advance occurred in 1991, when Pierre Wellner published a paper on his multi-touch Digital Desk, which supported multi-finger and pinching motions. Various companies expanded upon these inventions in the beginning of the twenty-first century, the company Fingerworks developed various multi-touch technologies between 1999 and 2005, including Touchstream keyboards and the iGesture Pad. Several studies of technology were published in the early 2000s by Alan Hedge, professor of human factors. Apple acquired Fingerworks and its technology in 2005
16.
Touchscreen
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A touchscreen is a input and output device normally layered on the top of an electronic visual display of an information processing system. A user can give input or control the processing system through simple or multi-touch gestures by touching the screen with a special stylus and/or one or more fingers. Some touchscreens use ordinary or specially coated gloves to work while others may only work using a special stylus/pen, the user can use the touchscreen to react to what is displayed and to control how it is displayed, for example, zooming to increase the text size. The touchscreen enables the user to interact directly with what is displayed, rather using a mouse, touchpad. Touchscreens are common in such as game consoles, personal computers, tablet computers, electronic voting machines, point of sale systems. They can also be attached to computers or, as terminals and they also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as personal digital assistants and some e-readers. The popularity of smartphones, tablets, and many types of appliances is driving the demand and acceptance of common touchscreens for portable. The application of technology for air traffic control was described in an article published in 1968. Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe, engineers from CERN, developed a transparent touchscreen in the early 1970s, then manufactured by CERN, it was put to use in 1973. A resistive touchscreen was developed by American inventor George Samuel Hurst, the first version was produced in 1982. This arrangement can sense any fingertip-sized opaque object in close proximity to the screen, a similar touchscreen was used on the HP-150 starting in 1983, this was one of the worlds earliest commercial touchscreen computers. HP mounted their infrared transmitters and receivers around the bezel of a 9 Sony Cathode Ray Tube, in 1984, Fujitsu released a touch pad for the Micro 16, to deal with the complexity of kanji characters, which were stored as tiled graphics. In 1985, Sega released the Terebi Oekaki, also known as the Sega Graphic Board, for the SG-1000 video game console and it consisted of a plastic pen and a plastic board with a transparent window where the pen presses are detected. It was used primarily for a software application. A graphic touch tablet was released for the Sega AI Computer in 1986, touch-sensitive Control-Display Units were evaluated for commercial aircraft flight decks in the early 1980s. In 1985, the University of Toronto group including Bill Buxton developed a tablet that used capacitance rather than bulky camera-based optical sensing systems. In 1986, the first graphical point of sale software was demonstrated on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer and it featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface. In 1987, Casio launched the Casio PB-1000 pocket computer with a touchscreen consisting of a 4x4 matrix, until 1988 touchscreens had the bad reputation of being imprecise
17.
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks. Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, the IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, a manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices, the development of the short-link radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE9202239, issued 1992-07-24, Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund, the specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers, at the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtssons historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, the Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes and, Haralds initials. Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels, each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping enabled, Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying modulation was the modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2. 0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices, devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, the combination of these modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. Bluetooth is a protocol with a master-slave structure
18.
Active pen
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The active pen marketplace has long been dominated by N-trig and Wacom, but newer firms Atmel and Synaptics also offer active pen designs. Active pens are used for note taking, on-screen drawing/painting and electronic document annotation, as well as accurate object selection. Most active pens feature one or more buttons that can be used in place of a mouse or keyboard. An input device known as a passive stylus can also be used to directly onto the screen. The typical passive stylus also has a tip made of rubber or conductive foam in order to emulate a users finger, rather than the more accurate ballpoint pen-like tip used in the active pen. Active pen devices support most modern operating systems, including Googles Android, digital pen Pen computing Stylus Graphics tablet Tablet computer
19.
Touchpad
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Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants, wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories. Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing, the most common technology used as of 2010 entails sensing the capacitive virtual ground effect of a finger, or the capacitance between sensors. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar implement, gloved fingers may also be problematic. While touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size, hardware buttons equivalent to a standard mouses left and right buttons are positioned below, above, or beside the touchpad. Some touchpads and associated device driver software may interpret tapping the pad as a click, Tactile touchpads allow for clicking and dragging by incorporating button functionality into the surface of the touchpad itself. To select, one presses down on the touchpad instead of a physical button, to drag, instead performing the click-and-a-half technique, one presses down while on the object, drags without releasing pressure and lets go when done. Touchpad drivers can also allow the use of fingers to facilitate the other mouse buttons. Some touchpads have hotspots, locations on the used for functionality beyond a mouse. Many touchpads use two-finger dragging for scrolling, also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the device driver software. By 1982 Apollo desktop computers were equipped with a touchpad on the side of the keyboard. Introduced a year later, the Gavilan SC included a touchpad above its keyboard, a touchpad was first developed for Psions MC 200/400/600/WORD Series in 1989. Olivetti and Triumph-Adler introduced the first laptops with touchpad in 1992. Cirque introduced the first widely available touchpad, branded as GlidePoint, in 1994. Apple Inc introduced touchpads to the laptop in the PowerBook series in 1994, using Cirque’s GlidePoint technology. Another early adopter of the GlidePoint pointing device was Sharp, later, Synaptics introduced their touchpad into the marketplace, branded the TouchPad. Epson was an early adopter of this product, as touchpads began to be introduced in laptops in the 1990s, there was often confusion as to what the product should be called. No consistent term was used, and references varied, such as, glidepoint, touch sensitive input device, touchpad, trackpad, users were often presented the option to purchase a pointing stick, touchpad, or trackball
20.
Microphone
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A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice. The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres. In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end. German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of 1876 – the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution. These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US. Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid-1877, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries. Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of 1886 and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in 1910. In 1916, E. C. Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in 1923, the first practical moving coil microphone was built. The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. J. Round, was the standard for BBC studios in London and this was improved in 1930 by Alan Blumlein and Herbert Holman who released the HB1A and was the best standard of the day. Also in 1923, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Olson. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in 1963. During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in 1999 with the DM-1001. The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers
21.
Low-key lighting
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Low-key lighting is a style of lighting for photography, film or television. It is an element in creating a chiaroscuro effect. Traditional photographic lighting, three-point lighting uses a key light, a light. Low-key lighting often uses only one key light, optionally controlled with a light or a simple reflector. Low key light accentuates the contours of an object by throwing areas into shade while a light or reflector may illuminate the shadow areas to control contrast. The relative strength of key-to-fill, known as the lighting ratio, low key lighting has a higher lighting ratio, e. g.8,1, than high-key lighting, which can approach 1,1. The term low key is used in cinematography to refer to any scene with a lighting ratio. It tends to heighten the sense of alienation felt by the viewer, hence is used in film noir. In film, low-key lighting is associated with German Expressionism and later film noir
22.
Accelerometer
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An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero. Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i. e. gradient of the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input. An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame. Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. e. in comparison to standard gravity, an accelerometer at rest relative to the Earths surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earths surface is accelerating upwards relative to the local inertial frame. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity. For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration
23.
Gyroscope
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A gyroscope is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation is free to assume any orientation by itself. When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to the conservation of angular momentum, because of this, gyroscopes are useful for measuring or maintaining orientation. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses, which complement or replace magnetic compasses, a gyroscope is a wheel mounted in two or three gimbals, which are a pivoted supports that allow the rotation of the wheel about a single axis. In the case of a gyroscope with two gimbals, the gimbal, which is the gyroscope frame, is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the frame so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame. This inner gimbal has two degrees of rotational freedom, the axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is constrained to spin about an axis, which is perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. So the rotor possesses three degrees of freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied to the axis by a reaction force to the output axis. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the moves to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis, a gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free or fixed configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll, the centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, for example, the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in gimbals. In some special cases, the outer gimbal may be omitted so that the rotor has two degrees of freedom. Essentially, a gyroscope is a top combined with a pair of gimbals, Tops were invented in many different civilizations, including classical Greece, Rome, and China
24.
Magnetometer
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A compass is a simple example of a magnetometer, one that measures the direction of an ambient magnetic field. Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the Earths magnetic field and in geophysical surveys to detect anomalies of various types. They are also used in the military to detect submarines, consequently, some countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia, classify the more sensitive magnetometers as military technology, and control their distribution. Magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by strength and direction. The strength of a field is measured in units of tesla in the SI units. 10,000 gauss are equal to one tesla, measurements of the Earths magnetic field are often quoted in units of nanotesla, also called a gamma. Gaussmeters and teslameters are magnetometers that measure in units of gauss or tesla, in some contexts, magnetometer is the term used for an instrument that measures fields of less than 1 millitesla and gaussmeter is used for those measuring greater than 1 mT. There are two types of magnetometer measurement. Vector magnetometers measure the components of a magnetic field. Total field magnetometers or scalar magnetometers measure the magnitude of the magnetic field. Magnetometers used to study the Earths magnetic field may express the components of the field in terms of declination. Absolute magnetometers measure the magnitude or vector magnetic field, using an internal calibration or known physical constants of the magnetic sensor. Relative magnetometers measure magnitude or vector magnetic field relative to a fixed but uncalibrated baseline, also called variometers, relative magnetometers are used to measure variations in magnetic field. Magnetometers may also be classified by their situation or intended use, stationary magnetometers are installed to a fixed position and measurements are taken while the magnetometer is stationary. Portable or mobile magnetometers are meant to be used while in motion, laboratory magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically stationary. The performance and capabilities of magnetometers are described through their technical specifications, major specifications include Sample rate is the amount of readings given per second. The inverse is the time in seconds per reading. Sample rate is important in mobile magnetometers, the sample rate, bandwidth or bandpass characterizes how well a magnetometer tracks rapid changes in magnetic field
25.
IEEE 802.11
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They are created and maintained by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers LAN/MAN Standards Committee. The base version of the standard was released in 1997, and has had subsequent amendments, the standard and amendments provide the basis for wireless network products using the Wi-Fi brand. As a result, in the marketplace, each tends to become its own standard. The 802.11 family consists of a series of half-duplex over-the-air modulation techniques that use the basic protocol. 802. 11-1997 was the first wireless networking standard in the family, but 802. 11b was the first widely accepted one, followed by 802. 11a,802. 11g,802. 11n, and 802. 11ac. Other standards in the family are service amendments that are used to extend the current scope of the existing standard, which may also include corrections to a previous specification. 802. 11b and 802. 11g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band, operating in the United States under Part 15 of the U. S. Federal Communications Commission Rules and Regulations. Because of this choice of band,802. 11b and g equipment may occasionally suffer interference from microwave ovens, cordless telephones. Better or worse performance with higher or lower frequencies may be realized,802. 11n can use either the 2.4 GHz or the 5 GHz band,802. 11ac uses only the 5 GHz band. The segment of the frequency spectrum used by 802.11 varies between countries. In the US,802. 11a and 802. 11g devices may be operated without a license, as allowed in Part 15 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Frequencies used by one through six of 802. 11b and 802. 11g fall within the 2.4 GHz amateur radio band. Licensed amateur radio operators may operate 802. 11b/g devices under Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations, allowing increased power output but not commercial content or encryption. 802.11 technology has its origins in a 1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission that released the ISM band for unlicensed use, in 1991 NCR Corporation/AT&T invented a precursor to 802.11 in Nieuwegein, the Netherlands. The inventors initially intended to use the technology for cashier systems, the first wireless products were brought to the market under the name WaveLAN with raw data rates of 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s. Vic Hayes, who held the chair of IEEE802.11 for 10 years, in 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance was formed as a trade association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. The original version of the standard IEEE802.11 was released in 1997 and clarified in 1999 and it specified two net bit rates of 1 or 2 megabits per second, plus forward error correction code. The latter two radio technologies used microwave transmission over the Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band at 2.4 GHz, some earlier WLAN technologies used lower frequencies, such as the U. S.900 MHz ISM band
26.
IEEE 802.11b-1999
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IEEE802. 11b-1999 or 802. 11b, is an amendment to the IEEE802.11 wireless networking specification that extends throughput up to 11 Mbit/s using the same 2. 4GHz band. A related amendment was incorporated into the IEEE802. 11-2007 standard,802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly used today in their 802. 11a,802. 11b,802. 11g,802. 11n and 802. 11ac versions to provide connectivity in the home, office. 802. 11b has a raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s. Due to the CSMA/CA protocol overhead, in practice the maximum 802. 11b throughput that an application can achieve is about 5.9 Mbit/s using TCP and 7.1 Mbit/s using UDP. 802. 11b products appeared on the market in mid-1999, since 802. 11b is a extension of the DSSS modulation technique defined in the original standard. The Apple iBook was the first mainstream computer sold with optional 802. 11b networking, technically, the 802. 11b standard uses Complementary code keying as its modulation technique. The dramatic increase in throughput of 802. 11b along with simultaneous substantial price reductions led to the acceptance of 802. 11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology. 802. 11b devices suffer interference from other products operating in the 2.4 GHz band, devices operating in the 2.4 GHz range include, microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones. Interference issues and user density problems within the 2.4 GHz band have become a major concern,802. 11b is used in a point-to-multipoint configuration, wherein an access point communicates via an omnidirectional antenna with mobile clients within the range of the access point. Typical range depends on the radio environment, output power. Allowable bandwidth is shared across clients in discrete channels, a directional antenna focuses output power into a smaller field which increases point-to-point range. Designers of such installations who wish to remain within the law must however be careful about legal limitations on effective radiated power. Some 802. 11b cards operate at 11 Mbit/s, but scale back to 5.5, then to 2, note, Channel 14 is only allowed in Japan, Channels 12 &13 are allowed in most parts of the world. More information can be found in the List of WLAN channels, IEEE802.11 IEEE802. 11g-2003 Wi-Fi List of WLAN channels
27.
IEEE 802.11g-2003
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IEEE802. 11g-2003 or 802. 11g is an amendment to the IEEE802.11 specification that extended throughput to up to 54 Mbit/s using the same 2.4 GHz band as 802. 11b. This specification under the name of Wi-Fi has been implemented all over the world. The 802. 11g protocol is now Clause 19 of the published IEEE802. 11-2007 standard,802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly used today in their 802. 11a,802. 11b,802. 11g,802. 11n and 802. 11ac versions to provide connectivity in the home, office. 802. 11g is the modulation standard for wireless LANs. It works in the 2.4 GHz band but operates at a raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s. Using the CSMA/CA transmission scheme,31.4 Mbit/s is the maximum net throughput possible for packets of 1500 bytes in size and a 54 Mbit/s wireless rate. In practice, access points may not have an ideal implementation,1500 bytes is the usual limit for packets on the Internet and therefore a relevant size to benchmark against. Smaller packets give even lower theoretical throughput, down to 3 Mbit/s using 54 Mbit/s rate and 64 byte packets,802. 11g hardware is fully backwards compatible with 802. 11b hardware. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the technical process. In an 802. 11g network, however, the presence of a legacy 802. 11b participant will significantly reduce the speed of the overall 802. 11g network, some 802. 11g routers employ a back-compatible mode for 802. 11b clients called 54g LRS. Even though 802. 11g operates in the frequency band as 802. 11b. Of the 52 OFDM subcarriers,48 are for data and 4 are pilot subcarriers with a separation of 0.3125 MHz. Each of these subcarriers can be a BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM, the total bandwidth is 20 MHz with an occupied bandwidth of 16.6 MHz. Symbol duration is 4 microseconds, which includes an interval of 0.8 microseconds. The actual generation and decoding of orthogonal components is done in baseband using DSP which is then upconverted to 2.4 GHz at the transmitter, each of the subcarriers could be represented as a complex number. The time domain signal is generated by taking an Inverse Fast Fourier transform, correspondingly the receiver downconverts, samples at 20 MHz and does an FFT to retrieve the original coefficients. The advantages of using OFDM include reduced multipath effects in reception, the then-proposed 802. 11g standard was rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher speeds and reductions in manufacturing costs
28.
Wi-Fi
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Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
29.
Bluetooth Low Energy
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Compared to Classic Bluetooth, Bluetooth Smart is intended to provide considerably reduced power consumption and cost while maintaining a similar communication range. Bluetooth Smart was originally introduced under the name Wibree by Nokia in 2006 and it was merged into the main Bluetooth standard in 2010 with the adoption of the Bluetooth Core Specification Version 4.0. Mobile operating systems including iOS, Android, Windows Phone and BlackBerry, as well as macOS, Linux, Windows 8 and Windows 10, the Bluetooth SIG predicts that by 2018 more than 90 percent of Bluetooth-enabled smartphones will support Bluetooth Smart. The Bluetooth SIG officially unveiled Bluetooth 5 on June 16,2016 during an event in London. One change on the side is that they dropped the point number. Bluetooth Smart is not backward-compatible with the previous Bluetooth protocol, the Bluetooth 4.0 specification permits devices to implement either or both of the LE and Classic systems. Bluetooth Smart uses the same 2.4 GHz radio frequencies as Classic Bluetooth, LE does, however, use a simpler modulation system. In 2011, the Bluetooth Special Interest Group announced the Bluetooth Smart logo so as to clarify compatibility between the new low energy devices and other Bluetooth devices, Bluetooth Smart Ready indicates a dual-mode device compatible with both Classic and low energy peripherals. Bluetooth Smart indicates a low energy-only device which requires either a Smart Ready or another Smart device in order to function, in the new branding information, the Bluetooth SIG has made one fundamental change. It is phasing out the Bluetooth Smart and Bluetooth Smart Ready logos and word marks and has reverted to using the Bluetooth logo, the logo uses a new blue color. The Bluetooth SIG identifies a number of markets for low energy technology, particularly in the home, health, sport. The company began developing a wireless technology adapted from the Bluetooth standard which would provide lower power usage, the results were published in 2004 using the name Bluetooth Low End Extension. Integration of Bluetooth Smart with version 4.0 of the Core Specification was completed in early 2010, the first smartphone to implement the 4.0 specification was the iPhone 4S, released in October 2011. A number of manufacturers released Bluetooth Smart Ready devices in 2012. Borrowing from the original Bluetooth specification, the Bluetooth SIG defines several profiles — specifications for how a device works in a particular application — for low energy devices, manufacturers are expected to implement the appropriate specifications for their device in order to ensure compatibility. A device may contain implementations of multiple profiles, Bluetooth 4.0 provides low power consumption with higher bit rates. In 2014, Cambridge Silicon Radio launched CSR Mesh, CSR Mesh protocol uses Bluetooth Smart to communicate with other Bluetooth Smart devices in the network. Each device can pass the information forward to other Bluetooth Smart devices creating a “mesh” effect, for example, switching off an entire building of lights from a single smartphone
30.
USB 3.0
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USB3.0 is the third major version of the Universal Serial Bus standard for interfacing computers and electronic devices. Among other improvements, USB3.0 adds the new transfer rate referred to as SuperSpeed USB that can transfer data at up to 5 Gbit/s, which is about ten times as fast as the USB2.0 standard. Manufacturers are recommended to distinguish USB3.0 connectors from their USB2.0 counterparts by blue color-coding of the Standard-A receptacles and plugs, USB3.1, released in July 2013, is the successor standard that replaces the USB3.0 standard. The specification of USB3.0 is similar to that of USB2.0, but with many improvements, earlier USB concepts such as endpoints and the four transfer types are preserved but the protocol and electrical interface are different. The specification defines a separate channel to carry USB3.0 traffic. This gives USB3.0 a potential total bandwidth, if used both ways, of twenty times that of USB2.0. In USB3.0, dual-bus architecture is used to allow both USB2.0 and USB3.0 operations to take place simultaneously, thus providing backward compatibility. Connections are such that they also permit forward compatibility, that is, the structural topology is the same, consisting of a tiered star topology with a root hub at level 0 and hubs at lower levels to provide bus connectivity to devices. The SuperSpeed transaction is initiated by the host making a request followed by a response from the device, the device either accepts the request or rejects it, if accepted, the device sends data or accepts data from the host. If the endpoint is halted, the device shall respond with a STALL handshake, if there is lack of buffer space or data, it responds with a Not Ready signal to tell the host that it is not able to process the request. When the device is ready, it will send an Endpoint Ready to the host which will then reschedule the transaction, the SuperSpeed bus provides for a transfer mode at a nominal rate of 5.0 Gbit/s, in addition to the three existing transfer modes. Accounting for the overhead, the raw data throughput is 4 Gbit/s. Scrambling is implemented using a linear feedback shift register. The LFSR is reset whenever a COM symbol is sent or received, unlike previous standards, the USB3. As with earlier versions of USB, USB3.0 provides power at 5 volts nominal, the available current for low-power SuperSpeed devices is 150 mA, an increase from the 100 mA defined in USB2.0. For high-power SuperSpeed devices, the limit is six unit loads or 900 mA and this move effectively opened the specification to hardware developers for implementation in future products. Manufacturers of USB3.0 host controllers include, but are not limited to, Renesas Electronics, Fresco Logic, ASMedia Technology, Etron, VIA Technologies, Texas Instruments, NEC, as of November 2010, Renesas and Fresco Logic have passed USB-IF certification. Motherboards for Intels Sandy Bridge processors have been seen with Asmedia, on 28 October 2010, Hewlett-Packard released the HP Envy 17 3D featuring a Renesas USB3.0 host controller several months before some of their competitors
31.
Mini DisplayPort
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The Mini DisplayPort is a miniaturized version of the DisplayPort audio-visual digital interface. It was announced by Apple in October 2008, as of 2013, all new Apple Macintosh computers had the port, as did the LED Cinema Display. However in 2016 Apple began phasing out the port and replacing it with the new USB Type-C connector. The Mini DisplayPort is also fitted to some PC motherboards, and some PC notebooks from Asus, Microsoft, MSI, Lenovo, Toshiba, HP, Dell, with an adapter, the Mini DisplayPort can drive display devices with VGA, DVI, or HDMI interfaces. Apple offers a license for the Mini DisplayPort but they reserve the right to cancel the license should the licensee commence an action for patent infringement against Apple. Apple replaced the DVI port from the MacBook, MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, iMac, Mac Mini, and this includes some content from the iTunes Store which has no such restrictions if played on a Mac without Mini DisplayPort. Monitors connected to a Mini DisplayPort via these adaptors may have problems or not wake up from sleep. This can be a problem for users who want to connect their computers to HDTVs using a Mini DisplayPort to HDMI adapter, either option terminates with a single female HDMI connector, thus allowing both video and audio to be channeled over the single HDMI cable. In early 2009, VESA announced that Mini DisplayPort would be included in the upcoming DisplayPort 1.2 specification, in the fourth quarter of 2009, VESA announced that the Mini DisplayPort had been adopted. All devices using the Mini DisplayPort must comply with the 1. 1a standard, on 7 January 2010, Toshiba introduced Satellite Pro S500, Tecra M11, A11 and S11 notebooks featuring Mini DisplayPort. On 13 April 2010, Apple added support for audio out using Mini DisplayPort in their MacBook Pro product line and this allows users to easily connect their Macbook Pros to their HDTVs using a cable adapting Mini DisplayPort to HDMI with full audio and video functionality. On 5 May 2010, HP announced Envy 14 and Envy 17 notebooks with Mini DisplayPort, on 20 October 2010, Dell announced XPS14,15, and 17 notebooks with Mini DisplayPort. On 17 May 2011, Lenovo announced the ThinkPad X1 notebook with Mini DisplayPort, in May 2011, Dell released the XPS 15z notebook with Mini DisplayPort. On 15 May 2012, Lenovo announced the ThinkPad notebooks X1 Carbon, Helix, X230, L430, L530, T430s, T430, T530, W530 with Mini DisplayPort. In 2012, Intel shipped the second generation Intel NUC of which the top model with an i5 had a Mini DisplayPort, on 9 February 2013, Microsoft released the Surface Tablet, Surface Pro, equipped with Windows 8 Pro and Mini DisplayPort. In June 2013, Intel shipped the third-generation Intel NUC with both Mini HDMI and Mini DisplayPort, on 5 July 2013, Asus announced new N Series laptops N550 and N750 with both HDMI and Mini DisplayPort. On 25 July 2013, Dell announced the Precision M3800 mobile workstation with Mini DisplayPort, on 8 August 2013, Dell announced the Latitude E7240 and E7440 business notebooks with Mini DisplayPort. On 9 September 2013, Lenovo announced the ThinkPad X240s, L440, L540, T440, T440s, T440p, T540p, on 5 May 2015, Microsoft released the Surface 3 with Mini DisplayPort
32.
Phone connector (audio)
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A phone connector, also known as phone jack, audio jack, headphone jack or jack plug, is a common family of electrical connector typically used for analog signals, primarily audio. It is cylindrical in shape, typically two, three, four and, recently, five contacts. Three-contact versions are known as TRS connectors, where T stands for tip, R stands for ring, similarly, two-, four- and five- contact versions are called TS, TRRS and TRRRS connectors respectively. The phone connector was invented for use in telephone switchboards in the 19th century and is widely used. In its original configuration, the diameter of the sleeve conductor is 1⁄4 inch. The mini connector has a diameter of 3.5 mm, specific models are termed stereo plug, mini-stereo, mini jack, headphone jack and microphone jack, or are referred to by size, i. e.3. 5mm or 6. 35mm. In the UK, the terms jack plug and jack socket are commonly used for the male and female phone connectors. In the US, an electrical connector is called a jack. Phone plugs and jacks are not to be confused with the similar terms phono plug and phono jack which refer to RCA connectors common in consumer hi-fi, the 3.5 mm connector is, however, sometimes—but counter to the connector manufacturers nomenclature—referred to as mini phono. Modern phone connectors are available in three standard sizes, the original 1⁄4 in version dates from 1878, when it was used for manual telephone exchanges, making it the oldest electrical connector standard still in use. The 3.5 mm or miniature and 2.5 mm or sub-miniature sizes were originally designed as two-conductor connectors for earpieces on transistor radios since the 1950s, the standard still used today. The 3.5 mm connector, which is the most commonly used in application today, was popularized by the Sony EFM-117J radio which was released in 1964. It became very popular with its application on the Walkman in 1979, the 3.5 mm and 2.5 mm sizes are sometimes referred to as 1⁄8 in and 3⁄32 in respectively in the United States, though those dimensions are only approximations. All three sizes are now available in two-conductor and three-conductor versions. Four- and five-conductor versions of the 3.5 mm plug are used for certain applications, a four-conductor version is often used in compact camcorders and portable media players, and sometimes also in laptop computers and smartphones, providing stereo sound plus a video signal. Proprietary interfaces using both four- and five-conductor versions exist, where the conductors are used to supply power for accessories. The four-conductor 3.5 mm plug is used as a connector on handheld amateur radio transceivers from Yaesu. It is also used in some amps like the LH Labs Geek Out V2+ for a balanced output, the most common arrangement remains to have the male plug on the cable and the female socket mounted in a piece of equipment, the original intention of the design
33.
Lithium-ion battery
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A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging
34.
Microsoft Store (digital)
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Windows Store is an app store for Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012. It is the means of distributing Universal Windows Platform apps. Both free and paid apps can be distributed through Windows Store, Windows Store was first made available with the Windows 8 Consumer Preview on February 29,2012. Later in 2015, Windows Phone Store, Xbox Video and Xbox Music stores were merged into Windows Store, as with other similar platforms, such as the Mac App Store and Google Play, Windows Store is curated and apps must be certified for compatibility and content. With all app sales, Microsoft takes 30% of the sale price, prior to January 1,2015, the cut was reduced to 20% after the developers profits reached $25,000. Games, Entertainment, Books and Reference, and Education are the largest categories by number of apps, Microsoft previously maintained a similar digital distribution system for software known as Windows Marketplace, which allowed customers to purchase software online and download it to their computer. Product keys and licenses were tracked by the platform, allowing users to retrieve their purchases when switching computers, Windows Marketplace was discontinued in November 2008. Microsoft first announced a distribution service for Windows at its presentation during the Build developer conference on September 13,2011. For consumers, Windows Store is intended to be the way to obtain Metro-style apps. While announced alongside the Developer Preview release of Windows 8, Windows Store itself did not become available until the Consumer Preview, an updated version of Windows Store was introduced in Windows 8.1. Its home page was remodeled to display apps in focused categories with expanded details, Windows Store serves as a unified storefront for Windows 10 on all platforms, offering apps, Groove Music soundtracks, Microsoft Movies & TV videos, themes, and ebooks purchases. Web apps and desktop software can be packaged for distribution on Windows Store, desktop software distributed through Windows Store will be packaged using the App-V system to allow sandboxing. Windows Store is available in Windows Server 2012 but is not installed by default, Windows Store is the primary means of distributing Windows Store apps to users. Although sideloading apps from outside the store is supported, out-of-box sideloading support on Windows 8 is only available for Windows 8 Enterprise computers that have joined a Windows domain. Sideloading on Windows RT and Windows 8 Pro devices, and Windows 8 Enterprise computers without a domain affiliation, Windows 10 removes this requirement, allowing users to enable the installation of universal apps from outside of Windows Store using a switch in the developer menu of Settings app. Microsoft takes a 30% cut of app sales until it reaches US$25,000 in revenue, third-party transactions are also allowed, of which Microsoft does not take a cut. Effective January 1,2015, the reduction in cut at $25,000 will be removed, individual developers are able to register for $19 USD and companies for $99 USD. Developers from 120 countries can submit apps to Windows Store, the app now can support any of 109 languages, as long as it supports one of 12 app certification languages
35.
OneDrive
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OneDrive is a file-hosting service operated by Microsoft as part of its suite of online services. It allows users to store files as well as personal data like Windows settings or BitLocker recovery keys in the cloud. Files can be synced to a PC and accessed from a web browser or a mobile device, OneDrive offers 5 GB of storage space for free, additional storage can be added either separately or through subscriptions to other Microsoft services like Office 365 and Groove Music. At its launch the service, known as Windows Live Folders at the time, was provided as a limited beta available to a few testers in the United States, on August 1,2007, the service was expanded to a wider audience. Shortly thereafter, on August 9,2007, the service was renamed Windows Live SkyDrive and made available to testers in the United Kingdom, as of 22 May 2008 SkyDrive was initially available in 38 countries and regions. Microsoft also added the ability to have full-screen slide shows for photos using Silverlight, SkyDrive was updated to Wave 4 release on June 7,2010, and added the ability to work with Office Web Apps, with versioning. In this update, due to the discontinuation of Windows Live Toolbar, in June 2010, users of Office Live Workspace, released in October 2007, were migrated to Windows Live Office. The migration included all existing workspaces, documents, and sharing permissions, on June 20,2011, Microsoft overhauled the user interface for SkyDrive, built using HTML5 technologies. The updated version featured caching, hardware acceleration, HTML5 video, quick views, cleaner arrangement of photos, Microsoft also doubled the file size limit from 50 MB to 100 MB per file. With this update, Microsoft consolidated the different entry points for SkyDrive, such as Windows Live Photos and Windows Live Office, files and folders shared with a user, including those in Windows Live Groups, were also accessible in the new interface. On November 29,2011, Microsoft updated SkyDrive to make sharing and file management easier, as well as HTML5 and this update also allowed users to see how much storage they had, a feature that had been removed in the previous update as part of the redesign. On December 3,2011, Microsoft released SkyDrive apps for iOS and Windows Phone, in addition, SkyDrive also provided additional storage available for purchase and reduced the free storage space for new users to 7 GB. Existing users were offered an upgrade offer to retain their 25 GB of free storage. The updated SkyDrive also allowed files up to 2 GB in size, the update also brought additional features such as Open Document Format capability, URL shortening services and direct sharing of files to Twitter. For SkyDrive. com, the updates brought a new design for the web service consistent with Outlook. For the SkyDrive for Windows desktop and macOS applications, the update brought new performance improvements to photo uploads, on August 28,2012, Microsoft released a SkyDrive app for Android on Google Play store. On September 18,2012, Microsoft also introduced a recycle bin feature on SkyDrive, on July 31,2013, in a joint press release between BSkyB and Microsoft, it was announced that a settlement had been reached and as a result the SkyDrive name would be dropped. BSkyB allowed Microsoft to continue using the brand for a period of time to allow for an orderly transition to a new brand
36.
Groove Music
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Groove Music is a digital music streaming service developed by Microsoft that offers music streaming through subscription or purchase through the Windows Store. The service is web-based and also available via applications for the Microsoft Windows and Xbox product lines, as well as Android, the Groove catalogue has over 38 million tracks. Microsoft had previously ventured into music services with its Zune brand, the Zune Music Marketplace included 11 million tracks.99 per month. Meanwhile, Microsoft had been emphasizing the strength of its Xbox brand because of its appeal to consumers and it had been expanding the multimedia services available through its Xbox Live to include services such as a video store and online game marketplace. It decided to introduce a new service to build upon these existing features. Microsoft introduced the new service at its press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012 on June 4, Xbox Music was launched along with Xbox Video service on October 16,2012. On July 6,2015, Microsoft announced the re-branding of Xbox Music as Groove to tie in with the release of Windows 10. The new brand utilizes the Microsoft-owned Groove trademark formerly used for the unrelated product Microsoft Office Groove, joe Belfiore explained that the re-branding was intended to disassociate the service from the Xbox product line, making it more inclusive to non-Xbox platforms. On 17 September 2015, with an update for the Xbox 360. The Xbox One app had also changed in a previous update, Groove Music Pass is a subscription-based service allowing unlimited streaming of the services catalog. An advertising-supported streaming tier was previously available, but discontinued effective December 1,2014, Music can also be purchased directly from Windows Store. Users purchased music, and playlists consisting of songs available on the service can be synced through OneDrive, songs in a users local library on a Windows 8.1 PC can be matched and made available to other devices if available on Groove Music Pass. Uploading of non-Groove music will become available on Windows 10. Custom radio stations can be generated using songs related to user-selected songs, songs can be downloaded for offline listening on smartphones. Windows 10s Anniversary Update allows users to hide features that require a Groove Music Pass from the interface, Groove Music Pass is a pay subscription service that allows users to listen to their subscription music on any device with the service installed. The pricing in US includes monthly and annual subscriptions, a one-month trial offer is available, but those who previously tried the Zune Music Pass subscription prior to the rebranding are ineligible for this offer. Groove Music lets users create a collection of songs and playlists that roam through the cloud on all the supported devices. The songs can be added from the Groove Music Store or matched to songs either saved locally on the machine or uploaded to the users Microsoft OneDrive account for the country the user is in
37.
Microsoft Movies & TV
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The service is available on Xbox 360, Xbox One, Windows 8 and later, and Windows Phone 8 and later. Movies & TV is also accessible on the web, Zune Video Marketplace was released in 2006, and was replaced by Xbox Video on October 14,2012. Xbox Live Marketplaces original video store was replaced by Zune Marketplace on September 15,2009, at E32009, Microsoft announced their 1080p streaming video service, which allows users to stream video over an internet connection. This technology is a key part of Xbox Video for their streaming service. However the name and branding of Xbox Video remains active on all the previous platforms, on 17 September, with a system update for the Xbox 360, the name of the app changed to reflect the new branding. The Xbox One app had also changed in a previous update, official website Microsoft Movies & TV store
38.
Surface Pro 2
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The Surface Pro 2 is a Surface-series 2-in-1 detachable produced by Microsoft. Unveiled at an event in New York City on September 23,2013 and released on October 22,2013, pre-orders for the Surface Pro 2 were opened on September 24,2013, and the device was released on October 22,2013. The Surface Pro 2 launched with the Surface 2, the Touch Cover 2, panos Panay, head of Surface at Microsoft was the sole speaker for the event and the advocate for the entire Surface Team and the Surface Remix Project. On May 20,2014, its successor, the Microsoft Surface Pro 3, was announced. It is bigger than its predecessor, with a 12-inch display, the Surface Pro 2 shares most of its design with its predecessor, the Surface Pro. The devices exterior is constructed from magnesium alloy. The Surface Pro 2 weighs 915 grams, the same as its predecessor, the Surface Pro 2 features a 10.6 inches display. The screen has a 16,9 aspect ratio, which is advantageous for video playback, unlike its predecessor, the Surface Pro 2 has a two-stage kickstand that can be set to two different angles,22 and 55 degrees. The new 55 degrees angle was added to make the more comfortable on the lap. As with the previous Surface Pro, it includes 10. 6-inch 10-point 1080p multi-touch digitizer LCD display with a Wacom stylus pen that supports 1024 different levels of pressure, Surface Pro 2 was shipped with the fourth generation Haswell Intel Core i5-4200U. In December 2013, Microsoft updated the CPU to a 1.9 GHz dual Core i5-4300U. The Surface Pro 2 was available with 64,128,256, or 512 GB of internal storage, the CPU includes the TPM, or trusted platform module, version 1.2. Like the Surface Pro, the Surface Pro 2 has a gyroscope, accelerometer, ambient light sensor, compass,2 720p Lifecam cameras, the Surface Pro 2 ships with Windows 8.1 Pro as its operating system. Microsoft shipped the Surface Pro 2 with a trial version of Office 2013. Since July 29, the Surface Pro 2 has been further upgradeable to Windows 10, which will be free for existing users. The Surface Pro comes with pre-installed apps that include, Fresh Paint, Xbox Video, Xbox Music, Internet Explorer, Photos, Mail, Maps, People, Skype, Calendar, Games, and OneNote. A suite of MSN apps that are included are, MSN Food and Drink, MSN Money, the Bing app, MSN Weather, MSN Travel, reader and Sound Recorder were added with the Windows 8.1 update, as well as an updated version of Fresh Paint. With Windows 10, Xbox Music app and service will be rebranded to Groove, the Touch Cover 2 has over 1,092 sensors on it compared to just 80 on the original Touch Cover
39.
Surface Pro 4
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The Surface Pro 4 is the fourth-generation Surface-series 2-in-1 detachable, designed, developed, marketed, and produced by Microsoft. The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6,2015 alongside the Surface Book, in the U. S. and Canada, the Surface Pro 4 was released on October 26,2015. The Surface Pro 4 is an update over its predecessor, featuring Skylake CPUs, more RAM and SSD options, at the same time, the device is compatible with most of its predecessors accessories. The Surface Pro 4 was announced on October 6,2015 alongside the Surface Book, both devices were available for pre-order the following day and available for customers beginning on October 26,2015. The device initially exhibited failure to sleep properly, which drained the battery very quickly, Microsoft subsequently developed a fix that was made available on February 17,2016. The Surface Pro 4 is the size as the Surface Pro 3. The screen resolution is greater than the Surface Pro 3s, at 2736x1824 at 267 PPI, with the same aspect ratio of 3,2. The chassis is 0.03 inches thinner and 0.03 pounds lighter than the Surface Pro 3, the cooling system of the 2-in-1 has been redesigned and dubbed hybrid liquid cooling system. It includes heat pipes with a liquid, which is meant to avoid the use of the internal fan when the device is used for less demanding tasks such as web browsing. The maximum clock rate of the most powerful CPU option is also greater at 2.2 GHz, the m3-powered model is completely fanless. All Surface Pro 4 models come with a 64-bit version of Windows 10 Pro, Windows 10 comes pre-installed with Mail, Calendar, People, Xbox, Photos, Movies and TV, Groove, and Microsoft Edge. With Windows 10 the Tablet mode is available when the Type Cover is detached from the device, in this mode, all windows are opened full-screen and the interface becomes more touch-centric. The device also has a Windows Hello-compatible camera and it combines the use of a regular and infrared cameras to authenticate the user. The Surface Pro 4 is backward compatible with all accessories of its predecessor, at the Windows 10 Devices Event on 6 October,2015, alongside new Surface 2-in-1s, new accessories were announced. The Surface Dock is a redesigned docking accessory in a form factor. It is compatible with all past and future Surface models with a SurfaceConnect side port, previously used to connect a wall charger or Docking Station accessory, Surface Pro 3,4 and Surface Book. The Surface Dock will have 2 Mini DisplayPorts,1 Gigabit Ethernet,4 USB3.0, and 1 audio out ports. The new Type Cover is thinner and lighter than its predecessor, has improved stability for lap use
40.
Surface 2
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Surface 2 is a Surface-series Windows RT hybrid tablet computer created by Microsoft. It was unveiled on September 23,2013, and released on October 22,2013 and is the successor to the original Surface, as of January 2015, Microsoft no longer manufactures Surface 2, but will provide security updates for the device until 2023. Pre-orders for the Surface 2 were opened on September 24,2013, as value-added services, the Surface 2 includes 200 GB of additional OneDrive storage for 2 years, and 1 year of free Skype calls to landlines and access to Skype WiFi hotspots. In January 2015, after its stock sold out on Microsoft Store online, after Surface 2, the Nokia Lumia 2520 was the only remaining Windows RT device on the market, before that being discontinued too just a week later. Made of magnesium alloy and toughened glass, the shell of Surface 2 maintains a similar design to its predecessor. Surface 2 is also thinner and lighter than the previous model. Unlike the original Surface, the Surface 2 uses a 1080p display and this display is claimed to have almost 50% better color than the previous version, as well as the lowest reflectivity among competing tablets. The device also includes a full-size USB3.0 port,32 or 64 GB of internal storage, the Surface 2 ships with Windows RT8.1. The 4G LTE model of Surface 2 was launched on March 18,2014, AT&T is the Microsoft cellular partner and Surface 2 4G LTE comes with AT&T All Access app pre-installed but the device actually ships unlocked. The 4G models also come with GPS, Assisted GPS, the Surface 2 includes what Microsoft calls a silver-magnesium color that is more scratch resistant compared to the original Surface. The Surface 2 ships with Windows RT8.1 and Office 2013 RT, other bundled apps include Mail, Calendar, People, Bing apps including Food and Drink, Health and Fitness, Weather, Travel, Stocks, and Sports. These apps were renamed to be MSN apps. An interesting change from the Surface to the Surface 2 is the hiding of the tile from the Start Screen. The Touch Cover 2 has over 1,092 sensors on it compared to just 80 on the original Touch Cover, the keyswitch length of the Type Cover 2 have been reduced from 2. 5mm to 1. 5mm. A new Power Cover accessory was available to add 30 Wh additional battery capacity to the device. Accompanying the Touch Cover 2 and Type Cover 2 was an adapter that allows them to be connected up to 30 feet away via Bluetooth. An updated kickstand can now be tilted at a 55-degree angle alongside the original 22-degree angle, during its unveiling, Microsoft also showcased the Music Cover, a variation of the Touch Cover that serves as a DJ mixer with playback controls, a 16-button sampler, and three sliders. While mainstream public release has been announced, it will be distributed to musicians through the Surface Remix Project campaign, initial reviews of the Surface 2 have been mixed
41.
Surface 3
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Surface 3 is a 2-in-1 detachable from the Microsoft Surface series, unveiled by Microsoft on March 31,2015 and released on May 5,2015. The older, original Surface and Surface 2, with their ARM-based processors and Windows RT operating system, are pitched against the iPad, the first Surface was criticized for performance issues though this was rectified in the succeeding Surface 2. Released prior to Surface 3, the Surface Pro 3 became a business for Microsoft in late 2014. It has a price of $799, features a high-resolution ClearType display and competes with high-end ultraportable laptops like the Apple MacBook Air. With the introduction of the Surface 3, Microsoft aims to make the Surface more affordable for those who dont need the power of the Surface Pro 3, at the expense of some performance. Surface 3 can be considered a competitor to traditional tablets like Apple iPad. Microsoft plans to release unlocked GSM models of Surface 3 that supports 4G LTE and these models will also support GPS/GLONASS positioning. The Surface 3 share a design to the Surface Pro 3 with a body made of magnesium alloy giving a matte gray finish to the back of the device. It features a kickstand that can be set to three different angles,22,44, and 60 degrees, the Surface 3 does not have a fan, therefore lacking the ventilation holes seen on Surface Pro line. The Surface 3 weighs 620 grams features a 10.8 inches diagonal multi-touch display with a 3,2 aspect ratio, for a charger Surface 3 uses a standard Micro-USB, giving users a wider variety of charging options, including charging the device with a mobile phone charger. Surface 3 has the 14 nm quad-core Intel Atom x7-Z8700 SoC, the Atom x7-Z8700 is able to drive up to three external displays over Mini DisplayPort and support a resolution of up to 4K with a single external display. The 2-in-1s own display has a resolution of 1920x1280. The device ships with either a 64 or 128 GB solid-state drive and 2 or 4 GB of system memory, the devices storage capacity can be increased by installing a microSD memory card of up to 200 GB. Unlike its predecessors, the Surface 3 is the first device in the line to feature the full Windows desktop OS as opposed to Windows RT. This therefore puts the device into the category of 2-in-1 PC, which cannot be said for its predecessors, Surface 3s purchased before July 29,2015 come with Windows 8.1 but are upgradeable to Windows 10 for free from that date onwards. Since the Windows 10 release, consumer models of the Surface 3 now ship with Windows 10 Home, unlike the devices of the Surface Pro line, business models of the Surface 3, however, now ship with Windows 10 Pro. The Surface 3 is the first non-Pro Surface to feature a pen digitizer, unlike Surface Pro 3, however, it is not included in the box, but is available for purchase separately. Various aftermarket USB or Bluetooth peripheral devices, such as keyboards, Surface 3 received generally positive reviews from computer critics. They praised Microsofts shift from ARM architecture toward x86, and therefore from Windows RT to a regular Windows OS, most noted a well designed chassis and accessories produced of quality materials, and overall premium feeling of use
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Surface Pro
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The Surface Pro is a first generation 2-in-1 detachable of the Microsoft Surface series, designed and manufactured by Microsoft. The device ran a 64-bit version of Windows 8 Pro operating system with a free upgrade possibility to Windows 8.1 Pro, and eventually also Windows 10. Initially announced as Surface for Windows 8 Pro on June 18,2012, at a Los Angeles event, Microsoft later renamed the device to Surface Pro, Microsoft did not take pre-orders for the Surface Pro. It was available for a purchase on February 9,2013, in the United States, Canada and China and was released on 23 May 2013, in the United Kingdom and a number of other countries. The Surface Pro shares a lot of its design traits with its lower cost counterpart, both have the dark VaporMg coating over the same magnesium body and a 10-point multi-touch enabled 10.6 inches screen with crack resistant Gorilla Glass. However, the resolution on the Surface Pro is higher and is 1920x1080, Surface Pro runs a dual-core 1.7 GHz Intel Core i5-3317U CPU, with a Turbo Boost frequency of up to 2.6 GHz with a built-in Intel HD Graphics 4000. It has 4 GB of memory and a 64 or 128 GB solid-state drive, unique to the Surface and Surface Pro is the kickstand which can be flipped out from the back, propping the device up. The kickstand comes out of the devices at a 22 degree angle, the same angle the edges of the device are angled at. Along the right side of the device, the Surface Pro has a card slot on top, followed by the power port, and near the bottom. The bottom of the device contains the port to attach a Touch Cover or Type Cover. In addition to the attachments, the cover port on the Surface Pro contains a pogo pin connector. Unique to the Surface Pro, compared to the Surface tablet, is the addition of power connectors for compatibility with the Surface Power Cover, the left side of the 2-in-1 contains a full-sized USB3 port, the volume rocker, and the audio jack. The power button is on the top of the device, on the front and back of the device are two 720p Lifecam cameras, and inside is a 42 Watt-hour battery. Other sensors include an ambient light sensor, accelerometer, gyroscope, Surface Pro originally shipped with Windows 8 Pro, but was upgradeable to Windows 8.1 Pro. The Surface Pro is further capable of upgrading to Windows 10 Pro, the 2-in-1 features two types of detachable keyboards, Type Cover and Touch Cover, both with the integrated touchpad. The former have 5 millimetres width and moving keys for a more traditional typing feel, both accessories are also additionally a protective screen cover and are sold separately. Surface Pro is the first device in the Surface family to feature a pen input. Pro Pen is based on Wacom digitizer technology and it is integrated with OneNote software which is also included with the Surface Pro and used for note taking and sketches
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