1.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
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Samuel Taylor Coleridge was an English poet, literary critic and philosopher who, with his friend William Wordsworth, was a founder of the Romantic Movement in England and a member of the Lake Poets. He wrote the poems The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Kubla Khan and his critical work, especially on William Shakespeare, was highly influential, and he helped introduce German idealist philosophy to English-speaking culture. Coleridge coined many words and phrases, including suspension of disbelief. He was an influence on Ralph Waldo Emerson and American transcendentalism. Throughout his adult life Coleridge had crippling bouts of anxiety and depression, it has been speculated that he had bipolar disorder and he was physically unhealthy, which may have stemmed from a bout of rheumatic fever and other childhood illnesses. He was treated for these conditions with laudanum, which fostered a lifelong opium addiction, Coleridge was born on 21 October 1772 in the town of Ottery St Mary in Devon, England. He had previously been Master of Hugh Squiers School in South Molton, Devon, John Coleridge had three children by his first wife. Samuel was the youngest of ten by the Reverend Mr. Coleridges second wife, Anne Bowden, probably the daughter of John Bowden, Mayor of South Molton, Devon, Coleridge suggests that he took no pleasure in boyish sports but instead read incessantly and played by himself. At that school Coleridge became friends with Charles Lamb, a schoolmate, in fancy I can almost hear him now, exclaiming Harp. Pen and ink, boy, you mean, oh aye. the cloister-pump, I suppose. Be this as it may, there was one custom of our masters and he would often permit our theme exercises. To accumulate, till each lad had four or five to be looked over, throughout his life, Coleridge idealised his father as pious and innocent, while his relationship with his mother was more problematic. His childhood was characterised by attention seeking, which has linked to his dependent personality as an adult. He was rarely allowed to return home during the term. He later wrote of his loneliness at school in the poem Frost at Midnight, With unclosed lids, from 1791 until 1794, Coleridge attended Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1792, he won the Browne Gold Medal for an ode that he wrote on the slave trade, afterwards, he was rumoured to have had a bout of severe depression. His brothers arranged for his discharge a few months later under the reason of insanity and he was readmitted to Jesus College, at Jesus College, Coleridge was introduced to political and theological ideas then considered radical, including those of the poet Robert Southey. Coleridge joined Southey in a plan, soon abandoned, to found a utopian society, called Pantisocracy
2.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
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The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797–98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads. Modern editions use a revised version printed in 1817 that featured a gloss, along with other poems in Lyrical Ballads, it was a signal shift to modern poetry and the beginning of British Romantic literature. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the experiences of a sailor who has returned from a sea voyage. The mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony, the mariners tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south by a storm, the sailors change their minds again and blame the mariner for the torment of their thirst. On board are Death and the Night-mare Life-in-Death, a deathly-pale woman, with a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life-in-Death the life of the mariner, a prize she considers more valuable. Her name is a clue to the fate, he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross. One by one, all of the members die, but the mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crews corpses. Eventually, this stage of the curse is lifted after he appreciates the sea creatures swimming in the water. The bodies of the crew, possessed by spirits, rise again. The rotten remains of the sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilots boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, the poem received mixed reviews from critics, and Coleridge was once told by the publisher that most of the books sales were to sailors who thought it was a naval songbook. Coleridge made several modifications to the poem over the years, in the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, published in 1800, he replaced many of the archaic words. On this second voyage Cook crossed three times into the Antarctic Circle to determine whether the great southern continent existed. Critics have also suggested that the poem may have inspired by the voyage of Thomas James into the Arctic. Some critics think that Coleridge drew upon Jamess account of hardship, according to William Wordsworth, the poem was inspired while Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Wordsworths sister Dorothy were on a walking tour through the Quantock Hills in Somerset
3.
Alexander Pope
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Alexander Pope was an 18th-century English poet. He is best known for his verse and for his translation of Homer. He is the second-most frequently quoted writer in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations after Shakespeare, Alexander Pope was born to Alexander Pope Senior, a linen merchant of Plough Court, Lombard Street, London, and his wife Edith, who were both Catholics. Ediths sister Christiana was the wife of the miniature painter Samuel Cooper. Pope was taught to read by his aunt, and went to Twyford School in about 1698/99 and he then went to two Catholic schools in London. Such schools, while illegal, were tolerated in some areas, in 1700, his family moved to a small estate at Popeswood in Binfield, Berkshire, close to the royal Windsor Forest. This was due to strong anti-Catholic sentiment and a statute preventing Catholics from living within 10 miles of either London or Westminster, Pope would later describe the countryside around the house in his poem Windsor Forest. He also studied languages and read works by English, French, Italian, Latin. After five years of study, Pope came into contact with figures from the London literary society such as William Wycherley, William Congreve, Samuel Garth, William Trumbull, at Binfield, he also began to make many important friends. One of them, John Caryll, was twenty years older than the poet and had many acquaintances in the London literary world. He introduced the young Pope to the ageing playwright William Wycherley and to William Walsh, a minor poet and he also met the Blount sisters, Teresa and Martha, both of whom would remain lifelong friends. From the age of 12, he suffered health problems, such as Potts disease. His tuberculosis infection caused other problems including respiratory difficulties, high fevers, inflamed eyes. He grew to a height of only 1.37 m. Pope was already removed from society because he was Catholic, although he never married, he had many female friends to whom he wrote witty letters. Allegedly, his lifelong friend Martha Blount was his lover, in May,1709, Popes Pastorals was published in the sixth part of Tonsons Poetical Miscellanies. This brought Pope instant fame, and was followed by An Essay on Criticism, published in May 1711, around 1711, Pope made friends with Tory writers John Gay, Jonathan Swift, Thomas Parnell and John Arbuthnot, who together formed the satirical Scriblerus Club. The aim of the club was to satirise ignorance and pedantry in the form of the fictional scholar Martinus Scriblerus and he also made friends with Whig writers Joseph Addison and Richard Steele. In March 1713, Windsor Forest was published to great acclaim, during Popes friendship with Joseph Addison, he contributed to Addisons play Cato, as well as writing for The Guardian and The Spectator
4.
The Rape of the Lock
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The Rape of the Lock is a mock-heroic narrative poem written by Alexander Pope. Pope boasted that this more than three thousand copies in its first four days. The final form of the poem appeared in 1717 with the addition of Clarissas speech on good humour, the poem was much translated and contributed to the growing popularity of mock-heroic in Europe. The poem satirises a minor incident by comparing it to the world of the gods. It was based on an incident recounted by Popes friend. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut off a lock of her hair without permission, Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem at the request of friends in an attempt to comically merge the two. He utilised the character Belinda to represent Arabella and introduced a system of sylphs, or guardian spirits of virgins. Pope derived his sylphs from the 17th-century French Rosicrucian novel Comte de Gabalis, Pope, writing pseudonymously as Esdras Barnivelt, published A Key to the Lock in 1714 as a humorous warning against taking the poem too seriously. Pope’s poem uses the traditional high stature of classical epics to emphasise the triviality of the incident. The abduction of Helen of Troy becomes here the theft of a lock of hair, the gods become minute sylphs, the description of Achilles’ shield becomes an excursus on one of Belindas petticoats. He also uses the style of invocations, lamentations, exclamations and similes. Although the poem is humorous at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, as his introductory letter makes clear, women in that period were essentially supposed to be decorative rather than rational, and the loss of beauty was a serious matter. The humour of the poem comes from the storm in a teacup being couched within the elaborate and it is a satire on contemporary society which showcases the lifestyle led by some people of that age. Pope arguably satirises it from within rather than looking down judgmentally on the characters, Belindas legitimate rage is thus alleviated and tempered by her good humour, as directed by the character Clarissa. Pope added to the edition the following dedicatory letter to Mrs. Arabella Fermor, Madam. Yet you may bear me witness, it was intended only to divert a few young Ladies, who have good sense and good enough to laugh not only at their sexs little unguarded follies. But as it was communicated with the air of a secret and these Machines I determined to raise on a very new and odd foundation, the Rosicrucian doctrine of Spirits. The Rosicrucians are the people I must bring you acquainted with, according to these gentlemen, the four elements are inhabited by spirits, which they call Sylphs, Gnomes, Nymphs, and Salamanders
5.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
6.
Henry V (play)
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Henry V is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written around 1599. It tells the story of King Henry V of England, focusing on events immediately before, in the First Quarto text, it was entitled The Cronicle History of Henry the fift, which became The Life of Henry the Fifth in the First Folio text. The play is the part of a tetralogy, preceded by Richard II, Henry IV, Part 1. In Henry V, the prince has become a mature man. Elizabethan stages did not use scenery, acknowledging the difficulty of conveying great battles and shifts of location on a bare stage, the Chorus calls for a Muse of fire so that the actor playing King Henry can ssume the port of Mars. He asks, Can this cockpit hold / The vasty fields of France, and encourages the audience to use their imaginary forces to overcome the stages limitations, Piece out our imperfections with your thoughts. The early scenes deal with the embarkation of Henrys fleet for France, when the Chorus reappears, he describes the countrys dedication to the war effort – They sell the pasture now to buy the horse. The chorus tells the audience, Well not offend one stomach with our play, at the siege of Harfleur, Henry utters one of Shakespeares best-known speeches, beginning Once more unto the breach, dear friends. He agonizes about the burden of being king, noting that a king is only a man. Before the battle, Henry rallies his troops with the famous St Crispins Day Speech, referring to we few, we happy few, following the victory at Agincourt, Henry attempts to woo the French princess, Catherine of Valois. This is difficult because neither speaks the language well. As with all of Shakespeares serious plays, also a number of comic characters appear whose activities contrast with. In this case, they are mostly common soldiers in Henrys army, and they include Pistol, Nym, and Bardolph from the Henry IV plays. The army also includes a Scot, an Irishman, and an Englishman, and Fluellen, the play also deals briefly with the death of Falstaff, Henrys estranged friend from the Henry IV plays, whom Henry had rejected at the end of Henry IV, Part 2. An earlier play, the Famous Victories of Henry V is also believed to have been a model for the work. On the basis of an apparent allusion to Essexs mission to quell Tyrones Rebellion, Q1 of Henry V is a bad quarto, a shortened version of the play that might be an infringing copy or reported text. A second quarto, a reprint of Q1, was published in 1602 by Pavier, another reprint was issued as Q3 in 1619, the superior text first was printed in the First Folio in 1623. Readers and audiences have interpreted the play’s attitude to warfare in several different ways, on the one hand, it seems to celebrate Henrys invasion of France and valorises military might
7.
J. R. R. Tolkien
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He was at one time a close friend of C. S. Lewis—they were both members of the informal literary discussion group known as the Inklings. Tolkien was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II on 28 March 1972, after Tolkiens death, his son Christopher published a series of works based on his fathers extensive notes and unpublished manuscripts, including The Silmarillion. Between 1951 and 1955, Tolkien applied the term legendarium to the part of these writings. While many other authors had published works of fantasy before Tolkien and this has caused Tolkien to be popularly identified as the father of modern fantasy literature—or, more precisely, of high fantasy. In 2008, The Times ranked him sixth on a list of The 50 greatest British writers since 1945, forbes ranked him the 5th top-earning dead celebrity in 2009. Tolkiens paternal ancestors were middle-class craftsmen who made and sold clocks, watches and pianos in London, the Tolkien family had emigrated from Germany in the 18th century but had become quickly intensely English. According to the tradition, the Tolkiens had arrived in England in 1756. Several families with the surname Tolkien or similar spelling live in northwestern Germany, mainly in Lower Saxony, however, this origin of the name has not been proven. A German writer has suggested that the name is likely to derive from the village of Tolkynen near Rastenburg. Although that village is far from Lower Saxony, its name is derived from the now-extinct Old Prussian language. John Ronald Reuel Tolkien was born on 3 January 1892 in Bloemfontein in the Orange Free State to Arthur Reuel Tolkien, an English bank manager, the couple had left England when Arthur was promoted to head the Bloemfontein office of the British bank for which he worked. Tolkien had one sibling, his brother, Hilary Arthur Reuel. In another incident, a family servant, who thought Tolkien a beautiful child, took the baby to his kraal to show him off. When he was three, he went to England with his mother and brother on what was intended to be a family visit. His father, however, died in South Africa of rheumatic fever before he could join them and this left the family without an income, so Tolkiens mother took him to live with her parents in Kings Heath, Birmingham. Soon after, in 1896, they moved to Sarehole, then a Worcestershire village, Mabel Tolkien taught her two children at home. Ronald, as he was known in the family, was a keen pupil and she taught him a great deal of botany and awakened in him the enjoyment of the look and feel of plants. Young Tolkien liked to draw landscapes and trees, but his lessons were those concerning languages
8.
Aestheticization of violence
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The aestheticization of violence in high culture art or mass media has been the subject of considerable controversy and debate for centuries. In Western art, graphic depictions of the Passion of Christ have long been portrayed, as have a range of depictions of warfare by later painters. Theater and, in times, cinema have often featured battles and violent crimes, while images. High culture forms such as art and literature have aestheticized violence into a form of autonomous art. In 1991, University of Georgia literature professor Joel Black stated that any human act evokes the experience of the sublime. This conception of an element of murder has a long history, in the 19th century. Murder, for instance, may be laid hold of by its moral handle, and that, I confess, is its weak side, or it may also be treated aesthetically, as the Germans call it—that is, in relation to good taste. In addition to high culture aestheticizations of violence, mass media such as newspaper and television news reporting have produced sensationalized reports on crime. A number of filmmakers from the 20th century have used aestheticized depictions of violence, according to James Fox, filmmaker Donald Cammell. looked upon violence as an artist might look on paint. Thomas Harris created a character called Hannibal Lecter, a cannibal. Lecter was portrayed by Anthony Hopkins and he says the man is about to paint his masterpiece as he seeks out and kills all of the members of the criminal organization who were connected with the child abduction. In Xavier Morales review of Quentin Tarantinos Kill Bill, Volume 1, entitled Beauty and violence, Morales says that the film, which he calls easily one of the most violent movies ever made, a breathtaking landscape in which art and violence coalesce into one unforgettable aesthetic experience. Tarantino is able to transform an object of moral outrage into one of aesthetic beauty. like all art forms, film critics analyzing violent film images that seek to aesthetically please the viewer mainly fall into two categories. Critics who see depictions of violence in film as superficial and exploitative argue that it leads audience members to become desensitized to brutality, thus increasing their aggression. On the other hand, critics who view violence as a type of content, or as a theme, claim it is cathartic and provides acceptable outlets for anti-social impulses. Martin claims that critics who value aestheticized violence defend shocking depictions onscreen on the grounds that screen violence is not real violence and it has its own changing history, its codes, its precise aesthetic uses. She argues that violence is not merely the excessive use of violence in a film. which include imitations of or homages to Woo. Bruder argues that films with aestheticized violence such as Hard Target, True Romance, signs and indicators, so that the stylized violence they contain ultimately serves as. another interruption in the narrative drive of the film
9.
Fourth wall
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The fourth wall is a performance convention in which an invisible, imagined wall separates actors from the audience. While the audience can see through this wall, the convention assumes, the metaphor suggests a relationship to the mise-en-scène behind a proscenium arch. When a scene is set indoors and three of the walls of its room are presented onstage, in what is known as a box set, the fourth wall, though, is a convention of acting, rather than of set design. Breaking the fourth wall is any instance in which this performance convention and this can be done through either directly referencing the audience or the work they are in, or referencing their fictionality. The temporary suspension of the convention in this way draws attention to its use in the rest of the performance and this act of drawing attention to a plays performance conventions is metatheatrical. The phrase breaking the wall is used to describe such effects in those media. Breaking the fourth wall is also possible in other media, such as video games, the concept is usually attributed to the philosopher, critic and dramatist Denis Diderot. The term itself was used by Molière, one play that uses the fourth wall extensively for comedic effect is The Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Critic Vincent Canby described it in 1987 as that invisible scrim that forever separates the audience from the stage, oliver Hardy was probably the first to break the fourth wall, in his movies with Stan Laurel, by staring at the camera to seek comprehension from the viewers. Groucho Marx spoke directly to the audience in Animal Crackers,1930, woody Allen broke the fourth wall several times in his movie Annie Hall, as he explained, because I felt many of the people in the audience had the same feelings and the same problems. I wanted to talk to them directly and confront them, the John Hughes movie Ferris Buellers Day Off is another well-known fourth-wall-breaking movie. Bueller, played by Matthew Broderick, often turns to the camera, in the Mel Brooks film Blazing Saddles, the characters literally break the fourth wall. Breaking the fourth wall is an part of the ending of Alejandro Jodorowskys 1973 film The Holy Mountain. More recent examples include the 2016 film Deadpool, in which it is used as a device between the main character and the audience. On television, breaking the wall is rare, though it has been done throughout the history of the medium. George Burns did it numerous times on The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show he starred in with his real-life wife Gracie Allen from 1950 to 1958. Its Garry Shandlings Show and Mrs. Browns Boys both have their title character walking between sets mid-scene, and the latter occasionally shows characters retaking fluffed lines. Another television character who breaks the fourth wall is Francis Urquhart in the British TV drama series House of Cards, To Play the King
10.
Oxford University Press
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Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world, and the second oldest after Cambridge University Press. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the known as the delegates of the press. They are headed by the secretary to the delegates, who serves as OUPs chief executive, Oxford University has used a similar system to oversee OUP since the 17th century. The university became involved in the print trade around 1480, and grew into a printer of Bibles, prayer books. OUP took on the project became the Oxford English Dictionary in the late 19th century. Moves into international markets led to OUP opening its own offices outside the United Kingdom, by contracting out its printing and binding operations, the modern OUP publishes some 6,000 new titles around the world each year. OUP was first exempted from United States corporation tax in 1972, as a department of a charity, OUP is exempt from income tax and corporate tax in most countries, but may pay sales and other commercial taxes on its products. The OUP today transfers 30% of its surplus to the rest of the university. OUP is the largest university press in the world by the number of publications, publishing more than 6,000 new books every year, the Oxford University Press Museum is located on Great Clarendon Street, Oxford. Visits must be booked in advance and are led by a member of the archive staff, displays include a 19th-century printing press, the OUP buildings, and the printing and history of the Oxford Almanack, Alice in Wonderland and the Oxford English Dictionary. The first printer associated with Oxford University was Theoderic Rood, the first book printed in Oxford, in 1478, an edition of Rufinuss Expositio in symbolum apostolorum, was printed by another, anonymous, printer. Famously, this was mis-dated in Roman numerals as 1468, thus apparently pre-dating Caxton, roods printing included John Ankywylls Compendium totius grammaticae, which set new standards for teaching of Latin grammar. After Rood, printing connected with the university remained sporadic for over half a century, the chancellor, Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, pleaded Oxfords case. Some royal assent was obtained, since the printer Joseph Barnes began work, Oxfords chancellor, Archbishop William Laud, consolidated the legal status of the universitys printing in the 1630s. Laud envisaged a unified press of world repute, Oxford would establish it on university property, govern its operations, employ its staff, determine its printed work, and benefit from its proceeds. To that end, he petitioned Charles I for rights that would enable Oxford to compete with the Stationers Company and the Kings Printer and these were brought together in Oxfords Great Charter in 1636, which gave the university the right to print all manner of books. Laud also obtained the privilege from the Crown of printing the King James or Authorized Version of Scripture at Oxford and this privilege created substantial returns in the next 250 years, although initially it was held in abeyance. The Stationers Company was deeply alarmed by the threat to its trade, under this, the Stationers paid an annual rent for the university not to exercise its full printing rights – money Oxford used to purchase new printing equipment for smaller purposes
11.
Aesthetics
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
