1.
Principality of Volhynia
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The Principality of Volhynia was a western Kievan Rus principality founded by the Rurik dynasty in 987 centered in the region of Volhynia in modern-day Ukraine. From 1069 to 1118 it belong to Izyaslavychi who primarily ruled from Turov, after losing Turov to Monomakhovychi in 1105, the descendents of Izyaslav Yaroslavovych for few years continued to rule in Volhynia. From 1154 to 1199 the principality was named Principality of Volodymyr when the Principality of Lutsk was separated, the principality held the lands of the historic region of Volhynia from where it acquired its name. The capital of the principality as well as the largest and most important city of the region was Volodymyr, other notable cities in the principality include Kremenets, Lutsk, Busk, Dorogobuzh, Brest, Belz and Shumsk. The Principality of Volhynia along with her state, the Principality of Halych were formed by lesser sons of the ruling Rurik dynasty in Kiev. Following the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus, the principality achieved autonomy in 1154
2.
Principality of Chernigov
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The Principality of Chernigov was one of the largest states within Kievan Rus. For a time the principality was the second most important after Kiev, most of the Principality of Chernigov was located on the left bank of the river Dnieper, within the basins of the Desna and Seim rivers. The principality was supposedly populated by mostly Slavic tribes of Siverians, later the territory of the principality extended to the lands of Radimichs and partially the Vyatichs and Drehovichs. The capital of the principality was the city of Chernihiv, other important cities were Novhorod-Siversky, Starodub, Bryansk, Putyvl, Kursk, Lubech, Hlukhiv, Chechersk, Homel, Bilhorod, Vyr, and others. Ownership and influence of the Chernigov Principality reached far to the North, in the years 1024–1036 the principality of Chernigov was passed under the administration of son of the Vladimir the Great, Mstislav of Chernigov, who came there from Tmutorokan. Together with Yaroslav the Wise, Mstislav ruled the Kievan Rus establishing Chernigov as one of the most important administration centers in Rus, upon the death of Mstislav, Chernigov was incorporated into the realm of Kiev. After Yaroslav the Wise the principality of Chernigov was passed to one of his sons, Grand Prince Sviatoslav, during the civil war of the Yaroslavichi, Chernigov was contested between sons of Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. By the decision of the Liubech Congress in 1097, the sons of Sviatoslav, Oleg, Davyd, after that the principality obtained a certain degree of autonomy and was primarily secured after the Olegs descendants. Murom and later the Ryazan principality drifted away from the influence of Chernigov, nonetheless the influence of Chernigov princes remained large and they retained the title of Kiev Grand Prince for some time. Chernigov was one of the largest economic and cultural centers of Kievan Rus
3.
Grand Prince of Kiev
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Grand Prince of Kyiv was the title of the Kievan prince and the ruler of Kievan Rus from the 10th to 13th centuries. In the 13th century, Kiev became an appanage principality first of the Grand Prince of Volodymyr and the Golden Horde governors, according to some Ukrainian historians, Ptolemys mention of Metropolis, a Sarmatian town on the Dnieper River, shows the ancient existence of Kiev. The name Dnieper is derived from Sarmatian Dānu apara the river far away, according to Slavophiles, Kyi ruled since 430, one of the dates attributed to the legendary founding of Kiev in 482, although that date relates to Kovin on the Danube in Serbia. Some historians speculate that Kyi was a Slavic prince of eastern Polans in the 6th century, kyis legacy along with Shcheks is mentioned in the Book of Veles, the authenticity of which, however, is disputed. Oleg, an apocryphal Kiev voivode, probably of Danish or Swedish origin, bravlin was a Varangian prince or chieftain, who led a Rus military expedition to devastate the Crimea, from Kerch to Sugdaea, in the last years of the 8th century. According to some Russian historians, Dir was a chacanus of Rhos, thomas Noonan asserts that one of the Rus sea-kings, the High king, adopted the title khagan in the early 9th century. Peter Benjamin Golden maintained that the Rus became a part of the Khazar federation, some western historians suppose that Kiev was founded by Khazars or Magyars. Kiev is a Turkic place name, at least during the 8th and 9th centuries Kiev functioned as an outpost of the Khazar empire. According to Omeljan Pritsak, Constantine Zuckerman and other scholars, Khazars lost Kiev at the beginning of the 10th century, due to Mongol invasion in 1240 Michael of Chernigov left Kiev to seek military assistance from the Kingdom of Hungary. During that time Prince of Smolensk Rostislav occupied Kiev, but was captured the year by Daniel of Galicia who placed his voivode Dmytro to guard Kiev while the Grand Prince was away. Being unsuccessful in Hungary, Michael visited Konrad I in Masovia, receiving no results in Poland, he eventually asked Daniel of Galicia for a sanctuary due to the invasion of Mongols. Since the 14th century the principality of Kiev started to fall under the influence of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in 1299 Metropolitan of Kiev Maximus moved his metropolitan see from Kiev to Vladimir-on-Klyazma. In 1331 Kiev once again was taken by members of Rurik dynasty, after the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362, Kiev and surrounding areas were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania
4.
Iziaslav I of Kiev
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Iziaslav Yaroslavich Kniaz of Turov, Veliki Kniaz of Kiev. Izyaslavs children Yaropolk and Sviatopolk would rule the Turov Principality authority of which was challenged by Rostilavichi of Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Iziaslav was the oldest son of Yaroslav I the Wise by his second wife Ingigerd Olafsdottir, Iziaslav succeeded his father, after Yaroslavs oldest child, Vladimir, had predeceased his father. Iziaslav was one of the authors of Pravda Yaroslavichiv – a part of the first legal code of Rus and he is also credited with the foundation of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery. Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev ceded the whole mountain to Antonite monks who founded a monastery built by architects from Constantinople and he chose a cave at the Berestov Mount that overlooked the Dnieper River and a community of disciples soon grew. In 1043 his father Veliki Kniaz Yaroslav made an agreement with King Casimir I of Poland that recognized Cherven as part of Kiev, the agreement was sealed with a double marriage—Casimir to Dobronega, Yaroslavs sister, and Iziaslav to Gertrude, Casimirs sister. From this marriage were born three children, Iziaslavs son Yaropolk, Mstislav and Sviatopolk, as a result of the popular uprising in 1068, Iziaslav was deposed and fled to Poland. In 1069 he retook Kiev with the help of the Polish army, however, Iziaslav turned to the German king Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, Polish king Bolesław II the Bold, and Pope Gregory VII, for help on several occasions. Iziaslav became the first King of Rus in 1075 when the Pope sent him a crown and he succeeded in retaking Kiev once again in 1076, but soon died in an internecine war against Princes Oleg Sviatoslavich and Boris Vyacheslavich. Iziaslav had the children with Gertrude, Yaropolk Mstislav, was a Prince of Novgorod which he lost to Vseslav of Polotsk. He had a son Rostislav Mstislavich that died in 1093, eupraxia, may have been married to Mieszko Bolesławowic, son of Bolesław II the Bold in 1088. Sviatopolk List of Ukrainian rulers List of Russian rulers Martin, Janet, medieval Russia, 980–1584 Holy Dormition Kiev-Pechersk Lavra – Official site Genealogy of Yaroslav descendants Izyaslav Yaroslavich at hrono. info
5.
Vsevolod I of Kiev
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Vsevolod I Yaroslavich, ruled as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1078 until his death. He was the fifth and favourite son of Yaroslav I the Wise by Ingigerd Olafsdottir, on his seal from his last years, he was named Andrei Vsevolodu in Greek, implying that his baptismal name was Andrew. However, the couples son Vladimir Monomakh bore the name of the Roman/Byzantine emperor. Together with his elder brothers Iziaslav and Sviatoslav he formed a sort of triumvirate which jointly waged war on the steppe nomads, polovtsy. In 1055 Vsevolod launched an expedition against the Torks who had in the previous years expelled the Pechenegs from the Pontic steppes and he also made peace with the Cumans who appeared for the first time in Europe in the same year. The Cumans invaded his principality in 1061 and routed Vsevolod in a battle, Vsevolod persuaded his brother, Iziaslav, and their distant cousin, Vseslav to join him and they together attacked the Torks in 1060. In 1067 Vsevolods Greek wife died and he married a Kypchak princess. She brought him another son, who drowned after the Battle of the Stugna River, the Cumans again invaded Kievan Rus in 1068. The three brothers united their forces against them, but the Cumans routed them on the Alta River, after their defeat, Vsevolod withdrew to Pereyaslav. However, its citizens rose up in rebellion, dethroned Iziaslav. Vsevolod and Sviatoslav made no attempt to expel the usurper from Kiev and they forced their brother to flee from Kiev in 1073. Feodosy, the hegumen or head of the Monastery of the Caves in Kiev remained loyal to Iziaslav. Iziaslav granted Sviatoslavs former principality to Vsevolod, but Sviatoslavs sons considered the Principality of Chernigov as their own patrimony or otchina, Oleg Sviatoslavich made an alliance with the Cumans and invaded Chernigov. Iziaslav came to Vsevolods rescue and they forced Oleg to retreat, after Iziaslavs death, Vsevolod, as their fathers only surviving son, took the Kievan throne, thus uniting the three core principalities—Kiev, Chernigov and Pereyaslavl—in Kievan Rus. He appointed his eldest son, Vladimir Monomach to administer Chernigov, Vsevolod spoke five foreign languages, according to Vladimir Monomachs Autobiography. Historian George Vernadsky, these probably included Greek and Cuman, because of the nationality of his two wives, and he likely spoke Latin, Norse and Ossetian. He lost most of his battles, his eldest son, Vladimir Monomakh, the last years of his reign were clouded by grave illness, and Vladimir Monomakh presided over the government. Vsevolod and his first wife Anastasia had only one known son, ianka or Anna Vsevolodovna who was engaged to Constantine Dukas in 1074, but she never married She became a nun and started a school for girls
6.
Kiev
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Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population in July 2015 was 2,887,974, Kiev is an important industrial, scientific, educational, and cultural centre of Eastern Europe. It is home to many industries, higher education institutions. The city has an infrastructure and highly developed system of public transport. The citys name is said to derive from the name of Kyi, during its history, Kiev, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, passed through several stages of great prominence and relative obscurity. The city probably existed as a centre as early as the 5th century. A Slavic settlement on the trade route between Scandinavia and Constantinople, Kiev was a tributary of the Khazars, until seized by the Varangians in the mid-9th century. Under Varangian rule, the city became a capital of the Kievan Rus, completely destroyed during the Mongol invasion in 1240, the city lost most of its influence for the centuries to come. It was a capital of marginal importance in the outskirts of the territories controlled by its powerful neighbours, first the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, followed by Poland. The city prospered again during the Russian Empires Industrial Revolution in the late 19th century, in 1917, after the Ukrainian National Republic declared independence from the Russian Empire, Kiev became its capital. From 1919 Kiev was an important center of the Armed Forces of South Russia and was controlled by the White Army. From 1921 onwards Kiev was a city of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was proclaimed by the Red Army, during World War II, the city again suffered significant damage, but quickly recovered in the post-war years, remaining the third largest city of the Soviet Union. During the countrys transformation to an economy and electoral democracy. Kievs armament-dependent industrial output fell after the Soviet collapse, adversely affecting science, Kiev emerged as the most pro-Western region of Ukraine where parties advocating tighter integration with the European Union dominate during elections. As a prominent city with a history, its English name was subject to gradual evolution. The early English spelling was derived from Old East Slavic form Kyjev, the name is associated with that of Kyi, the legendary eponymous founder of the city. Early English sources use various names, including Kiou, Kiow, Kiew, on one of the oldest English maps of the region, Russiae, Moscoviae et Tartariae published by Ortelius the name of the city is spelled Kiou. On the 1650 map by Guillaume de Beauplan, the name of the city is Kiiow, in the book Travels, by Joseph Marshall, the city is referred to as Kiovia
7.
Chernigov
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Chernihiv also known as Chernigov, a historic city in northern Ukraine, serves as the administrative center of the Chernihiv Oblast, as well as of the surrounding Chernihiv Raion within the oblast. Administratively, it is incorporated as a city of oblast significance, population,294, 727 Chernihiv stands on the Desna River to the north-north-east of Kiev. The area was served by Chernihiv Shestovitsa Airport, and during the Cold War it was the site of Chernigov air base, Chernihiv was first mentioned in the Rus-Byzantine Treaty, but the time of establishment is not known. According to the items uncovered by archaeological excavations of a settlement which included artifacts from the Khazar Khaganate, towards the end of the 10th century, the city probably had its own rulers. It was there that the Black Grave, one of the largest and earliest royal mounds in Eastern Europe, was excavated in the 19th century, in the southern portion of the Kievan Rus the city was the second by importance and wealth. The grand principality was the largest in Kievan Rus and included not only the Severian towns but even such remote regions as Murom, Ryazan and Tmutarakan. The golden age of Chernihiv, when the city peaked at 25,000, lasted until 1239 when the city was sacked by the hordes of Batu Khan. The area fell under the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1353, the areas importance increased again in the middle of the 17th century during and after the Khmelnytsky Uprising. In the Hetman State Chernihiv was the city of deployment of Chernihiv Cossack regiment, under the 1667 Treaty of Andrusovo the legal suzerainty of the area was ceded to Tsardom of Russia, with Chernihiv remaining an important center of the autonomous Cossack Hetmanate. With the abolishment of the Hetmanate, the city became an administrative center of the Russian Empire. According to the census of 1897, in the city of Chernihiv there were about 11,000 Jews out of the population of 27,006. Their primary occupations were industrial and commercial, many tobacco plantations and fruit gardens in the neighborhood were owned by Jews. There were 1,321 Jewish artisans in Chernihiv, including 404 tailors and seamstresses, there were 69 Jewish day-laborers, almost exclusively teamsters. But few were engaged in the factories, during World War II, Chernihiv was occupied by the German Army from 9 September 1941 to 21 September 1943. The Cathedral of Sts Boris and Gleb, dating from the century, was much rebuilt in succeeding periods. Likewise built in brick, it has a dome and six pillars. The crowning achievement of Chernihiv masters was the exquisite Pyatnytska Church and this graceful building was seriously damaged in the Second World War, its original medieval outlook was reconstructed to a design by Peter Baranovsky. The earliest residential buildings in the date from the late 17th century
8.
Ukraine
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Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
9.
Gleb Svyatoslavich
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Gleb Svyatoslavich was Prince of Tmutarakan and Novgorod. He ruled Tmutarakan under the authority of his father Sviatoslav Iaroslavich. He was twice expelled from his principality by one of his cousins Rostislav Vladimirovich and his father appointed him prince of Novgorod in 1067 or 1068. He suppressed a rebellion incited by a sorcerer against the bishop of the town, later he was expelled from Novgorod, and was killed by the Chudes. The Russian Primary Chronicle writes that he was kindly toward the poor and hospitable to strangers, zealous toward the church, warm in faith, peaceful, Gleb was the eldest of the fours sons of Sviatoslav Iaroslavich, Prince of Chernigov by his first wife, Killikiya. According to historian Martin Dimnik, Gleb was born around 1049 and he was named after his fathers holy uncle, Gleb. His father appointed him to rule Tmutarakan, an important port by the Strait of Kerch, according to the Russian Primary Chronicle, Glebs cousin Rostislav Vladimirovich fled to Tmutorakan in 1064. He expelled Gleb from Tmutorakan and occupied his principate for himself, although Gleb was restored by his father in 1065, once Sviatoslav Iaroslavich had returned with his army to Chernigov, Rostislav invaded again and displaced Gleb from power once more. However, the Byzantine katepano or governor of Cherson poisoned Rostislav who died on 3 February 1067, according to the Life of Feodosy, the citizens of Tmutorakan requested the monk Nikon the Great to persuade Sviatoslav Iaroslavich to again appoint Gleb as their prince. The saintly monk succeeded and Gleb returned to Tmutarakan, according to the inscription of the Stone of Tmutarakan, Gleb had the width of the frozen Strait of Kerch measured in the winter of 1067-68. Gleb was transferred—according to historian Martin Dimnik, by his father—from Tmutarakan to Novgorod in 1067 or 1068, however, Gleb and the Novgorodians routed him on the brook Gzen near the town. Glebs rule in Novgorod was confirmed when his father became the Grand Prince of Kiev in 1073. According to the Hypatian version of the Russian Primary Chronicle, Gleb visited his father in Kiev and he seems to have been on friendly terms with his cousin, Vladimir Monomach whose first son was born in his court at Novgorod. The Russian Primary Source narrates that a magician arrived in Novgorod, the magician planned to murder the prelate but Gleb and his druzhina or retinue remained loyal to him. Gleb dared the sorcerer who had stated that he could foretell the future to predict what was about to happen that very day, the magician declared that he would perform great miracles, but Gleb pull out an axe from his cloth and killed him. After the magicians death, his followers broke up, Glebs father died on 27 December 1076. According to Novgorodian sources, the citizens of the rose in revolt. He fled beyond the lands beyond the river Volkhov, known as Zavoloche and his body was transferred to Chernigov where he was buried in the Holy Savior Chatedral on 23 July
10.
Roman Svyatoslavich
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Roman Svyatoslavich or Roman the Handsome was prince of Tmutarakan in Kievan Rus. The starting year of his reign is uncertain, but he reigned his principality from around 1073 or 1077, the order of seniority of Sviatoslavs four sons by Killikiya is uncertain, Roman might have been the second or fourth among them. According to historian Martin Dimnik, he was born around 1052 and he was named after his fathers saintly uncle, Boris whose baptismal name was Roman. The starting year of Romans reign in Tmutarakan cannot certainly be determined, according to Martin, he seems to have succeeded his brother Oleg who moved to Vladimir after their father became Grand Prince of Kiev in 1073. However, no source makes mention of Olegs or Romans reign in Tmutarakan in this period, the Russian Primary Chronicle writes that Boris Vyacheslavich fled to join Roman in Tmutorakan after reigning in Chernigov for eight days in May 1077. In less than a year, Romans brother, Oleg also settled in Tmutarakan, Boris and Oleg allied with the Cumans against their uncle, Vsevolod, who had seized Chernigov. However, they were defeated on 25 August, in the summer of 1079, Roman made an alliance with the Cumans against Vsevolod. They advanced as far as the confluence of the rivers Sula and Dnieper, while he was returning to Tmutarakan, the Cumans murdered him on 2 August. Roman advanced with forces as far as Voin, but Vsevolod remained near Pereyaslavl, Roman returned homeward with them, but they killed him on August 2. The bones of Svyatoslavs son and Yaroslavs grandson still lie there even to this day, no source makes mention of Romans marriage or his descendants, implying that he never married and died childless. The Lay of Igors Campaign mentions him as handsome Roman, son of Sviatoslav
11.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
12.
Rurik dynasty
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The Rurik dynasty or Rurikids was a dynasty founded by the Varangian prince Rurik, who established himself in Novgorod around the year AD862. They ruled until 1610 and the Time of Troubles, following which they were succeeded by the Romanovs and they are one of Europes oldest royal houses, with numerous existing cadet branches. The Rurikid dynasty was founded in 862 by Rurik, a Varangian prince, come and reign as princes and have authority over us. Three brothers came with their kin and all the Rus in response to this invitation, Rurik set up rule in Novgorod, giving more provincial towns to his brothers. The Rurikid Dynasty DNA Project of FamilyTreeDNA commercial genetic genealogy company reports that Y-DNA testing of the descendants of Rurikids suggests their non-Slavic origin, Rurik and his brothers founded a state that later historians called Kievan Rus′. By the middle of the century, Kievan Rus′ had dissolved into independent principalities. The dynasty followed agnatic seniority and the izgoi principle, in addition, a line of Polotsk princes assimilated themselves with the princes of Lithuania. In the 10th century the Council of Liubech made some amendments to a succession rule, vsevolods line eventually became better known as the Monomakhovychi and was the predominant one. The line of Svyatoslav later became known as Olegovychi and often claim to the lands of Chernihiv. The Izyaslavychi who ruled Turov and Volhynia were eventually replaced by a Monomakhovychi branch, the Rurikid dynasty… attempted to impose on their highly diverse polity the integrative concept of russkaia zemlia and the unifying notion of a Rus′ people. But Kievan Rus′ was never really a unified polity and it was a loosely bound, ill-defined, and heterogeneous conglomeration of lands and cities inhabited by tribes and populous groups whose loyalties were primarily territorial. This caused the Rurik dynasty to effectively dissolve into several sub-dynasties ruling smaller states in the 10th and 11th centuries and these were the Olgoviches of Severia who ruled in Chernigov, Yuryeviches who controlled Vladimir-Suzdal, and Romanoviches in Galicia-Volhynia. The Olgoviches descended from Oleg I of Chernigov, a son of Sviatoslav II of Kiev and they continued to rule until the early 14th century when they were torn apart by the emerging Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Grand Duchy of Moscow. Vsevolod I of Kiev was the father of Vladimir II Monomakh, two of Vladimir IIs sons were Mstislav I of Kiev and Yuri Dolgorukiy. The Romanoviches were the line of Roman the Great, descended from Mstislav I of Kiev through his son Iziaslav II of Kiev and his grandson Mstislav II of Kiev, father of Roman the Great. The older Monomakhovychi line that ruled Principality of Volhynia, they were crowned kings of Galicia and Volhynia. Romanovychi displaced the line of Izyaslavychi from Turov and Volhynia as well as Rostyslavychi from Galicia. The last were two brothers of Romanovychi, Andrew and Lev II, who ruled jointly and were trying to repel Mongol incursions
13.
Yaroslav the Wise
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Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise or Iaroslav the Wise was thrice grand prince of Veliky Novgorod and Kiev, uniting the two principalities for a time under his rule. Yaroslavs Christian name was George after Saint George, a son of the Varangian Grand Prince Vladimir the Great, he was vice-regent of Novgorod at the time of his fathers death in 1015. Subsequently, his eldest surviving brother, Sviatopolk I of Kiev, Yaroslav, with the active support of the Novgorodians and the help of Varangian mercenaries, defeated Svyatopolk and became the Grand Prince of Kiev in 1019. Under Yaroslav the codification of customs and princely enactments was begun. During his lengthy reign, Kievan Rus reached the zenith of its cultural flowering, the early years of Yaroslavs life are shrouded in mystery. He was one of the sons of Vladimir the Great, presumably his second by Rogneda of Polotsk. It has been suggested that he was a child out of wedlock after Vladimirs divorce from Rogneda and marriage to Anna Porphyrogenita. Yaroslav figures prominently in the Norse sagas under the name Jarisleif the Lame, in his youth, Yaroslav was sent by his father to rule the northern lands around Rostov but was transferred to Veliky Novgorod, as befitted a senior heir to the throne, in 1010. While living there, he founded the town of Yaroslavl on the Volga River and his relations with his father were apparently strained, and grew only worse on the news that Vladimir bequeathed the Kievan throne to his younger son, Boris. In 1014 Yaroslav refused to pay tribute to Kiev and only Vladimirs death, in July 1015, during the course of this struggle, several other brothers were brutally murdered. However, the name is given there as Burizaf, which is also a name of Boleslaus I in the Scandinavian sources. It is thus possible that the Saga tells the story of Yaroslavs struggle against Svyatopolk, Yaroslav defeated Svyatopolk in their first battle, in 1016, and Svyatopolk fled to Poland. But Svyatopolk returned in 1018 with Polish troops furnished by his father-in-law, seized Kiev, Yaroslav at last prevailed over Svyatopolk, and in 1019 firmly established his rule over Kiev. One of his first actions as a prince was to confer on the loyal Novgorodians, numerous freedoms. Thus, the foundation of the Novgorod Republic was laid, for their part, the Novgorodians respected Yaroslav more than they did other Kievan princes, and the princely residence in their city, next to the marketplace was named Yaroslavs Court after him. It probably was during this period that Yaroslav promulgated the first code of laws in the lands of the East Slavs, a less appealing side of his personality is revealed by his having imprisoned his youngest brother Sudislav for life. Yaroslav and Mstislav then divided Kievan Rus between them, the area stretching left from the Dnieper River, with the capital at Chernihiv, was ceded to Mstislav until his death in 1036. In his foreign policy, Yaroslav relied on the Scandinavian alliance, in 1030, he reconquered Red Ruthenia from the Poles and concluded an alliance with King Casimir I the Restorer, sealed by the latters marriage to Yaroslavs sister, Maria
14.
Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden
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Ingegerd Olofsdotter of Sweden, also known as Irene, Anna and St. Anna, was a Swedish princess and a Grand Princess of Kiev. She was the daughter of Swedish King Olof Skötkonung and Estrid of the Obotrites, Ingegerd or St. Anna is often confused with the mother of St. Vladimir “the Enlightener” of the Rus. This is mainly because Ingegerd and Yaroslav also had a son named Vladimir, however, St. Vladimir was the father of Ingegerd’s husband Yaroslav I “the Wise”, thus making her St. Vladimir’s daughter-in-law. St. Vladimir was the son of Sviatoslav and Malusha, Ingegerd was born in Sigtuna, Sweden. She was engaged to be married to Norwegian King Olaf II, instead, Ingegerds father quickly arranged for a marriage to the powerful Yaroslav I the Wise of Novgorod. The marriage took place in 1019, once in Kiev, she changed her name to the Greek Irene. According to several sagas, she was given as a marriage gift Ladoga and adjacent lands and she placed her friend, jarl Ragnvald Ulfsson, to rule in her stead. Ingegerd initiated the building of the Saint Sophias Cathedral in Kiev that was supervised by her husband and she also initiated the construction of the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Novgorod. They had six sons and four daughters, the latter of whom became Queens of France, Hungary, Norway, the whole family is depicted in one of the frescoes of the Saint Sophia. Ingegerd died on 10 February 1050, upon her death, according to different sources, Ingegerd was buried in either Saint Sophias Cathedral in Kyiv or Cathedral of St. Sophia in Novgorod. Ingegerd was later declared a saint, by the name of St. Anna, in Novgorod and Kiev. The reason was that she initiated the building of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev as well as the local version, the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod, along with many good doings. In Sweden she was known as Princess Indegard, she married Yaroslav I “the Wise“, Grand Prince of Kiev and she gave shelter to the outcast sons of British King Edmund, Edwin and Edward, as well as the Norwegian prince Magnus, who later returned to Norway. She is perhaps best known as the mother of Vsevolod of, himself the father of Vladimir Monomakh and her daughters were Anna, Queen of France, Queen Anastasia of Hungary, and Queen Elizabeth of Norway. The whole family was devout and pious. She reposed in 1050 in the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom in Kiev, as saint, her hymn goes, And 4 stichera, in Tone I, Spec. Feast days,10 February,4 October, sverige och dess regenter under 1.000 år. Commemoration of Our Venerable Mother Anna, Wonderworker of Novgorod, St. Anna of Novgorod | Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese
15.
Volhynia
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Volhynia or Volyn is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe straddling Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, while the territory that still carries the name is Volyn Oblast, Volhynia has changed hands numerous times throughout history and been divided among competing powers. Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, it has been part of the independent nation of Ukraine, among important cities are Lutsk, Rivne, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Iziaslav, Novohrad-Volynskyi. In other versions, the city was located over 20 km to the west of Volodymyr-Volynskyi near the mouth of Huczwa River, before the partitions of Poland, eastern edge stretched a little west along the right-banks of Sluch River or just east of it. Volhynia is located in basins of Western Bug and Prypyat, therefore most of its rivers flow either in northern or western directions, relative to other historical regions, it is northeast of Galicia, east of Lesser Poland, and northwest of Podolia. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, and it is considered to overlap a number of other regions, among which are Polesia. Territories of historical Volhynia are now part of the Volyn, Rivne, major cities include Lutsk, Rivne, Kovel, Volodymyr-Volynskyi, Kremenets, and Starokostiantyniv. Before World War II, many Jewish shtetls, such as Trochenbrod, at one time all of Volhynia was part of the Pale of Settlement designated by Imperial Russia on its southwesternmost border. The land was mentioned in works of the Arabian scholar Al-Masudi who denoted the local tribe as people of Valin, in his work of 947-948 Al-Masudi mentions that Valinians as an intertribal union were ruled by their leader Madjak. In the opinion of Ukrainian historian Yuriy Dyba, the chronicle phrase «и оустави по мьстѣ, и по лузѣ погосты и дань и ѡброкы» reflects the actual route of the Olgas raid against Drevlians further to the west up to the Western Bugs right tributary Luha River. As early as 983, Vladimir the Great appointed his son Vsevolod the ruler of the Volhynian Principality and in 988 established the city of Volodymer. The first records can be traced to the Ruthenian chronicles, such as the Primary Chronicle, which mentions tribes of the Dulebe, Buzhan, volhynias early history coincides with that of the duchies or principalities of Halych and Volhynia. These two successor states of the Kievan Rus formed Halych-Volhynia between the 12th and the 14th centuries, after 1569 Volhynia formed a province of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During this period many Poles and Jews settled in the area, the Roman and Greek Catholic churches became established in the province. In 1375 was established a Roman Catholic Diocese of Lodomeria but it was suppressed in 1425, many Orthodox churches joined the latter organization in order to benefit from a more attractive legal status. Records of the first agricultural colonies of Mennonites date from 1783, after the Third partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795, Volhynia was annexed as the Volhynian Governorate of the Russian Empire. It covered an area of 71,852.7 square kilometers, many Roman Catholic church buildings were also given to the Russian Church, and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Lutsk was suppressed on orders of Empress Catherine II. In 1897, the population amounted to 2,989,482 people and it consisted of 73.7 percent East Slavs,13.2 percent Jews,6.2 percent Poles, and 5.7 percent Germans
16.
Triumvirate
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A triumvirate is a political regime ruled or dominated by three powerful individuals known as triumvirs. The arrangement can be formal or informal, though the three are notionally equal, this is rarely the case in reality. The term can also be used to describe a state with three different military leaders who all claim to be the sole leader, in the context of the Soviet Union and Russia, the term troika is used for triumvirate. Originally, triumviri were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the duties of Roman magistrates. The capitales were first established around 290–287 BCE and they were supervised by the praetor urbanus. These triumviri, or the tresviri nocturni, may also have some responsibility for fire control. The triumviri or tresviri aere argento auro flando feriundo supervised the issuing of Roman coins, three-man commissions were also appointed for purposes such as establishing colonies or distributing land. Triumviri mensarii served as bankers, the full range of their financial functions in 216 BCE. Another form of commission was the tresviri epulones, who were in charge of organizing public feasts on holidays. This commission was created in 196 BCE by a law on behalf of the people. The arrangement had no status, and its purpose was to consolidate the political power of the three and their supporters against the senatorial elite. After the death of Crassus in 53 BCE, the two fought a civil war, during which Pompey was killed and Caesar established his sole rule as perpetual dictator. The Second Triumvirate was recognized as a triumvirate at the time, a Lex Titia formalized the rule of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. The legal language makes reference to the traditional tresviri, although the constitutional machinery of the Republic was not irrevocably dismantled by the Lex Titia, in the event it never recovered. Lepidus was sidelined early in the triumvirate, and Antony was eliminated in civil war, in various municipalities under the Principate, the chief magistracy was a college of three, styled triumviri. In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some events in both the Old Testament and New Testament. In the Book of Exodus Moses, his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites. In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve apostles at three occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter, James, son of Zebedee
17.
Oghuz Turks
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The Oghuz, Oguz or Ghuzz Turks were a western Turkic people who spoke the Oghuz languages from the Common branch of Turkic language family. In the 8th century, they formed a tribal confederation conventionally named the Oghuz Yabgu State in central Asia, the name Oghuz is a Common Turkic word for tribe. Byzantine sources call the Oghuz the Uzes, by the 10th century, Islamic sources were calling the Muslim, as opposed to shamanist or Christian, Oghuz the Turkmens. By the 12th century this term had passed into Byzantine usage, the Oghuz confederation migrated westward from the Jeti-su area after a conflict with the Karluk branch of Uigurs. The founders of the Ottoman Empire were descendants of the Oghuzes, in the 9th century, the Oghuzes from the Aral steppes drove Bechens from the Emba and Ural River region toward the west. In the 10th century, they inhabited the steppe of the rivers Sari-su, Turgai, a clan of this nation, the Seljuks, embraced Islam and in the 11th century entered Persia, where they founded the Great Seljuk Empire. Similarly in the 11th century, a Tengriist Oghuz clan—referred to as Uzes or Torks in the Russian chronicles—overthrew Pecheneg supremacy in the Russian steppe, the Oghuz seem to have been related to the Pechenegs, some of whom were clean-shaven and others of whom had small goatee beards. According to the book Attila and the Nomad Hordes, Like the Kimaks they set up many carved wooden funerary statues surrounded by simple stone balbal monoliths. Oghuz warriors served in almost all Islamic armies of the Middle East from the 1000s onwards, in Byzantium from the 800s, and even in Spain and Morocco. In later centuries, they adapted and applied their own traditions and institutions to the ends of the Islamic world and emerged as empire-builders with a constructive sense of statecraft. The term Oghuz was gradually supplanted among the Turks themselves by Türkmen, Turcoman, from the mid 900s on, a process which was completed by the beginning of the 1200s. The Ottoman dynasty, who took over Anatolia after the fall of the Seljuks, toward the end of the 13th century. The original homeland of the Oghuz was the Altai Mountains of Central Asia, various scholarly theories link the Xiongnu to Turkic peoples and/or the Huns. The first usage of the word Oghuz appears to have been the title of Oğuz Kağan, given in 220 BCE to the Xiongnu king Modu Shanyu, who founded the Xiongnu Empire. According to a theory with few scholarly adherents, one transliteration of Yuezhi, as Hu-chieh. However, the Yuezhi are widely believed to have spoken an Indo-European language or languages, a number of subsequent tribal confederations bore the name Oghuz, often affixed to a numeral indicating the number of united tribes included. These include references to the Sekiz-Oghuz and the Dokuz-Oghuz, the tribes of the Sekiz-Oghuz and the Dokuz-Oghuz originally occupied different areas in the vicinity of the Altai Mountains. By the time of the Orkhon inscriptions Oghuz was being applied generically to all inhabitants of the Göktürk Khaganate, within the khaganate, the Oghuz community gradually expanded, incorporating other tribes
18.
Vseslav of Polotsk
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Vseslav of Polotsk or Vseslav Bryachislavich, also known as Vseslav the Sorcerer or Vseslav the Seer, was the most famous ruler of Polotsk and was briefly Grand Prince of Kiev in 1068–1069. Together with Rostislav Vladimirovich and voivode Vyshata made up a coalition against the Yaroslaviches triumvirate, polotsks Cathedral of Holy Wisdom is one of the most enduring monuments on the lands of modern Belarus and dates to his 57-year reign. Vselav was the son of Bryachislav Izyaslavich, Prince of Polotsk and Vitebsk, 1030–1039 in Polotsk and married around 1060. In 1065, he laid siege to Pskov but was thrown back, the attack also forced the young Mstislav, then enthroned in Novgorod, to flee back to his father, Iziaslav, in Kiev, and was thus and affront to the Kievan grand prince. He was then imprisoned in Kiev, returning with an army seven months later, Iziaslav retook his throne, and Vseslav fled back to Polotsk. After several years of complicated struggle with Iziaslav of Kiev, he finally secured Polotsk in 1071, during the last 30 years of his reign, his chief enemies were Vsevolod Yaroslavich and his son Vladimir Monomakh. He was buried in the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom in Polotsk, Vseslav had six sons, Roman, Prince of. Roman perished either in Ryazan or Murom and his widow became a nun and lived in Polotsk, Saint Sophia Cathedral where she opened her charity. Gleb Vseslavich, Prince of Minsk, Rogvolod-Boris, Prince of Drutsk, some historians believe that Boris is baptized name of Rogvolod and both of them one and the same person. Davyd, Prince of Polotsk, Sviatoslav, Prince of Vitebsk and he presumably was the Prince of Lukoml and later in 1129 sent by Vladimir II Monomakh to Byzantium with the rest of Vseslaviches. Who was his wife is uncertain as well as his descendants and she founded a number of monasteries in Polotsk and the surrounding region and is considered one of the patron saints of Belarus. Vseslav had a reputation for sorcery. In modern Belarusian he is known as Usiasłaŭ the Sorcerer, in Russian he is Vselav Charadei or Vseslav Veshchii, Vseslav also appears in the 12th-century epic The Tale of Igors Campaign, where, as in several byliny or folk-tales, he is depicted as a werewolf. In The Igor Tale, his defeat at the Nemiga River is shown to illustrate that inter-princely strife is weakening the Russian land. Vseslav is also said to be able to hear the bells of his cathedral at Polotsk all the way from Kiev. On the Nemíga the sheaves are laid out with heads, men thresh with flails in hedgerows, on the barn-floor they spread out life, on the blood-stained Nemíga the banks were sown with bane, —sown with the bones of the sons of Russia. To him at Polotsk they rang the bells early for matins at Saint Sophia, Vseslav may also be the basis for the bogatyr Volkh Vseslavich or Volga Sviatoslavich, who is found in a cycle of byliny. Volkhvs were priests of the pre-Christian Slavic religion and were thought to possess magical powers and this fact may be tied to Vseslavs alleged magical as well as his lupine aspects
19.
Cumans
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The Cumans were a Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman-Kipchak confederation. After the Mongol invasion, many sought asylum in Hungary, as many Cumans had settled in Hungary, Bulgaria, the Cumans were fierce and formidable nomadic warriors of the Eurasian steppe who exerted an enduring impact on the medieval Balkans. They were numerous, culturally sophisticated and militarily powerful, the Cumans also had a pre-eminent role in the Fourth Crusade and in the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Cuman and Kipchak tribes joined politically to create the Cuman-Kipchak confederation, the Cuman language is attested in some medieval documents and is the best-known of the early Turkic languages. The Codex Cumanicus was a manual that was written to help Catholic missionaries communicate with the Cuman people. The basic instrument of Cuman political success was military force, which dominated each of the warring Balkan factions. It is also unclear whether a particular name refers to the Cumans alone. However, in Turkic languages qu, qun, qūn, quman or qoman means pale, sallow, cream coloured, pale yellow, in East Slavic languages and Polish, they are known as the Polovtsy, derived from the Slavic root *polvъ pale, light yellow, blonde. Polovtsy or Polovec is often said to be derived from the Old East Slavic polovŭ yellow, the old Ukrainian word polovtsy, derived from polovo straw – means blond, pale yellow. The western Cumans, or Polovtsy, were also called Sorochinetses by the Rus, a similar etymology may have been at work in the name of the Sary people, who also migrated westward ahead of the Qun. An alternative etymology of Polovtsy is also possible, the Slavic root *pȍlje field, in Germanic languages, the Cumans were called Folban, Vallani or Valwe – all derivations of old Germanic words for pale. In the German account by Adam of Bremen, and in Matthaios of Edessa, the Hungarian term for the Cumans is Kun, which in Old Hungarian meant nomad, but was later applied solely to the Cumans. This confederation and their living together may have made it difficult for historians to write exclusively about either nation, the latter seven clans eventually settled in Hungary. The ethnic origins of the Cumanians are uncertain, Robert Wolff states that it is conjectured that ethnically the Cumans may not originally have been Turkic. The Greek philosopher Strabo refers to the Darial Gorge as Porta Caucasica, the writings of al Marwazi state that the Qun people came from the northern Chinese borders – the land of Qitay. After leaving the lands of the Khitans, they entered the territory of the Shari/Sari people, Marwazi wrote that the Qun were Nestorian Christians. It cannot be established whether the Cumans conquered the Kipchaks or whether they represent the western mass of largely Kipchak-Turkic speaking tribes. A victim of the Cuman migration to the west was the Kimek Khanate, due to this, Kimek tribal elements were represented amongst the Cuman-Kipchaks
20.
Miscellany
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A miscellany is a collection of various pieces of writing by different authors. Meaning a mixture, medley, or assortment, a miscellany can include pieces on many subjects, Manuscript miscellanies are important in the Middle Ages, and are the sources for most surviving shorter medieval vernacular poetry. They may have written as a collection, or represent manuscripts of different origins that were later bound together for convenience. Their numbers increased until their peak of importance in the 18th century, the printed miscellany gradually morphed into the format of the regularly published magazine, and many early magazines used the word in their titles. The broadest distinction is between manuscript and printed miscellanies, Printed miscellanies, which evolved in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were compiled by editors and published by booksellers in order to make a profit. However, the production of literary miscellanies came into its established form in the 16th and 17th centuries. Although literary miscellanies would often contain critical essays and extracts of prose or drama, their focus was popular verse. At this time poetry was still a dominant literary form, for low and high literature, and its variety and accessibility further suited it to miscellaneous publication. Most medieval miscellanies include some religious texts, and many consist of nothing else, a few examples are given here to illustrate the range of material typically found. The Theological miscellany was made in late 8th century Italy with 202 folios of patristic writings in Latin, the Nowell Codex is an Old English manuscript of about 1000 to 1010. It is one of the four Old English Poetic Codices from which the bulk of surviving Old English poetry comes, the lavishly illuminated late 13th century North French Hebrew Miscellany contains mostly biblical and liturgical texts, but also legal material, over 200 poems, and calendars. Verse miscellanies are collections of poems or poetic extracts that vary in authorship, genre, the Devonshire Manuscript is a verse miscellany that was produced in the 1530s and early 1540s, and contains a range of works, from original pieces and fragments to translations and medieval verse. Compiled by three eminent women, it is one of the first examples of men and women collaborating on a literary work, also prominent is the Arundel Harington manuscript, containing the writings of Sir Thomas Wyatt, Queen Elizabeth, and Sir Philip Sidney. Into the 17th century, the two Dalhousie Manuscripts are also of significance, as they contain the largest sustained contemporary collection of John Donne’s verse. Printed verse miscellanies arose in the half of the 16th century. One of the most influential English Renaissance verse miscellanies was Richard Tottel’s Songes and Sonettes, First printed in 1557, it ran into nine further editions before 1587, it was not then printed again until the 18th century. Within a miscellany, editors and booksellers would often exercise considerable freedom in reproducing, altering, throughout the 18th century, the miscellany was the customary mode through which popular verse and occasional poetry would be printed, circulated, and consumed. Including songbooks, the New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature lists almost 5000 verse miscellanies which were printed between 1701 and 1800, due to the sheer number and variety of miscellanies printed in the 18th century, there are few generalizations that can be made about them
21.
Lyubech
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Liubech or Lyubech is a small ancient town connected with many important events since the times of Kievan Rus. It is located in Ripky Raion, in Chernihiv Oblast of northern Ukraine, Liubech is 250 kilometers north of the capital of Ukraine, Kiev, and located near the Belarusian border. In 1097 the Council of Liubech, also known as the Congress of Rus Princes, was held here and it was initiated by Vladimir II Monomakh and divided the land of the Kievan Rus between the princes. In the 14th century, Lyubech became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in 1632, Polish King Sigismund III Vasa granted Lubecz city rights. It was a city of Poland. From 1635 to 1667 it was part of the Chernihiv Voivodeship of the Lesser Poland Province of the Polish Crown, st. Anthony of the Caves also known as Antony Pechersky, was born in Liubech in 983. He established the first Ukrainian monastery known now as Kiev Pechersk Lavra, Любеч and article in Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary
22.
Primary Chronicle
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The Tale of Past Years or Primary Chronicle is a history of Kievan Rus from about 850 to 1110, originally compiled in Kiev about 1113. The work is considered to be a source in the interpretation of the history of the Eastern Slavs. Tradition long regarded the original compilation as the work of a monk named Nestor, Nestor worked at the court of Sviatopolk II of Kiev and probably shared Sviatopolks pro-Scandinavian policies. The early part of the Chronicle features many anecdotal stories, among them those of the arrival of the three Varangian brothers, the founding of Kiev, the murder of Askold and Dir, ca. 882, the death of Oleg in 912, the cause of which was reported forseen by him, and the thorough vengeance taken by Olga, the wife of Igor, on the Drevlians, who had murdered her husband. Her actions secured Kievan Rus from the Drevlians, preventing her from having to marry a Drevlian prince, in the year 1116, Nestors text was extensively edited by the hegumen Sylvester who appended his name at the end of the chronicle. As Vladimir Monomakh was the patron of the village of Vydubychi where Sylvesters monastery was situated and this second version of Nestors work is preserved in the Laurentian codex. A third edition followed two years later and centered on the person of Vladimirs son and heir, Mstislav the Great, the author of this revision could have been Greek, for he corrected and updated much data on Byzantine affairs. This latest revision of Nestors work is preserved in the Hypatian codex, because the original of the chronicle as well as the earliest known copies are lost, it is difficult to establish the original content of the chronicle. The two main sources for the text as it is known presently are the Laurentian Codex. The Laurentian Codex was compiled in what are today Russian lands by the Nizhegorod monk Laurentius for the Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich in 1377, the original text he used was a lost codex compiled for the Grand Duke Mikhail of Tver in 1305. The account continues until 1305, but the years 898–922, 1263–83, the manuscript was acquired by the famous Count Musin-Pushkin in 1792 and subsequently presented to the National Library of Russia in Saint Petersburg. The Hypatian Codex dates to the 15th century and it was written in what are today Ukrainian lands and incorporates much information from the lost 12th-century Kievan and 13th-century Halychian chronicles. The language of work is the East Slavic version of Church Slavonic language with many additional irregular east-slavisms. Whereas the Laurentian text traces the Kievan legacy through to the Muscovite princes, the Hypatian codex was rediscovered in Kiev in the 1620s and copy was made for Prince Kostiantyn Ostrozhsky. A copy was found in Russia in the 18th century at the Ipatiev Monastery of Kostroma by the Russian historian Nikolai Karamzin, numerous monographs and published versions of the chronicle have been made, the earliest known being in 1767. Aleksey Shakhmatov published a pioneering textological analysis of the narrative in 1908, Dmitry Likhachev and other Soviet scholars partly revisited his findings. Their versions attempted to reconstruct the pre-Nestorian chronicle, compiled at the court of Yaroslav the Wise in the mid-11th century
23.
Volodymyr-Volynskyi
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Volodymyr-Volynsky is a small city located in Volyn Oblast, in north-western Ukraine. Serving as the centre of the Volodymyr-Volynskyi Raion, the city itself is also designated as a separate municipality within the oblast as the city of regional significance. The city is the centre of the region of Volhynia. Population,39, 074 The mediaeval Latin name of the town became the namesake of the 19th century Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria,5 kilometres south from Volodymyr is Zymne, where the oldest Orthodox Monastery in Volynia is located. It took its name after Prince Volodymyr the Great, who founded a stronghold on the lands taken from the Polish Lendians around 981, in 988 the city became the capital of Volodymyr Principality and the seat of an Orthodox bishopric, as mentioned in the Primary Chronicle. In 1160 the building of Sobor of Dormition of The Holy Mother of God was completed, by the 13th century the city became part of Galicia–Volhynia as one of the most important trading towns in the region. Upon the conquest of Batu Khan in 1240, the city was subordinated to the Mongol Empire together with other Ruthenian principalities, in the 14th century, Metropolitan Theognostus of all Rus resided in the city for several years before moving to Moscow. In 1349 King Casimir the Great captured the city, and subsequently it became part of the Kingdom of Poland, in 1370 it was taken by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and it was not until the Union of Lublin of 1569 that it returned to the Crown of Poland. In the meantime the city was given Magdeburg rights in 1431, from 1566 to 1795 it was part of the Volhynian Voivodeship. It was a city of Poland. On July 17,1792, the Battle of Włodzimierz took place in the vicinity of the town, the city remained a part of Poland until the Third Partition of Poland of 1795, when the Russian Empire annexed it. That year the Russian authorities changed the name of cities in Volhynia including Novohrad-Volynskyi. Volodymyr-Volynsky stayed within Russian Partition till 1917, in 18th and 19th centuries the town started to grow rapidly, mostly thanks to large numbers of Jews settling there. By the second half of the 19th century they made up the majority of local inhabitants, according to the Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland, in the late 19th century the city had 8336 inhabitants,6122 of them Jews. In the interbellum the city was a seat of a powiat within the Volhynian Voivodeship, following the Nazi-Soviet Pact the city was seized by Soviet forces on 19 September 1939. On 23 June 1941 the city was occupied by Germany, during World War II, a German concentration camp was located near the city. The city was recaptured by the Red Army on 20 July 1944, a Cold War air base was located north-east of the town at Zhovtnevy. Since 1991 the city has been part of Ukraine, a series of mass graves were discovered in 1997, with exhumations completed by 2013
24.
Kievan Rus'
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Kievan Rus was a loose federation of East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century, under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia all claim Kievan Rus as their cultural ancestors, according to Russian historiography the first ruler to start uniting East Slavic lands into what has become known as Kievan Rus was Prince Oleg. He extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east, Sviatoslav I achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus territorial control, fighting a war of conquest against the Khazars. Vladimir the Great introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav the Wise, his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, the state declined beginning in the late 11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival regional powers. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s. During its existence, Kievan Rus was known as the land of the Rus, in Greek as Ῥωσία, in Old French as Russie, Rossie, in Latin as Russia, and from the 12th century also Ruthenia. Various etymologies have been proposed, including Ruotsi, the Finnish designation for Sweden, and Ros, the term Kievan Rus was coined in the 19th century in Russian historiography to refer to the period when the centre was in Kiev. Later, the Russian term was rendered into Belarusian and Ukrainian as Кіеўская Русь Kijeŭskaja Rus’ and Ки́ївська Русь Kyivska Rus’, prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus in the 9th century AD, the lands between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea were primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes. In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper, to their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regions, were the Finnic Chud tribe. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, a group of Slavicized tribes with Iranian origins, the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, controversy persists over whether the Rus’ were Varangians or Slavs. This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources, attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, legends and literature from centuries later. To some extent the controversy is related to the myths of modern states in the region. According to the Normanist view, the Rus were Scandinavians, while Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians generally argue that the Rus were themselves Slavs. Normanist theories focus on the earliest written source for the East Slavs, nevertheless, archaeological evidence from the area suggests that a Scandinavian population was present during the 10th century at the latest. On balance, it likely that the Rus proper were a small minority of Scandinavians who formed an elite ruling class. Liutprand of Cremona, who was twice an envoy to the Byzantine court, identifies the Russi with the Norse, leo the Deacon, a 10th-century Byzantine historian and chronicler, refers to the Rus as Scythians and notes that they tended to adopt Greek rituals and customs
25.
Tmutarakan
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Tmutarakan or Tmutorakan was the name of a Mediaeval Kievan Rus principality and trading town that controlled the Cimmerian Bosporus, the passage from the Black Sea to the Sea of Azov. Its site was the ancient Greek colony of Hermonassa, situated on the Taman peninsula, in the present-day Krasnodar Krai of Russia, roughly opposite Kerch. The Khazar fortress of Tamantarkhan was built on the site in the 7th century, the Greek colony of Hermonassa was located a few miles west of Phanagoria and Panticapaeum, major trade centers for what was to become the Bosporan Kingdom. The city was founded in the mid-6th century BCE by Ionians, although there is evidence of others taking part in the enterprise, including Cretans. The city flourished for centuries and many ancient buildings and streets have been excavated from this period. Hermonassa was a centre of the Bosporan cult of Aphrodite and in the early centuries CE was trading with the Alans, there is also archaeological evidence of extensive replanning and construction in the second century CE. After a long period as a Roman client state, the Bosporan kingdom succumbed to the Huns, with the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the late 5th century, the area passed within the Roman sphere once again but was taken by the Bulgars in the 6th century. Following the fall of the city to the Khazars in the late 7th century, it was rebuilt as a fortress town, arabic sources refer to it as Samkarsh al-Yahud in reference to the fact that the bulk of the trading there was handled by Jews. Other variants of the name are Samkersh and Samkush. Fortified with a brick wall and boasting a fine harbor. It controlled much of the Northern European trade with the Byzantine Empire, there were also trade routes leading south-east to Armenia and the Muslim domains, as well as others connecting with the Silk Road to the east. The inhabitants included Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Ossetians, Lezgins, Georgians, after the destruction of the Khazar empire by Sviatoslav I of Kiev in the mid-10th century, Khazars continued to inhabit the region. The Mandgelis Document, a Hebrew letter dated AM4746 refers to our lord David, the Khazar prince who lived in Taman, bronze and silver imitations of Byzantine coinage were struck by the new rulers during this period. Vladimirs son Mstislav of Chernigov was the prince of Tmutarakan at the start of the 11th century, during his reign, a first stone church was dedicated to the Mother of God. The excavated site suggests that it was built by Byzantine workmen and has similarities with the church Mstislav went on to commission in Chernigov, after his death, he was followed by a succession of short-lived petty dynasts. Once Svyatoslav left, however, Rostislav expelled Gleb once again, afterwards command of Tmutarakan returned to the prince of Chernigov and then to the Grand Prince of Kiev, Vsevolod Yaroslavich. In 1079, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich appointed a governor, but he was captured two years later by David Igorevich and Volodar Rostislavich, who seized the city, but he also issued rough silver coins in his own name which included a short inscription in Cyrillic letters. Then in 1094, like Mstislav before him, he returned to Rus to claim the throne of Chernigov, Byzantine interest in the city was maintained through this succession of client rulers, and thereafter by more direct rule for a while, for an important reason
26.
Pskov
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Pskov is a city and the administrative center of Pskov Oblast, Russia, located about 20 kilometers east from the Estonian border, on the Velikaya River. Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia, the name of the city, originally spelled Pleskov, may be loosely translated as of purling waters. Its earliest mention comes in 903, which records that Igor of Kiev married a local lady, Pskovians sometimes take this year as the citys foundation date, and in 2003 a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskovs 1, 100th anniversary. The first prince of Pskov was Vladimir the Greats youngest son Sudislav, once imprisoned by his brother Yaroslav, he was not released until the latters death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the town adhered politically to the Novgorod Republic, in 1241, it was taken by the Teutonic Knights, but Alexander Nevsky recaptured it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in Sergei Eisensteins 1938 movie Alexander Nevsky. Having fortified the town, Daumantas routed the Teutonic Knights at Rakvere and his remains and sword are preserved in the local kremlin, and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears the name of Dovmonts town. By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a de facto sovereign republic and its most powerful force was the merchants who brought the town into the Hanseatic League. Pskovs independence was recognized by Novgorod in 1348. Several years later, the veche promulgated a law code, which was one of the sources of the all-Russian law code issued in 1497. For Russia, the Pskov Republic was a bridge towards Europe, for Europe, the importance of the city made it the subject of numerous sieges throughout its history. The Pskov Krom withstood twenty-six sieges in the 15th century alone, at one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of icon-painting flourished, and the masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of Russian architecture were first introduced in Pskov, finally, in 1510, the city fell to Muscovite forces. The deportation of families to Moscow is a subject of Rimsky-Korsakovs opera Pskovityanka. As the second largest city of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, most famously, it withstood a prolonged siege by a 50, 000-strong Polish army during the final stage of the Livonian War. The king of Poland Stephen Báthory undertook some thirty-one attacks to storm the city, even after one of the city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack. Its amazing how the city reminds me of Paris, wrote one of the Frenchmen present at Báthorys siege, as a consequence, the citys importance and well-being declined dramatically, although it has served as a seat of separate Pskov Governorate since 1777. During World War I, Pskov became the center of much activity behind the lines, Pskov was also occupied by the Estonian army between 25 May 1919 and 28 August 1919 during the Estonian War of Independence when Bułak-Bałachowicz became the military administrator of Pskov
27.
Veliky Novgorod
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It is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen, UNESCO recognized Novgorod as a World Heritage Site in 1992. At its peak during the 14th century, the city was the capital of the Novgorod Republic, the Charter of Veliky Novgorod recognizes 859 as the year when the city was first mentioned. Archaeological dating is fairly easy and accurate to within 15–25 years, as the streets were paved with wood, and most of the houses made of wood, allowing tree ring dating. The Varangian name of the city Holmgård/Holmgard is mentioned in Norse Sagas as existing at a yet earlier stage, originally, Holmgård referred only to the stronghold southeast of the present-day city, Rurikovo Gorodische. First mention of this Nordic or Germanic etymology to the name of the city of Novgorod occurs in the 10th-century policy manual De Administrando Imperio by Byzantine emperor Constantine VII, in 882, Ruriks successor, Oleg of Novgorod, conquered Kiev and founded the state of Kievan Rus. Novgorods size as well as its political, economic, and cultural influence made it the second most important city in Kievan Rus, according to a custom, the elder son and heir of the ruling Kievan monarch was sent to rule Novgorod even as a minor. When the ruling monarch had no son, Novgorod was governed by posadniks, such as the legendary Gostomysl, Dobrynya, Konstantin. Of all their princes, Novgorodians most cherished the memory of Yaroslav the Wise and his son, Vladimir, sponsored construction of the great St. Sophia Cathedral, more accurately translated as the Cathedral of Holy Wisdom, which stands to this day. In Norse sagas the city is mentioned as the capital of Gardariki, four Viking kings—Olaf I of Norway, Olaf II of Norway, Magnus I of Norway, and Harald Hardrada—sought refuge in Novgorod from enemies at home. No more than a few decades after the 1030 death and subsequent canonization of Olaf II of Norway, the town of Visby in Gotland functioned as the leading trading center in the Baltic before the Hansa League. At Novgorod in 1080, Visby merchants established a trading post which they named Gutagard, later, in the first half of the 13th century, merchants from northern Germany also established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as Peterhof. At about the time, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges. In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich, the year is seen as the traditional beginning of the Novgorod Republic. One of the most important local figures in Novgorod was the posadnik, or mayor, the tysyatsky, or thousandman, originally the head of the town militia but later a commercial and judicial official, was also elected by the Veche. Another important local official was the Archbishop of Novgorod who shared power with the boyars, archbishops were elected by the Veche or by the drawing of lots, and after their election, were sent to the metropolitan for consecration. While a basic outline of the officials and the Veche can be drawn up. The boyars and the archbishop ruled the city together, although where one officials power ended, throughout the Middle Ages, the city thrived culturally
28.
Mstislav II of Kiev
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Mstislav II Izyaslavich was the Kniaz of Pereyaslav, Volodymyr-Volynsky and Velikiy Kniaz of Kiev. Son of Izyaslav Mstislavich, Velikiy Kniaz of Kiev, along with his father, he participated in the wars against Yury Dolgoruky and the Chernigov princes. After an initial victory against the Cumans in 1153, Mstislav was defeated by the Cumans at the Psyol river, Yury Dolgoruky forced him to flee to Poland in 1155, but the next year Mstislav returned with a new army and defeated Dolgoruky at Volodymyr-Volynsky. Dolgoruky died in 1157, and Mstislav had himself crowned at Volodymyr-Volynsky, in 1169, Kiev was sacked by Grand Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky who removed Mstislav as grand prince. Mstislav passed his exile in Byzantium and during Emperor Manuel Is reign, was rewarded the district of Otskalana, in 1151 Mstislav married Agnes, the daughter of Duke Boleslaus III of Poland. Clarkson N Potter, New York 1981 in Table 135
29.
Nyamiha River
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The Nyamiha is a river in Minsk. Today it is contained within a fabricated culvert, the medieval epic The Tale of Igors Campaign refers to the bloody river banks of Nyamiha. Nemiga’s gory banks are not sowed goodly-sown with the bones of Russia’s sons, for a long time it was the second largest river flowing through Minsk, until it was adapted for its urban location by containment within a network of pipes. One part of the river was put into a pipe in 1926, today the river is a minor feature of the city environment, and the name Nyamiha more commonly refers to a nearby street. Nyamiha Street is part of a district famous for its amber craftwork. The Nyamiha metro station on the street was the site a of tragedy on May 30,1999, another incident on Nyamiha Street occurred on July 25,2004, when a two-hour downpour in Minsk caused the storm sewers to overflow. Nyamiha Street and environs were flooded
30.
Minsk
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Minsk (Belarusian, Мінск pronounced, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Nyamiha rivers. It is the centre of the Commonwealth of Independent States. As the national capital, Minsk has an administrative status in Belarus and is the administrative centre of Minsk Region. In 2013, it had a population of 2,002,600, the earliest historical references to Minsk date to the 11th century, when it was noted as a provincial city within the principality of Polotsk. The settlement developed on the rivers, in 1242, Minsk became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It received town privileges in 1499, from 1569, it was a capital of the Minsk Voivodeship in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was part of a region annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793, from 1919 to 1991, after the Russian Revolution, Minsk was the capital of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union. Minsk will host the 2019 European Games, Minsk is located on the southeastern slope of the Minsk Hills, a region of rolling hills running from the southwest to the northeast – that is, to Lukomskaye Lake in northwestern Belarus. The average altitude above sea level is 220 metres, the physical geography of Minsk was shaped over the two most recent ice ages. There are six smaller rivers within the city limits, all part of the Black Sea basin, Minsk is in the area of mixed forests typical of most of Belarus. Pinewood and mixed forests border the edge of the city, especially in the north, some of the forests were preserved as parks as the city grew. The city was built on the hills, which allowed for defensive fortifications. Minsk has a warm summer humid continental climate, owing to its location between the strong influence of the moist air of the Atlantic Ocean and the dry air of the Eurasian landmass. Its weather is unstable and tends to change often, the average January temperature is −4.5 °C, while the average July temperature is 18.5 °C. The lowest temperature was recorded on 17 January 1940, at −40 °C and the warmest on 29 July 1936 at 35 °C and this results in frequent fogs, common in the autumn and spring. Minsk receives annual precipitation of 690 millimetres, of one third falls during the cold period. Throughout the year, most winds are westerly and northwesterly, bringing cool, similar climatic regimes are found in Stockholm, Sweden and in Halifax, Canada. The ecological situation is monitored by Republican Centre of Radioactive and Environmental Control, during 2003–2008 the overall weight of contaminants increased from 186,000 to 247,400 tons
31.
Orsha
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Orsha is a city in Belarus in Vitebsk Region on the fork of the Dnieper and Arshytsa rivers. Orsha was first mentioned in 1067 as Rsha, making it one of the oldest towns in Belarus, the town was named after the river, which was originally also named Rsha, probably from a Baltic root *rus slowly flowing. In 1320, Orsha became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in 1398-1407, the Orsha castle was built. On September 8,1514 the famous Battle of Orsha occurred, the Muscovites suffered significant defeat, however, the victorious Grand Duchy of Lithuania did not fully avail its victory. In 1555, Mikołaj the Black Radziwiłł founded a Calvinist order in Orsha, from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries Orsha was a notable religious centre, with dozens of Orthodox, Protestant and Catholic churches and orders. The town was home to a large Jewish population. Orsha was granted Magdeburg Rights in 1620, in 1630, S. Sobal opened the first printing house at the Kuciejna monastery, which became a well-known centre of Cyrillic-alphabet publishing. The town was damaged during the Russo-Polish War, which was a disaster for Grand Duchy of Lithuania, during the First Polish partition the city was taken over by the Russian Empire in 1772, and became part of the Mogilyov Gubernia. Under Russian rule, it was stripped of its Magdeburg Rights in 1776 and went into cultural, the population dropped sharply to just about 2,000 inhabitants. The city symbol in 1781 was changed to one which included the symbol of the Russian empire, in 1812, the city was badly burned during Napoleons invasion. At the time of Orsha had been taken control of French troops. According to the census of 1897, on a population of 13,161. During the First World War, the city was occupied by German forces in February–October 1918, from February 2,1919, Orsha became a part of Homyel region of Soviet Russia. After the formation of the Soviet Union, it was transferred to the Byelorussian SSR in 1924, the population before World War II was about 37,000. The city was occupied by Germany on July 16,1941, the occupiers founded several concentration camps in the city, where an estimated 19,000 people were killed. Orsha was one of the centers of the Belarusian general strike in April 1991, hundreds of thousands of coal miners had been on strike across the Soviet Union since March 1. On April 3, the day after the government had imposed consumer price increases. Virtually the entire force of that city followed on the 4th
32.
Snovsk
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Snovsk is a city in Chernihiv Oblast of Ukraine. It serves as the center of Snovsk Raion. Population,11, 343 The population was 12,315 in 2001, the city was named after the Snov River on which it is situated. City was called Shchors between 1935 and 2016, in honour of Nikolay Shchors, on 21 May 2016, Verkhovna Rada adopted decision to rename Shchors to Snovsk and Shchors Raion to Snovsk Raion according to the law prohibiting names of Communist origin. The murder of the Jews of Shchors during World War II, at Yad Vashem website
33.
Poles
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The Poles are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language. The population of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of a population of 38,538,000. Polands population inhabits several historic regions, including Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Kuyavia, Warmia, Masuria, a wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe, the Americas and in Australasia. Today the largest urban concentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomeration of 2.7 million inhabitants, Poland was also for centuries a refuge for many Jews from all over Europe, a large number emigrated in the twentieth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmen were born in Poland, including Israels founder David Ben-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres, the Slavic people have been in the territory of modern Poland for over 1500 years. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century in a lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of the West Slavic nations. After 1945 the so-called autochthonous or aboriginal school of Polish prehistory received official backing in Poland, Polish people are the sixth largest national group in the European Union. Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a number of around 60 million people worldwide. There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone, there are also Polish minorities in the surrounding countries including Germany, and indigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indigenous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova, the term Polonia is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders, officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Brazil, France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century, in the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule. In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New York City, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, the highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II, the number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State, smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo. The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and it is estimated that over half a million Polish people have come to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work throughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom, Ireland. The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to a number of 120,000
34.
Anthony of Kiev
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Anthony of Kiev was a monk and the founder of the monastic tradition in the Kievan Rus. Also called Anthony of the Caves he, together with Theodosius of Kiev and he was born in Lyubech in Chernigov Principality and was baptized with the name Antipas. He was drawn to the life from an early age and. He lived in a cave there overlooking the sea, which is still shown to visitors. In circa 1011, the abbot gave Anthony the job of expanding monasticism in his native Kiev, Anthony returned to Kiev, and founded several monasteries on the Greek model on the order of local princes. These monasteries were not as austere as Anthony was used to from his time on Mount Athos and he instead chose to live in a small four-yard cave which had been dug by the presbyter Hilarion. When the conflict ended, the abbot sent Anthony back to Kiev, on his return, Anthony found a small 4-yard cave which Hilarion had dug before his elevation as the first native Metropolitan of Kiev. Anthony became well known in the area for his strict asceticism and he ate rye bread every other day and drank only a little water. His fame soon spread beyond Kiev, and several people began to ask for his spiritual guidance or blessing, soon, some people even offered to join him. Eventually, Anthony accepted the company of a few of them, the first was a priest named Nikon. The second was Theodosius of Kiev, the new monastery enjoyed royal favor almost from the beginning, although there were occasional problems. When Iziaslav I of Kiev demanded that the son of a boyar and one of his own retainers be told to leave the monastery. This did nothing to placate Iziaslavs anger, and Anthony decided that it might be expedient for him to leave, Anthony returned after Iziaslavs wife requested his return. Shortly thereafter Anthony had gained twelve disciples, Anthony, devoted to the model of the solitary hermit set by his namesake Anthony the Great, left his cave for a nearby mountain so he could continue to live the solitary life. There he dug another cave for himself and lived in seclusion there and this cave became the first of what would later be known as the Far Caves. In time, the first official abbot of the monastery, Barlaam of Kiev, was called by Iziaslav to head a new monastery, St. Demetrios, the monks requested Anthony to name the replacement, and he named Theodosius. As the number of monks grew and crowding became a problem and he did so, and the monks built a wooden church and some cells there, encircling the area with a wooden fence. Theodosius continued to consult Anthony in the guidance of the community and, as the monastery grew, when Iziaslav and his brothers were facing a popular uprising involving the Cumans, they came to Anthony for his blessing
35.
Kiev Pechersk Lavra
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Since its foundation as the cave monastery in 1051 the Lavra has been a preeminent center of Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Eastern Europe. Together with the Saint Sophia Cathedral, it is inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the monastery complex is considered a separate national historic-cultural preserve, the national status to which was granted on 13 March 1996. The Lavra is not only located in part of the city. While being an attraction, the monastery is currently active. It was named one of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine on 21 August 2007, based on voting by experts, the word lavra is used to describe high-ranking male monasteries for monks of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Therefore, the name of the monastery is also translated as Kiev Cave Monastery and he chose a cave at the Berestov Mount that overlooked the Dnieper River and a community of disciples soon grew. Prince Iziaslav I of Kiev ceded the whole mount to the Antonite monks who founded a monastery built by architects from Constantinople. 1051-1062 Antoniy 1062-1063 Varlaam 1063-1074 Theodosius 1074-1077 Stefan I Bolharyn 1077-1088 Nikon the Great 1088-1103 Ioann In 1096 Cumans led by khan Boniak attacked Kiev and the Cave Monastery. 1108-1112 Theoktistos, became a bishop of Chernihiv 1132-1141 Pimen the Singer In 1159 the monastery received stauropegic status, anne, and the Church of the Life-Giving Spring. The Lavra also contains many other constructions, including, the St. Nicholas Monastery, the Kiev Theological Academy and Seminary, the Great Lavra Belltower is one of the most notable features of the Kiev skyline and among the main attractions of the Lavra. 96.5 meters in height, it was the tallest free-standing belltower at the time of its construction in 1731–1745 and it is a Classical style construction and consists of tiers, surmounted by a gilded dome. The Gate Church of the Trinity is located atop the Holy Gates, according to a legend, this church was founded by the Chernihiv Prince Sviatoslav II. It was built atop an ancient stone church which used to stand in its place, after the fire of 1718 the church was rebuilt, its revered facades and interior walls enriched with ornate stucco work made by master craftsman V. Stefaovych. In the 18th century a new gilded pear-shaped dome was built, the facade and exterior walls were decorated with stucco-moulded plant ornaments, in the early 20th century the fronts and the walls flanking the entrance were painted by icon painters under the guidance of V. Sonin. The interior of the Gate Trinity Church with murals by the early 18th century painter Alimpy Galik is of artistic value. The All Saints Church erected in 1696–1698 is a specimen of Ukrainian baroque architecture. Characteristic of the facades are rich architectural embellishments. In 1905 students of the Lavra art school painted the walls of the church
36.
Vyshhorod
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Vyshhorod or Vyshgorod is a city in Kiev Oblast in central Ukraine, the immediate northern suburb to the national capital Kiev, located upstream along the Dnieper River. It serves as the center of Vyshhorod Raion. Vyshhorod is a town that experienced rises and declines over the centuries. It is now an industrial center as well as a growing bedroom community for Kiev. Vyshhorod is located on a right bank of the Dnieper River adjoining the dam of the Kiev Reservoir. The earliest historical mention of Vyshgorod dates from as early as 946, also mentioned in De Administrando Imperio, Vyshgorod served as the fortified castle and residence of the monarchs of Kievan Rus on the Dnieper from that time until 1240, when the Mongols sacked it. At Vyshhorod Vladimir the Great kept a harem of 300 concubines, after the Mongol invasion, the location does not appear in the records again until 1523 - and even then it was documented as a poor village. Vyshgorod grew considerably following the construction of the hydroelectric Kiev power plant and was incorporated as a town in 1968. In 1934-37 and 1947 the archaeological remnants of the town were excavated. The most striking find was the basement of the eight-pillared Church of St. Basil, founded by Vladimir the Great, as the church was one of the largest in Kievan Rus, it took twenty years to complete it. Before the Mongol invasion the church housed the relics of the first East Slavic saints, Boris and Gleb, the ancient Cossack military monastery, the Mezhyhirskyi Monastery, stood not too far away from the city. Vyshhorod is connected to the Kiev and other destinations mainly by roads, there is also a non-electrified terminus rail connection to Kiev used for both freight transport and peak hour commuter passenger service. Citys riverport facilities are used for industrial purposes only. Jitney buses run between Vyshhorod and the Heroiv Dnipra station of the Kiev Metros Kurenivsko-Chervonoarmiyska Line, Vyshgorod has been famous for its cultural traditions and original talents for ages. The name of Exemplary amateur town children and youth brass band – studio Vodograi is famous not only in Ukraine, the band visited many countries of European Union. Well known and famous not only in Ukraine but also abroad is Korali, Korali is laureate of different national and international festivals and competitions. But the major achievement of the choir is no doubt a victory at International competition named after F. Shubert, Korali won the first prize and the special prize of sponsor sympathy. In the area of the town there is Vyshgorod historical-cultural reserve which includes the Pottery center, the Historical museum, Boris and Gleb – patron saints of the town
37.
Boris and Gleb
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There are other people known as Saint David and Saint Roman. Boris and Gleb, Christian names Roman and David, respectively, were the first saints canonized in Kievan Rus after the Christianization of the country and their feast day is observed on July 24. According to the two 11th century Lives of Boris and Gleb, they were children of Vladimir the Great. The Primary Chronicle says that their mother was a Bulgarian woman, most modern scholars, however, argue that Boris and Gleb had different mothers, and were of different age. Boris, the elder, who had already married and ruled the town of Rostov, was probably regarded as heir apparent to the Kievan throne. Gleb, who was still a minor, ruled the easternmost town of Murom, both were murdered during the internecine wars of 1015–1019. The Primary Chronicle blamed Sviatopolk the Accursed for plotting their assassination, Boris learned of his fathers death when he returned with the Russian army to Alta. When informed of Sviatopolks accession to the throne and urged to replace him, Boris said, now that my father has passed away, let him take the place of my father in my heart. Regardless of having stepped aside, Sviatopolk insisted on having Boris executed and he sent Putsha and the boyars of Vyshegorod to execute his brother. Boris and his manservant were stabbed to death when sleeping in a tent, the prince was discovered still breathing when his body was being transported in a bag to Kiev, but the Varangians ended his life with the thrust of a sword. Gleb, under the impression that his father was not yet dead, was sent for by Sviatopolk, on the way, their brother Yaroslav learned of Sviatopolks treachery and urged Gleb not to meet him. In the middle of praying to his brother and God, Gleb was assassinated by his own cook, Torchin. The Life contains many details of Boris and Glebs last hours. The narrative is a masterpiece of hagiography, which unites numerous literary traditions, actual circumstances of Boris and Glebs life and death cannot be extrapolated from their hagiography. Moreover, the Norse Eymunds saga tells a story of the Varangian warriors who were hired by Yaroslav I the Wise to kill his brother Burizleif. Some historians trusted the saga more than sources from Rus, claiming that it was Yaroslav who was interested in removing his rivals and was therefore guilty of his brothers murder. Others consider Burizleif a misreading of Boleslaw, the Polish ruler allied to Sviatopolk, Boris and Gleb received the crown of martyrdom in 1015. The brothers became known as Strastoterptsy, since they did not resist evil with violence, Boris and Glebs relics were housed in the Church of St. Basil in Vyshhorod, later destroyed
38.
Russkaya Pravda
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Russkaya Pravda was the legal code of Kievan Rus and the subsequent Rus principalities during the times of feudal division. It was written at the beginning of the 12th century and remade during many centuries, the basis of the Russkaya Pravda, Pravda of Yaroslav was written at the beginning of the 11th century. Russkaya Pravda was a source of Old Russian Law. The absence of capital and corporal punishment rather reflects the Norse way of thought, three recensions of Russkaya Pravda are known, the Short Edition, the Extensive Edition, and the Abridged Edition. Over 110 extant copies dating from the 13th to the 18th centuries are preserved, included in manuscripts, chronicles. Of these, over 100 copies, including the oldest preserved, are of the Extensive Edition and this code was discovered by the historian Vasily Tatischev in the text of one of the Novgorod chronicles and brought to the attention of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1738. The first commented edition of the text was published by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1767, the spellings Ruska Pravda or Ruska Pravda as well as Russkaia Pravda or Russkaya Pravda are used in English language literature. The spelling debate focuses on the interpretation of the word, while Russkaia with two Ss is easily understood and translated as Russian, the modern Ukrainian viewpoint implies that modern Russia and Rus were different identities. An often quoted example is Ivan the Terribles correspondence from the 16th century, other linguists claim that the spelling with two ss only became more common in the 17th century, and only became standard after Lomonosovs Grammar was published in 1755. The term is translated as Justice of the Rus, as in the Latin ius russicum, one may also encounter the translation Russian Truth, based on the modern meaning of the word правда. Pravda Russkaya’s legal regulations reflected the evolution of the relations in the Rus of the 11th-13th centuries. Common law, Knyaz legislation, and legal proceedings represented the basis of “RP”, some indicate other distinct components of the text, possibly added later. The Yaroslav’s Law comprised legal regulations of feudal law along with the regulations that could be traced back to the primitive communal system. According to a theory, it was promulgated in order to settle a conflict between Konstantin Dobrynich, a posadnik of Novgorod, and the Varangian population of the city. Subsequent development and improvement of the Pravda Russkaya took place in times of Yaroslav’s sons, new provisions are believed to have been added to Pravda Russkaya after the revolts in Kiev, Novgorod, and Rostov-Suzdal province in 1068–1071. In the arising Russian state, the Pravda Russkaya was replaced in 1497 by the Sudebnik, several centuries earlier, new legal codes were promulgated in Pskov and Novgorod. “Pravda Yaroslavichey” increased responsibility of a community for killing knyaz’es soldiers, tiuns, starostas, otroks. “Pravda Yaroslavichey” provided severe punishment for arson, deliberate cattle mutilation, after the 1113 Riot in Kiev, an exorbitant interest law was introduced that limited financial operations of moneylenders
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Theodosius of Kiev
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Theodosius of Kiev or Theodosius of the Caves is an 11th-century saint who brought Cenobitic Monasticism to Kievan Rus and, together with St Anthony of Kiev, founded the Kiev Caves Lavra. A hagiography of Theodosius was written in the twelfth century and they replied that they required only the one designated by God and by his own selection. Then he inquired of them, Who among you is more obedient, more modest, the brethren rejoiced. and thus they appointed Theodosius to be their abbot. When Theodosius took over in the monastery, he began to practice abstinence, fasting and he also interested himself in searching out monastic rules. There was in Kiev at the time a monk from the Studion Monastery named Michael, Theodosius inquired of him the practices of the Studite monks. After obtaining all this information, Theodosius thus transmitted it to his monastery, whereas the Monastery of the Caves is honored among the oldest of them all. Theodosius has been glorified as a saint by the Russian Orthodox Church and his main feast day is May 3, the date of his repose. His relics were discovered by St. Nestor the Chronicler, on August 14,1091, the relics were transferred to the main catholicon of the monastery, and a second annual feast day was established in commemoration of this event
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